561:, while in type A intercalated cells protons are secreted via both H-KATPases and H ATP-ases on the apical/luminal surface of the cell. By definition, the H-KATPase reabsorbs one potassium ion into the cell for every proton it secretes into the lumen of the collecting duct of a nephron. In addition, when H is expelled from the cell (by HATP-ase), cations—in this case potassium—are taken up by the cell in order to maintain electroneutrality (but not through direct exchange as with the H-KATPase). In order to correct the pH during alkalosis, these cells will use these mechanisms to reabsorb great amounts of H, which will concomitantly increase their intracellular concentrations of potassium. This concentration gradient drives potassium to be secreted across the apical surface of the cell into the tubular lumen through potassium channels (this facilitated diffusion occurs in both Type B intercalated cells and Principal cells in the collecting duct).
925:, or stopping an offending medication. People without a significant source of potassium loss and who show no symptoms of hypokalemia may not require treatment. Acutely, repletion with 10 mEq of potassium is typically expected to raise serum potassium by 0.1 mEq/L immediately after administration. However, for those with chronic hypokalemia, repletion takes time due to tissue redistribution. For example, correction by 1 mEq/L can take more than 1000 mEq of potassium over many days.
1079:. When peripheral infusions are necessary, the burning can be reduced by diluting the potassium in larger amounts of fluid, or adding a small dose of lidocaine to the intravenous fluid, although adding lidocaine may increase the likelihood of medical errors. Even in severe hypokalemia, oral supplementation is preferred given its safety profile. Sustained-release formulations should be avoided in acute settings.
42:
1205:
Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, Alfonzo A, Barelli A, Bierens JJ, Brugger H, Deakin CD, Dunning J, Georgiou M, Handley AJ, Lockey DJ, Paal P, Sandroni C, Thies KC, Zideman DA, Nolan JP (October 2010). "European
Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 Section 8. Cardiac arrest in special
912:
Meanwhile, the daily body requirement of potassium is calculated by multiplying 1 mmol to body weight in kilograms. Adding potassium deficit and daily potassium requirement would give the total amount of potassium need to be corrected in mmol. Dividing mmol by 13.4 will give the potassium in
1021:
that may occur due to vomiting, diuretic therapy, or nasogastric drainage. Additionally, replacing potassium solely through diet may be costly and result in weight gain due to potentially large amounts of food needed. An effort should also be made to limit dietary sodium intake due to an inverse
772:
Pseudohypokalemia is a decrease in the amount of potassium that occurs due to excessive uptake of potassium by metabolically active cells in a blood sample after it has been drawn. It is a laboratory artifact that may occur when blood samples remain in warm conditions for several hours before
619:
can also lead to hypokalemia due to excess cortisol binding the Na/K pump and acting like aldosterone. Hypertension and hypokalemia can also be seen with a deficiency of the 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme which allows cortisols to stimulate aldosterone receptors. This
832:
In the heart, hypokalemia causes arrhythmias because of less-than-complete recovery from sodium-channel inactivation, making the triggering of an action potential less likely. In addition, the reduced extracellular potassium (paradoxically) inhibits the activity of the
1016:
Eating potassium-rich foods may not be sufficient for correcting low potassium; potassium supplements may be recommended. Potassium contained in foods is almost entirely coupled with phosphate and is thus ineffective in correcting hypokalemia associated with
873:
The earliest ECG findings, associated with hypokalemia, are decreased T wave height. Then, ST depressions and T inversions appear as serum potassium levels reduce further. Due to prolonged repolarization of ventricular
1054:
solution is used, with 20–40 meq/L KCl per liter over 3–4 hours. Giving IV potassium at faster rates (20–25 meq/hr) may inadvertently expose the heart to a sudden increase in potassium, potentially causing dangerous
2825:
2810:
1025:
Potassium chloride supplements by mouth have the advantage of containing precise quantities of potassium, but the disadvantages of a taste which may be unpleasant, and the potential for side-effects including
878:, prominent U waves occur (usually seen at V2 and V3 leads), frequently superimposed upon T waves, therefore producing the appearance of prolonged QT intervals, when serum potassium levels fall below 3 mEq/L.
277:. If given intravenously, potassium is generally replaced at rates of less than 20 mmol/hour. Solutions containing high concentrations of potassium (>40 mmol/L) should generally be given using a
2117:
Sodi R, Davison AS, Holmes E, Hine TJ, Roberts NB (June 2009). "The phenomenon of seasonal pseudohypokalemia: effects of ambient temperature, plasma glucose and role for sodium-potassium-exchanging-ATPase".
273:. Potassium levels that are only slightly below the normal range can be managed with changes in the diet. Lower levels of potassium require replacement with supplements either taken by mouth or given
655:, can cause hypokalemia, in a manner similar to that of diuretics. As opposed to disease states of primary excesses of aldosterone, blood pressure is either normal or low in Bartter's or Gitelman's.
371:
from severe impairment of skeletal muscle function is found in some people. Psychological symptoms associated with severe hypokalemia can include delirium, hallucinations, depression, or psychosis.
933:
Mild hypokalemia (>3.0 mEq/L) may be treated by eating potassium-containing foods or by taking potassium chloride supplements in a tablet or syrup form (by mouth supplements). Foods rich in
809:
activity. The electrochemical gradient of potassium between the intracellular and extracellular space is essential for nerve function; in particular, potassium is needed to repolarize the
529:
is required for adequate processing of potassium. This may become evident when hypokalemia persists despite potassium supplementation. Other electrolyte abnormalities may also be present.
