185:, the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus). The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system. A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but no consensus was attained on who should elect the president (parliament or the people) and when this election should occur (before or after parliamentary elections). Initially, the opposition was united in wanting the president elected by parliament after new elections to ensure parliamentary supremacy and minimise the MSzMP's power. Then, faced with Communist concessions, the relatively weak opposition split, as at least three moderate groups (including KNDP and MDF) signed the Round Table agreement and implicitly accepted Pozsgay as president while the radicals (notably Fidesz and the SzDSz) refused to do so. After a burst of negotiations, fully free
206:
100,000 signatures needed to place the questions on the ballot. The reform
Communists quickly abolished the party militia, promised a full accounting of its assets before the referendum, and removed its cells from the workplace. On the crucial question of the election sequence, the radicals barely satisfied both criteria (55% turnout, with 50% needed, and 50.07% supporting parliamentary elections first). The party-state had been completely dismantled, something the Opposition Round Table had not been strong enough to accomplish on its own. The Communists themselves used the initiative to force a vote on direct election of the president on
113:
aroused suspicions they were implicated in a behind-the-scenes deal. Some smaller parties outside the table claimed an underhanded bargain between the old and new political elite was taking place without public consultation. The
Opposition Round Table did its best to dissipate such suspicions. Indeed, all involved were devoted to a peaceful and democratic transition (to which the regime implicitly agreed through its acceptance of negotiations), and were nervous about uncontrolled popular mobilisation—especially as talks began before the
164:, a leader of the Communists' radical reformer faction, would win. The smaller opposition parties wanted a parliamentary system, proportional representation, and a weak presidency. However, they too believed that Pozsgay would be elected president. A party congress was scheduled for October, and reformists had to show something there to legitimise themselves. During negotiations, the MSzMP offered concessions aimed at having Pozsgay elected. In August, they offered to dissolve the
104:), several relatively frail opposition groups which at most could play on the regime's fear of mass demonstrations on the occasion of various commemorations participated. This weakness radicalised their demands, leading to greater government concessions; the opposition, which had an open-ended agenda and could effectively veto proposals, knew from Poland that it either had to negotiate free elections or would begin to lose its legitimacy as representatives of the people.
72:, EKA), designed to prevent the Communists from trying to maintain power by dividing the opposition, and to establish some degree of unity in the face of the regime's own reform agenda. The table was composed of a small number of elite organizations, whose grassroots links were poorly developed and whose very existence stemmed in part from the collaboration of key Communist reformers. Specifically, it involved the SzDSz, Fidesz, the
126:
share the burden of managing the economy, but the opposition refused to take on the task until it entered government and focused on political before economic reform. All involved acknowledged that the "third side" (unions and party organisations) was less important in both the process and outcome; members of the state agencies distanced themselves from the ebbing authority of the party, but were content
125:
was reburied on 16 June), EKA made more detailed and all-encompassing demands: guaranteed free elections and free media access during these, exclusion of political crimes from the criminal code, a prohibition on the use of violence, and de-politicization of the armed forces. The
Communists wanted to
117:
fell and
Solidarity scored a decisive electoral victory. Nevertheless, the 10 June agreement severely limited its room for manoeuvring. The lack of publicity did not cause conflicts between the negotiating elite of the parties and their membership, but it did cause a number of misunderstandings in
95:
The MSzMP, although beleaguered by demands for change from within (in the form of increasingly active Reform
Circles), and facing a disintegrating economy, did not meet with the opposition until 22 April. Unlike in Poland, where the lines between the united opposition and the government were clear,
159:
Negotiations broke down frequently, with the two most contentious issues being the electoral system and the presidency (other points of contention were whether the country would be defined as "socialist" in the constitution, and disclosure of
Communist Party assets.) The Communists pressed for a
205:
on four additional issues. The referendum, held on 26 November, asked questions on the dissolution of the party militia, the return of party assets, the elimination of the party from the workplace and whether presidential or parliamentary elections should be held first. They easily obtained the
112:
The topics of discussions were almost completely unknown to the public. The
Communists did their best to prevent wider knowledge of the negotiations, supposedly to prevent them being used as political propaganda. The Opposition Round Table agreed to this suggestion at a meeting on 10 June; this
68:(SzDSz) having emerged. Mass demonstrations on March 15, the National Day, persuaded the regime to begin negotiations with the emergent non-Communist political forces. A week later, these new movements, at the initiative of the Independent Lawyers’ Forum, formed the Opposition Round Table (
168:
if his candidacy were accepted, and in
September, they offered to have the president elected by referendum. (This was presented as a concession, because while popular election would have granted him more legitimacy, the sitting parliament would easily have elected Pozsgay.)