2447:
665:
In addition to alkalosis, other factors can cause transient shifting of potassium into cells, presumably by stimulation of the Na/K pump. These hormones and medications include
258:) with levels below 3.5 mmol/L defined as hypokalemia. It is classified as severe when levels are less than 2.5 mmol/L. Low levels may also be suspected based on an
1206:
circumstances: Electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution".
2999:
720:
can precipitate occasional attacks of severe hypokalemia and muscle weakness. These defects cause a heightened sensitivity to the normal changes in potassium produced by
411:
A more common cause is excessive loss of potassium, often associated with heavy fluid losses that flush potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of
2448:"How should intravenous (IV) potassium chloride be administered in adults? – SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service – The first stop for professional medicines advice"
2588:
2313:
1571:"The abuse of diuretics as performance-enhancing drugs and masking agents in sport doping: pharmacology, toxicology and analysis: Diuretics in sport doping"
2092:
2939:
1125:
centers around the setting's scarcity of available potassium, and the resulting deficiency and its effects on the world's colonists and their society.
395:
a diet with enough potassium-containing foods or fasting can cause the gradual onset of hypokalemia. This is a rare cause and may occur in those with
2770:
3232:
2005:
Shirley DG, Walter SJ, Noormohamed FH (November 2002). "Natriuretic effect of caffeine: assessment of segmental sodium reabsorption in humans".
2778:
2476:
2327:
499:. Hypokalemia is observed with low total body potassium and a low intracellular concentration of potassium. In addition to urinary losses from
1067:. Faster infusion rates are therefore generally only performed in locations in which the heart rhythm can be continuously monitored such as a
431:
can also cause hypokalemia, although not much potassium is lost from the vomitus. Rather, heavy urinary losses of K in the setting of post-
305:
2455:
2412:
Kraft MD, Btaiche IF, Sacks GS, Kudsk KA (2005-08-15). "Treatment of electrolyte disorders in adult patients in the intensive care unit".
1355:
1386:
1766:
Whyte KF, Addis GJ, Whitesmith R, Reid JL (April 1987). "Failure of chronic theophylline therapy to alter circulating catecholamines".
621:
3131:
742:
A handful of published reports describe individuals with severe hypokalemia related to chronic extreme consumption (4–10 L/day) of
2688:
2932:
1618:
Mascolo M, Chu ES, Mehler PS (April 2011). "Abuse and clinical value of diuretics in eating disorders therapeutic applications".
829:. As a result, a greater-than-normal stimulus is required for depolarization of the membrane to initiate an action potential.
817:
has passed. Lower potassium levels in the extracellular space cause hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential. This
2708:
2519:
1666:
1500:
1380:
1349:
1261:
1149:
2207:
3034:
2561:
1288:
Zieg J, Gonsorcikova L, Landau D (July 2016). "Current views on the diagnosis and management of hypokalaemia in children".
3225:
3150:
1154:
1022:
relationship with serum potassium. Increasing magnesium intake may also be beneficial for similar physiological reasons.
2925:
2657:
1071:. When replacing potassium intravenously, particularly when higher concentrations of potassium are used, infusion by a
563:
2) Metabolic alkalosis is often present in states of volume depletion, such as vomiting, so potassium is also lost via
3659:
2613:
2280:"Fluids and Electrolytes Challenge - Disorders of Fluids and Electrolytes - Integrated View of Potassium Homeostasis"
269:
The speed at which potassium should be replaced depends on whether or not there are symptoms or abnormalities on an
1403:
Krishna GG, Miller E, Kapoor S (1989). "Increased blood pressure during potassium depletion in normotensive men".
1107:. Concomitant hypomagnesemia will inhibit potassium replacement, as magnesium is a cofactor for potassium uptake.
3535:
3503:
3307:
3249:
3126:
2994:
2982:
289:
2096:
1075:
is encouraged to avoid the occurrence of a burning sensation at the site of infusion, or the rare occurrence of
3218:
3197:
3145:
717:
1844:"Methylphenidate has mild hyperglycemic and hypokalemia effects and increases leukocyte and neutrophil counts"
3664:
3312:
2469:
3582:
818:
331:. Severe hypokalemia, with serum potassium concentrations of 2.5–3 meq/L (Nl: 3.5–5.0 meq/L), may cause
2719:
822:
710:
2700:
2775:
2643:
2480:
2334:
3605:
3028:
3024:
2956:
2840:
3317:
1072:
837:
potassium current and delays ventricular repolarization. This delayed repolarization may promote
674:
278:
106:
1087:
Hypokalemia which is recurrent or resistant to treatment may be amenable to a potassium-sparing
3395:
3187:
2543:
1339:
791:
368:
250:, and not enough intake in the diet. Normal potassium levels in humans are between 3.5 and 5.0
75:
2880:
2505:
2279:
1490:
1370:
3555:
3488:
3356:
3192:
2948:
2307:
1031:
616:
596:
2738:
1516:
3466:
3460:
3452:
3437:
3418:
3090:
3067:
2989:
1144:
516:
8:
3669:
3572:
3560:
3550:
2891:
2829:
1068:
787:
732:, which lead to movement of potassium from the extracellular fluid into the muscle cells.
477:
274:
270:
1219:
49:
An ECG in a person with a potassium level of 1.1 meq/L showing the classical changes of
3674:
3623:
3480:
3279:
2747:
2631:
2255:
2230:
2181:
2073:
2030:
1987:
1884:
1863:
1843:
1819:
1794:
1748:
1595:
1570:
1466:
1439:
1313:
1035:
838:
633:
612:
608:
595:
levels can cause hypertension and excessive urinary losses of potassium. These include
544:
539:(alkalosis) can cause temporary hypokalemia by causing a shift of potassium out of the
444:
243:
239:
141:
137:
82:
2834:
2131:
1736:
576:
concentration (caused by vomiting, for example) will exceed the capacity of the renal
3595:
3590:
3545:
3540:
3382:
3369:
3098:
2851:
2787:
2752:
2704:
2609:
2525:
2515:
2429:
2389:
2260:
2173:
2156:
Khan E, Spiers C, Khan M (March 2013). "The heart and potassium: a banana republic".
2135:
2065:
2061:
2022:
1979:
1974:
1957:
1938:
1930:
1889:
1871:
1824:
1806:
1775:
1752:
1740:
1705:
1662:
1658:
1635:
1600:
1586:
1496:
1471:
1420:
1376:
1345:
1305:
1257:
1223:
1139:
1117:
1051:
652:
550:
473:
356:
259:
192:
153:
87:
70:
2771:
Content of
Selected Foods per Common Measure, sorted by nutrient content (Potassium)
2185:
2034:
1991:
1958:"Cola-induced hypokalaemia: pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical implications"
1554:
1537:
1317:
488:
can also cause long-term hypokalemia. Diuretic abuse among athletes and people with
3508:
3423:
3103:
3014:
2742:
2734:
2696:
2695:. Vol. 1 (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3831–3845.
2421:
2379:
2287:
2250:
2242:
2165:
2127:
2077:
2057:
2014:
1969:
1920:
1879:
1855:
1814:
1732:
1695:
1627:
1590:
1582:
1549:
1461:
1451:
1412:
1297:
1249:
1215:
1134:
1056:
826:
814:
648:
504:
461:
440:
396:
367:
occurring with profound hypokalemia with serum potassium levels less than 2 meq/L.
328:
208:
99:
3330:
2291:
3530:
3525:
3075:
2845:
2782:
2619:
2557:
2509:
2384:
2367:
2199:
2169:
1700:
1683:
875:
729:
702:
577:
554:
489:
344:
332:
235:
133:
2894:
2583:
2569:
1859:
1416:
858:
with levels below 3.5 mmol/L (less than 3.5 mEq/L) defined as hypokalemia.
3565:
3175:
3080:
3052:
3044:
2964:
1100:
994:
870:
changes (PR prolongation, ST-segment and T-wave depression, U-wave formation).
522:
481:
400:
364:
324:
247:
216:
145:
111:
2856:
2819:
2720:"Narrative review: evolving concepts in potassium homeostasis and hypokalemia"
2048:
Packer, C.D. (June 2009). "Cola-induced hypokalaemia: a super-sized problem".
921:
Treatment includes addressing the cause, such as improving the diet, treating
886:
The amount of potassium deficit can be calculated using the following formula:
3653:
3600:
3498:
3170:
3057:
3020:
3010:
2977:
2969:
1934:
1875:
1867:
1810:
1253:
1018:
990:
962:
810:
795:
783:
721:
716:
Rare hereditary defects of muscular ion channels and transporters that cause
465:
352:
340:
191:. Mild low potassium does not typically cause symptoms. Symptoms may include
2691:. In David A. Warrell, Timothy M. Cox, John D. Firth, Graham S. Ogg (eds.).
2529:
1456:
3518:
3493:
3447:
3241:
3182:
3121:
2905:
2756:
2623:
2603:
2433:
2393:
2264:
2177:
2139:
2069:
2026:
1983:
1942:
1925:
1908:
1893:
1828:
1639:
1604:
1475:
1309:
1227:
690:
625:
540:
420:
416:
360:
348:
320:
263:
204:
95:
1842:
Charach G, Karniel E, Grosskopf I, Rabinovich A, Charach L (2 July 2020).
1779:
1744:
1709:
1424:
3638:
3628:
3269:
3259:
2917:
2875:
2477:"Safety Issues With Adding Lidocaine to IV Potassium Infusions (Excerpt)"
2246:
1244:
Pathy MJ (2006). "Appendix 1: Conversion of SI Units to
Standard Units".
1122:
1096:
1060:
1047:
974:
698:
670:
592:
570:
564:
512:
212:
188:
62:
2718:
Greenlee M, Wingo, CS, McDonough, AA, Youn, JH, Kone, BC (May 5, 2009).
3288:
3006:
2900:
2501:
2425:
1489:
Taal MW, Chertow GM, Marsden PA, Skorecki K, Yu AS, Brenner BM (2011).
1104:
998:
950:
694:
682:
678:
644:
480:) commonly cause hypokalemia. Other medications such as the antifungal
469:
227:
125:
50:
2802:
2717:
2018:
1631:
1301:
3113:
2886:
1092:
1076:
1002:
934:
686:
629:
536:
526:
507:, also an obligate loss of potassium from kidney tubules occurs as a
485:
282:
184:
166:
Dietary changes, potassium supplements, based on the underlying cause
3633:
3343:
3302:
3264:
1088:
1064:
958:
954:
922:
759:
755:
751:
747:
508:
500:
428:
412:
223:
200:
121:
1569:
Cadwallader AB, De La Torre X, Tieri A, Botrè F (September 2010).
1248:. Vol. 2 (4. ed.). Chichester: Wiley. p. Appendix.
460:
Certain medications can cause excess potassium loss in the urine.
319:
Mild hypokalemia is often without symptoms, although it may cause
3442:
1841:
982:
938:
725:
706:
666:
604:
448:
424:
380:
336:
231:
129:
58:
54:
1568:
292:. It affects about 20% of people admitted to hospital. The word
3431:
3210:
3162:
2814:
2368:"New Guidelines for Potassium Replacement in Clinical Practice"
1027:
1010:
986:
978:
970:
855:
802:
746:. The hypokalemia is thought to be from the combination of the
600:
585:
432:
392:
251:
1006:
821:
is caused by the effect of the altered potassium gradient on
806:
754:
and copious fluid intake, although it may also be related to
659:
637:
581:
255:
196:
91:
2333:. University of Massachusetts Medical School. Archived from
1799:
P & T: A Peer-Reviewed
Journal for Formulary Management
1341:
Rosen's
Emergency Medicine - Concepts and Clinical Practice
966:
946:
743:
492:
may present with hypokalemia due to urinary potassium loss.
1488:
801:
Potassium is essential for many body functions, including
41:
1955:
1438:
Jain VV, Gupta OP, Jajoo SU, Khiangate B (January 2011).
1034:
is preferred when correcting hypokalemia associated with
942:
867:
496:
2366:
Cohn JN, Kowey PR, Whelton PK, Prisant LM (2000-09-11).
2004:
1765:
569:
3) During metabolic alkalosis, the acute rise of plasma
2365:
1437:
1204:
547:
into the urine via a number of interrelated mechanisms.
435:
bicarbonaturia force urinary potassium excretion. (See
266:
that means high level of potassium in the blood serum.
2411:
1344:(8 ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 1639.
1287:
624:—can either be congenital or caused by consumption of
2788:
2541:
Originally published as "Excessive Candor" no. 48 in
2116:
2792:
1538:"Hypokalemia and Psychosis: A Forgotten Association"
1041:
1517:"Symptoms and Signs of Low Potassium (Hypokalemia)"
1402:
1337:
2312:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1956:Tsimihodimos V, Kakaidi V, Elisaf M (June 2009).
1542:American Journal of Psychiatry Residents' Journal
928:
379:Hypokalemia can result from one or more of these
3651:
1617:
854:Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0
584:, and potassium will be excreted as an obligate
406:
2776:List of foods rich in potassium (U. Mass. Med.)
2701:10.1093/med/9780199204854.003.210202_update_001
1046:Severe hypokalemia (<3.0 mEq/L) may require
2155:
1909:"Unusual causes of hypokalaemia and paralysis"
1082:
386:
207:. Low potassium also increases the risk of an
3226:
2933:
1722:
1681:
1246:Principles and Practice of Geriatric Medicine
495:A special case of potassium loss occurs with
35:Hypokalaemia, hypopotassaemia, hypopotassemia
2047:
709:) can also cause hypokalemia by stimulating
647:defects of renal salt transporters, such as
591:Disease states that lead to abnormally high
2277:
1792:
1723:Halperin ML, Kamel KS (1998). "Potassium".
1652:
1646:
782:About 98% of the body's potassium is found
3233:
3219:
2947:
2940:
2926:
2556:
2414:American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy
2228:
2090:
2050:International Journal of Clinical Practice
1962:International Journal of Clinical Practice
660:Distribution away from extracellular fluid
622:apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome
2746:
2658:"Review of Destiny's Road by Larry Niven"
2383:
2254:
1973:
1924:
1883:
1818:
1699:
1620:International Journal of Eating Disorders
1594:
1553:
1495:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 618.
1465:
1455:
1375:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 487.
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1239:
1237:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1716:
1655:Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
327:, and can provoke the development of an
222:Causes of hypokalemia include vomiting,
2739:10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00008
1906:
1368:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
3652:
1492:Brenner and Rector's The Kidney E-Book
1338:Marx J, Walls R, Hockberger R (2013).
1324:
1234:
1115:The plot of the science fiction novel
288:Hypokalemia is one of the most common
3214:
2921:
2686:
2601:
2500:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2151:
2149:
1682:Walmsley RN, White GH (August 1984).
1243:
1167:
1150:Potassium deficiency (plant disorder)
523:A low level of magnesium in the blood
314:
3035:Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
2689:"Disorders of potassium homeostasis"
1535:
1440:"Hypokalemia induced rhabdomyolysis"
1398:
1396:
1372:The Human Body in Health and Illness
1270:
866:Hypokalemia leads to characteristic
861:
766:
262:(ECG). The opposite state is called
158:Blood potassium < 3.5 mmol/L
3151:Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation
2514:. Harold Wood, London, UK: Beccon.
2210:from the original on 1 October 2016
1405:The New England Journal of Medicine
1220:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.08.015
1155:Superior mesenteric artery syndrome
937:include dried fruits (particularly
628:, which is contained in extract of
16:Insufficient potassium in the blood
13:
2680:
2400:
2352:
2146:
2095:. Health.yahoo.com. Archived from
1110:
777:
537:An increase in the pH of the blood
285:replacement may also be required.
174:20% of people admitted to hospital
14:
3686:
2764:
2132:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2009.01.024
1793:Veltri KT, Mason C (March 2015).
1393:
1042:Intravenous potassium replacement
794:is maintained principally by the
355:). With more severe hypokalemia,
3240:
2062:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2009.02066.x
1975:10.1111/j.1742-1241.2009.02051.x
1795:"Medication-induced hypokalemia"
1587:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00789.x
1389:from the original on 2016-10-01.
1358:from the original on 2016-08-15.
603:(generally nonmalignant) of the
343:(owing to disturbed function of
40:
3127:Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
2995:Disorders of calcium metabolism
2650:
2595:
2550:
2494:
2440:
2320:
2284:New England Journal of Medicine
2271:
2222:
2192:
2110:
2084:
2041:
1998:
1949:
1900:
1835:
1786:
1759:
1684:"Occult causes of hypokalaemia"
1675:
1611:
1575:British Journal of Pharmacology
1562:
1555:10.1176/appi.ajp-rj.2016.111103
1529:
454:
148:, not enough intake in the diet
3198:Cerebral salt-wasting syndrome
3146:Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
2328:"Sources of Dietary Potassium"
2278:Ingelfinger JR (1 July 2015).
1509:
1482:
1431:
1362:
1050:supplementation. Typically, a
993:, citrus fruits (particularly
929:Oral potassium supplementation
718:hypokalemic periodic paralysis
436:
1:
2372:Archives of Internal Medicine
2292:10.1056/feature.2015.06.16.43
2200:"Potassium (Unit Conversion)"
1907:Alazami M (8 February 2006).
1737:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)85044-7
1160:
407:Gastrointestinal or skin loss
363:may result. Reports exist of
2385:10.1001/archinte.160.16.2429
2231:"ECG Diagnosis: Hypokalemia"
2170:10.3109/17482941.2012.741250
1444:Indian Journal of Nephrology
916:
844:
813:to a resting state after an
786:, with the remainder in the
525:can also cause hypokalemia.
351:(from disturbed function of
290:water–electrolyte imbalances
7:
3308:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
3000:Hypercalcemia of malignancy
2727:Annals of Internal Medicine
2693:Oxford Textbook of Medicine
2566:The Universe of Larry Niven
1860:10.1097/MD.0000000000020931
1417:10.1056/NEJM198905043201804
1128:
1083:Potassium-sparing diuretics
588:partner to the bicarbonate.
387:Inadequate potassium intake
61:, and a slightly prolonged
10:
3691:
2602:Niven L (17 August 2010).
1701:10.1093/clinchem/30.8.1406
1030:and abdominal discomfort.
957:, leafy green vegetables,
909:) × body weight (kg) × 0.4
823:resting membrane potential
790:including the blood. This
557:reabsorb H and secrete HCO
462:Blood pressure medications
3616:
3581:
3479:
3410:
3313:Wernicke's encephalopathy
3287:
3278:
3248:
3161:
3112:
3089:
3066:
3043:
2955:
2866:
2796:
2584:review from the July 1997
2511:Scores: Reviews 1993–2003
2091:HealthGuru (2012-03-01).
881:
513:negatively charged ketone
419:, losses associated with
374:
170:
162:
152:
117:
105:
81:
69:
48:
39:
31:
26:
3660:Electrolyte disturbances
3029:Dystrophic calcification
3025:Metastatic calcification
1254:10.1002/047009057X.app01
949:cereals and wheat germ,
849:
736:
2759:. NIHMSID: NIHMS800438.
2664:(Blog). 26 January 2013
1653:Silverthorn DU (2016).
1457:10.4103/0971-4065.78085
437:discussion of alkalosis
279:central venous catheter
2949:Electrolyte imbalances
2544:Science Fiction Weekly
2235:The Permanente Journal
1057:abnormal heart rhythms
792:concentration gradient
640:, and chewing tobacco.
369:Respiratory depression
76:Critical care medicine
3489:Electrolyte imbalance
3357:Pyridoxine deficiency
3331:Riboflavin deficiency
2547:no. 48, 16 June 1997.
2294:(inactive 2024-09-12)
1032:Potassium bicarbonate
839:reentrant arrhythmias
632:, sometimes found in
597:renal artery stenosis
567:-mediated mechanisms.
497:diabetic ketoacidosis
329:abnormal heart rhythm
209:abnormal heart rhythm
100:abnormal heart rhythm
53:depression, inverted
3665:Mineral deficiencies
3467:Vitamin K deficiency
3461:Vitamin E deficiency
3438:Vitamin D deficiency
3419:Vitamin A deficiency
3318:Korsakoff's syndrome
2990:Milk-alkali syndrome
1926:10.1093/qjmed/hcl011
1661:. pp. 646–647.
1145:Hypokalemic acidosis
620:deficiency—known as
447:and the presence of
2974:Symptoms and signs
2589:Science Fiction Age
2572:on 22 November 2019
788:extracellular fluid
545:interstitial fluids
484:or the cancer drug
478:hydrochlorothiazide
445:pancreatic fistulae
425:surgical procedures
226:, medications like
124:, medications like
3481:Mineral deficiency
3280:Vitamin deficiency
2867:External resources
2781:2017-01-03 at the
2426:10.2146/ajhp040300
2247:10.7812/tpp/12-015
2229:Levi's JT (2012).
2158:Acute Cardiac Care
2093:"Health.yahoo.com"
1369:Herlihy B (2014).
1077:damage to the vein
1069:critical care unit
1036:metabolic acidosis
900:normal lower limit
825:as defined by the
634:herbal supplements
617:Cushing's syndrome
613:hyperaldosteronism
551:intercalated cells
505:volume contraction
474:thiazide diuretics
315:Signs and symptoms
244:hyperaldosteronism
240:diabetes insipidus
183:is a low level of
142:hyperaldosteronism
138:diabetes insipidus
3647:
3646:
3596:Failure to thrive
3591:Delayed milestone
3475:
3474:
3453:Harrison's groove
3383:Folate deficiency
3370:Biotin deficiency
3208:
3207:
2915:
2914:
2710:978-0-19-920485-4
2521:978-1-870824-47-7
2420:(16): 1663–1682.
2340:on 3 January 2017
2019:10.1042/cs1030461
1668:978-0-321-98122-6
1659:Pearson Education
1632:10.1002/eat.20814
1502:978-1-4557-2304-1
1382:978-1-4557-5642-1
1351:978-1-4557-4987-4
1302:10.1111/apa.13398
1263:978-0-470-09055-8
1140:Gitelman syndrome
1013:, and red meats.
862:Electrocardiogram
819:hyperpolarization
767:Pseudohypokalemia
653:Gitelman syndrome
580:to reabsorb this
517:β-hydroxybutyrate
357:flaccid paralysis
309:'blood condition'
271:electrocardiogram
260:electrocardiogram
211:, which is often
178:
177:
154:Diagnostic method
21:Medical condition
3682:
3285:
3284:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3212:
3211:
3015:Calcinosis cutis
2942:
2935:
2928:
2919:
2918:
2794:
2793:
2760:
2750:
2724:
2714:
2687:Firth J (2010).
2674:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2641:
2637:
2635:
2627:
2599:
2593:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2568:. Archived from
2562:"Destiny's Road"
2554:
2548:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2479:. Archived from
2473:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2454:. Archived from
2444:
2438:
2437:
2409:
2398:
2397:
2387:
2363:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2311:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1977:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1928:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1887:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1822:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1768:Eur J Respir Dis
1763:
1757:
1756:
1731:(9122): 135–40.
1720:
1714:
1713:
1703:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1657:(7th ed.).
1650:
1644:
1643:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1598:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1469:
1459:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1335:
1322:
1321:
1290:Acta Paediatrica
1285:
1268:
1267:
1241:
1232:
1231:
1202:
1135:Bartter syndrome
910:
827:Goldman equation
815:action potential
758:caused by heavy
711:beta-2 receptors
649:Bartter syndrome
490:eating disorders
441:gastrointestinal
397:anorexia nervosa
44:
24:
23:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3612:
3577:
3471:
3406:
3399:
3392:
3379:
3366:
3353:
3340:
3327:
3299:
3274:
3251:
3244:
3239:
3209:
3204:
3157:
3108:
3085:
3062:
3039:
2951:
2946:
2916:
2911:
2910:
2862:
2861:
2805:
2783:Wayback Machine
2767:
2722:
2711:
2683:
2681:Further reading
2678:
2677:
2667:
2665:
2656:
2655:
2651:
2639:
2638:
2629:
2628:
2616:
2600:
2596:
2575:
2573:
2560:(8 June 1997).
2555:
2551:
2534:
2532:
2522:
2499:
2495:
2486:
2484:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2461:
2459:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2410:
2401:
2378:(16): 2429–36.
2364:
2353:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2321:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2295:
2276:
2272:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2211:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2154:
2147:
2115:
2111:
2102:
2100:
2089:
2085:
2046:
2042:
2003:
1999:
1954:
1950:
1905:
1901:
1840:
1836:
1791:
1787:
1764:
1760:
1721:
1717:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1651:
1647:
1616:
1612:
1567:
1563:
1536:Hong E (2016).
1534:
1530:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1487:
1483:
1436:
1432:
1411:(18): 1177–82.
1401:
1394:
1383:
1367:
1363:
1352:
1336:
1325:
1286:
1271:
1264:
1242:
1235:
1214:(10): 1400–33.
1203:
1168:
1163:
1131:
1113:
1111:Popular culture
1085:
1044:
931:
919:
911:
908:
901:
894:
888:
887:
884:
876:Purkinje fibers
864:
852:
847:
836:
780:
778:Pathophysiology
769:
739:
730:thyroid hormone
703:methylphenidate
662:
609:Conn's syndrome
578:proximal tubule
574:
568:
562:
560:
555:collecting duct
548:
511:partner to the
457:
443:causes include
409:
389:
377:
345:skeletal muscle
333:muscle weakness
317:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3688:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3608:
3598:
3593:
3587:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3566:Keshan disease
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3485:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3333:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3297:
3293:
3291:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3256:
3254:
3250:Protein-energy
3246:
3245:
3238:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3176:Salt poisoning
3167:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3118:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3018:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2983:Trousseau sign
2980:
2972:
2967:
2961:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2945:
2944:
2937:
2930:
2922:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2897:
2892:article/242008
2883:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2848:
2837:
2822:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:Classification
2791:
2790:
2785:
2773:
2766:
2765:External links
2763:
2762:
2761:
2715:
2709:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2649:
2640:|website=
2614:
2605:Destiny's road
2594:
2549:
2520:
2493:
2468:
2452:www.sps.nhs.uk
2439:
2399:
2351:
2319:
2270:
2221:
2191:
2145:
2109:
2083:
2040:
1997:
1948:
1919:(3): 181–192.
1899:
1854:(27): e20931.
1834:
1805:(3): 185–190.
1785:
1758:
1715:
1674:
1667:
1645:
1626:(3): 200–202.
1610:
1561:
1528:
1508:
1501:
1481:
1430:
1392:
1381:
1361:
1350:
1323:
1269:
1262:
1233:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1118:Destiny's Road
1112:
1109:
1101:spironolactone
1084:
1081:
1043:
1040:
930:
927:
918:
915:
906:
899:
892:
883:
880:
863:
860:
851:
848:
846:
843:
834:
779:
776:
775:
774:
768:
765:
764:
763:
738:
735:
734:
733:
722:catecholamines
714:
661:
658:
657:
656:
641:
607:glands, e.g.,
589:
572:
558:
531:
530:
520:
493:
482:amphotericin B
466:loop diuretics
456:
453:
439:below.) Other
408:
405:
401:ketogenic diet
399:or those on a
388:
385:
376:
373:
365:rhabdomyolysis
339:, tremor, and
325:blood pressure
316:
313:
304:'potassium' +
248:hypomagnesemia
217:cardiac arrest
215:and can cause
176:
175:
172:
168:
167:
164:
160:
159:
156:
150:
149:
146:hypomagnesemia
119:
115:
114:
112:Cardiac arrest
109:
103:
102:
85:
79:
78:
73:
67:
66:
46:
45:
37:
36:
33:
29:
28:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3687:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3601:Short stature
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3478:
3468:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3424:Bitot's spots
3422:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3401:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3247:
3243:
3236:
3231:
3229:
3224:
3222:
3217:
3216:
3213:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3139:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3021:Calcification
3019:
3016:
3012:
3011:Calciphylaxis
3008:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2978:Chvostek sign
2976:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2929:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2733:(9): 619–25.
2732:
2728:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2684:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2645:
2633:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2615:9780312851224
2611:
2607:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2582:Reprints the
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2546:
2545:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2497:
2483:on 2008-12-22
2482:
2478:
2472:
2458:on 2018-10-16
2457:
2453:
2449:
2443:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2315:
2309:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
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2120:Clin. Biochem
2113:
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2098:
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1985:
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1976:
1971:
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1963:
1959:
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1944:
1940:
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1932:
1927:
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1914:
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1330:
1328:
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1291:
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1276:
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1247:
1240:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1208:Resuscitation
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
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1037:
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1029:
1023:
1020:
1019:hypochloremia
1014:
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1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
991:coconut water
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
963:winter squash
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
926:
924:
914:
905:
898:
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891:
879:
877:
871:
869:
859:
857:
842:
840:
830:
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820:
816:
812:
811:cell membrane
808:
804:
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
771:
770:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
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731:
727:
723:
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704:
700:
696:
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684:
680:
676:
675:beta agonists
672:
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623:
618:
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510:
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491:
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459:
458:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
404:
402:
398:
394:
384:
382:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
353:smooth muscle
350:
346:
342:
341:muscle cramps
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
312:
310:
308:
303:
299:
295:
291:
286:
284:
280:
276:
275:intravenously
272:
267:
265:
261:
257:
254:(3.5 and 5.0
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
193:feeling tired
190:
186:
182:
173:
169:
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155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
116:
113:
110:
108:
107:Complications
104:
101:
97:
93:
89:
88:Feeling tired
86:
84:
80:
77:
74:
72:
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64:
60:
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43:
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34:
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3448:Osteomalacia
3252:malnutrition
3242:Malnutrition
3140:
2899:
2885:
2874:
2850:
2839:
2824:
2809:
2730:
2726:
2692:
2666:. Retrieved
2661:
2652:
2604:
2597:
2587:
2574:. Retrieved
2570:the original
2565:
2558:Di Filippo P
2552:
2542:
2533:. Retrieved
2510:
2506:"Wiser Book"
2496:
2485:. Retrieved
2481:the original
2471:
2460:. Retrieved
2456:the original
2451:
2442:
2417:
2413:
2375:
2371:
2342:. Retrieved
2335:the original
2322:
2308:cite journal
2296:. Retrieved
2283:
2273:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2214:27 September
2212:. Retrieved
2203:
2194:
2164:(1): 17–24.
2161:
2157:
2126:(9): 813–8.
2123:
2119:
2112:
2101:. Retrieved
2097:the original
2086:
2056:(6): 833–5.
2053:
2049:
2043:
2013:(5): 461–6.
2010:
2006:
2000:
1968:(6): 900–2.
1965:
1961:
1951:
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1788:
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1771:
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1619:
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1564:
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1531:
1520:. Retrieved
1511:
1491:
1484:
1447:
1443:
1433:
1408:
1404:
1371:
1364:
1340:
1293:
1289:
1245:
1211:
1207:
1116:
1114:
1086:
1073:central line
1045:
1024:
1015:
932:
920:
903:
896:
889:
885:
872:
865:
853:
831:
800:
784:inside cells
781:
699:amphetamines
691:theophylline
673:, and other
626:glycyrrhizin
532:
455:Urinary loss
421:crush injury
417:perspiration
415:, excessive
410:
390:
383:conditions:
378:
361:hyporeflexia
349:constipation
318:
306:
301:
297:
293:
287:
268:
264:hyperkalemia
221:
205:constipation
180:
179:
96:constipation
94:, weakness,
18:
3639:Underweight
3629:Weight loss
3270:Catabolysis
3260:Kwashiorkor
2906:Hypokalemia
2876:MedlinePlus
2662:Ambidexteri
2298:16 November
1581:(1): 1–16.
1548:(11): 6–7.
1123:Larry Niven
1097:triamterene
1061:heart block
1048:intravenous
975:cauliflower
773:processing.
671:epinephrine
593:aldosterone
565:aldosterone
300:'under' +
296:comes from
294:hypokalemia
189:blood serum
187:(K) in the
181:Hypokalemia
63:PR interval
32:Other names
27:Hypokalemia
3670:Nephrology
3654:Categories
3606:Idiopathic
3556:Molybdenum
3400:deficiency
3289:B vitamins
3007:Calcinosis
2901:Patient UK
2852:DiseasesDB
2487:2009-05-09
2462:2018-10-16
2344:3 February
2103:2012-03-10
1688:Clin. Chem
1522:2021-04-21
1161:References
1105:eplerenone
1091:, such as
999:cantaloupe
951:lima beans
762:ingestion.
750:effect of
695:Stimulants
683:salmeterol
679:salbutamol
645:hereditary
549:1) Type B
470:furosemide
228:furosemide
197:leg cramps
126:furosemide
92:leg cramps
51:ST segment
3675:Potassium
3536:Manganese
3514:Potassium
3509:Phosphate
3504:Magnesium
3396:Vitamin B
3188:Hypotonic
3114:Potassium
3091:Phosphate
3068:Magnesium
2895:emerg/273
2887:eMedicine
2642:ignored (
2632:cite book
2586:issue of
2576:13 August
2535:13 August
2241:(2): 57.
2007:Clin. Sci
1935:1460-2725
1876:0025-7974
1868:1536-5964
1811:1052-1372
1753:208790031
1450:(1): 66.
1093:amiloride
945:), nuts,
935:potassium
917:Treatment
845:Diagnosis
796:Na/K pump
687:xanthines
611:(primary
527:Magnesium
486:cisplatin
321:elevation
283:Magnesium
185:potassium
171:Frequency
163:Treatment
71:Specialty
3634:Cachexia
3624:Anorexia
3573:Fluorine
3561:Selenium
3551:Chromium
3499:Chloride
3344:Pellagra
3303:Beriberi
3265:Marasmus
3193:Isotonic
3045:Chloride
2779:Archived
2757:19414841
2668:4 August
2624:1012547M
2530:53123451
2504:(2003).
2434:16085929
2394:10979053
2265:22745618
2208:Archived
2204:MediCalc
2186:35971172
2178:23425010
2140:19232334
2070:19490191
2035:18740906
2027:12401118
1992:26191242
1984:19490200
1943:16469765
1894:32629693
1848:Medicine
1829:25798039
1640:20186716
1605:20718736
1476:21655176
1387:Archived
1356:Archived
1318:19579505
1310:26972906
1228:20956045
1129:See also
1089:diuretic
1065:asystole
1059:such as
987:tomatoes
983:avocados
979:potatoes
959:broccoli
955:molasses
939:apricots
923:diarrhea
907:measured
760:fructose
756:diarrhea
752:caffeine
748:diuretic
630:licorice
509:cationic
501:polyuria
464:such as
429:Vomiting
413:diarrhea
236:dialysis
232:steroids
224:diarrhea
213:too slow
201:weakness
134:dialysis
130:steroids
122:Diarrhea
83:Symptoms
57:, large
3617:General
3494:Calcium
3443:Rickets
2957:Calcium
2846:D007008
2748:4944758
2502:Clute J
2256:3383164
2078:2856903
1885:7337440
1820:4357351
1780:3582518
1745:9672294
1710:6744598
1596:2962812
1467:3109789
1425:2624617
1011:bananas
1007:mangoes
995:oranges
971:carrots
913:grams.
893:deficit
728:and/or
726:insulin
724:and/or
707:cocaine
685:), and
667:insulin
638:candies
605:adrenal
553:in the
449:adenoma
381:medical
347:), and
337:myalgia
59:U waves
55:T waves
3583:Growth
3546:Iodine
3541:Copper
3519:Sodium
3432:Scurvy
3163:Sodium
3132:equine
2881:000479
2755:
2745:
2707:
2622:
2612:
2528:
2518:
2432:
2392:
2263:
2253:
2184:
2176:
2138:
2076:
2068:
2033:
2025:
1990:
1982:
1941:
1933:
1892:
1882:
1874:
1866:
1827:
1817:
1809:
1778:
1751:
1743:
1725:Lancet
1708:
1665:
1638:
1603:
1593:
1499:
1474:
1464:
1423:
1379:
1348:
1316:
1308:
1260:
1226:
1052:saline
1028:nausea
882:Amount
856:mmol/L
803:muscle
689:(e.g.
677:(e.g.
601:tumors
586:cation
541:plasma
476:(e.g.
472:) and
468:(e.g.
433:emetic
393:eating
375:Causes
302:kalium
252:mmol/L
203:, and
118:Causes
3411:Other
2835:276.8
2820:E87.6
2723:(PDF)
2338:(PDF)
2331:(PDF)
2182:S2CID
2074:S2CID
2031:S2CID
1988:S2CID
1864:eISSN
1749:S2CID
1314:S2CID
1103:, or
1003:kiwis
967:beets
850:Blood
807:nerve
737:Other
643:Rare
582:anion
423:, or
307:-emia
298:hypo-
256:mEq/L
3531:Zinc
3526:Iron
3171:High
3122:High
3099:High
3076:High
3053:High
2965:High
2857:6445
2841:MeSH
2830:9-CM
2753:PMID
2705:ISBN
2670:2019
2644:help
2610:ISBN
2578:2019
2537:2019
2526:OCLC
2516:ISBN
2430:PMID
2390:PMID
2346:2017
2314:link
2300:2017
2261:PMID
2216:2016
2174:PMID
2136:PMID
2066:PMID
2023:PMID
1980:PMID
1939:PMID
1931:ISSN
1890:PMID
1872:ISSN
1825:PMID
1807:ISSN
1776:PMID
1741:PMID
1706:PMID
1663:ISBN
1636:PMID
1601:PMID
1497:ISBN
1472:PMID
1421:PMID
1377:ISBN
1346:ISBN
1306:PMID
1258:ISBN
1224:PMID
947:bran
943:figs
941:and
805:and
744:cola
599:and
543:and
503:and
391:Not
359:and
230:and
128:and
3465:K:
3459:E:
3436:D:
3430:C:
3417:A:
3183:Low
3141:Low
3104:Low
3081:Low
3058:Low
2970:Low
2826:ICD
2811:ICD
2743:PMC
2735:doi
2731:150
2697:doi
2422:doi
2380:doi
2376:160
2288:doi
2251:PMC
2243:doi
2166:doi
2128:doi
2058:doi
2015:doi
2011:103
1970:doi
1921:doi
1913:QJM
1880:PMC
1856:doi
1815:PMC
1733:doi
1729:352
1696:doi
1628:doi
1591:PMC
1583:doi
1579:161
1550:doi
1462:PMC
1452:doi
1413:doi
1409:320
1298:doi
1294:105
1250:doi
1216:doi
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1063:or
997:),
868:ECG
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