100:, NKA), with talks beginning on the 13th) was trilateral, also involving unions and quasi-civil society organisations under the party's authority but beginning to distance themselves from it. Instead of a single opposition movement with substantial threat potential (
135:
that faced an uncertain future. By and large, these topics were only symbolically and not substantively discussed, with the other two sides focusing on a political solution. It was at the talks that a number of
Hungary's future political leaders emerged, including
130:
to support it, guaranteeing them a lesser role in negotiations. Nevertheless, they ostensibly represented the non-elites not present at the table; issues included their constituents’ concerns, such as wages, self-management, and the maintenance and extension of a
118:
society at large. It was only when the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September that the public became fully aware of the different viewpoints represented at the round table; the plenary session dealing with its breakup was broadcast on television.
201:(MSZP), a majority of members as well as MPs failed to join the new party, and Pozsgay was not elected its leader. In the ensuing power vacuum, the radicals used the very liberal initiative law formulated by the Round Table to successfully campaign for
196:
In the end, the implicit deal on the presidency (the only place where the
Communists appeared to have gotten the upper hand) reached in the Round Table Talks was reversed: when the MSzMP dissolved itself in early October and became the
210:, but this failed due to a turnout of just 14%. Instead of a Communist candidate chosen in direct elections before the election of a new parliament, the presidency went to SzDSz politician
1397:
60:
had been removed from power for almost a year, and the Communists' Central Committee that month admitted the necessity of a multiparty system, with various groups like
77:
802:
149:
1621:
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41:
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84:(MNP), the Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientific Workers. At a later stage the
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45:
40:, that ended in the creation of a multi-party constitutional democracy and saw the Communist Party (formally the
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The talks originated in March 1989 as a meeting among opposition groups. At that point, longtime leader
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Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe
8:
1631:
1606:
1402:
1387:
986:
726:
636:
165:
1117:
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57:
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An agreement was reached involving six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the
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141:
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820:
797:
96:
Hungary's round table (formally established in June as the National Round Table (
28:) were a series of formalized, orderly and highly legalistic discussions held in
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326:
Bayer, József (2003), "The Process of Political System Change in Hungary",
161:
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presidential system with majority voting. They presumed that the popular
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29:
1079:
493:
Referendums Around the World: The Growing Use of Direct Democracy
406:
404:
402:
336:
33:
665:
The Roundtable Talks of 1989: The Genesis of Hungarian Democracy
360:
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1006:
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399:
428:
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250:
235:
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377:
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373:
285:
283:
803:
Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe
782:
370:
541:
Comrades No More: The Seeds of Change in Eastern Europe
295:
280:
270:
268:
679:
The Roundtable Talks and the Breakdown of Communism
562:Elster, Jon; Offe, Claus; Preuss, Ulrich K (1998),
563:
490:
463:
307:
265:
189:were scheduled for March 1990, in contrast to the
36:in the summer and autumn of 1989, inspired by the
591:The Dilemmas of Dissidence in East-Central Europe
1831:
630:
566:Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies
561:
410:
364:
339:: Europa Institutes, p. 180, archived from
259:
841:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union
1622:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria
611:
434:
393:
244:
711:
631:Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique (1999),
466:The Political Economy of Dual Transformations
228:
226:
86:Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions
488:
446:
422:
121:As the talks advanced (and especially after
667:(2002), Central European University Press,
718:
704:
515:
289:
223:
538:
381:
301:
461:
1246:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation
725:
633:The Central and Eastern Europe Handbook
1832:
929:Socialism with Chinese characteristics
866:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
489:Butler, David; Ranney, Austin (1994),
1276:Initiative for Peace and Human Rights
699:
325:
588:
313:
274:
612:Grzymała-Busse, Anna Maria (2002),
518:Hungary: The Politics of Transition
90:Christian Democratic People's Party
13:
654:
516:Cox, Terry; Furlong, Andy (1995),
42:Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party
14:
1866:
773:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda
758:Criticism of communist party rule
595:Central European University Press
214:, elected by the new parliament.
1819:Human rights in the Soviet Union
778:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc
1727:Dissolution of the Soviet Union
1657:Fall of the inner German border
78:Independent Smallholders’ Party
1717:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact
856:Terrorism and the Soviet Union
616:, Cambridge University Press,
411:Elster, Offe & Preuss 1998
365:Elster, Offe & Preuss 1998
319:
107:
1:
1737:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
1336:Inter-regional Deputies Group
1321:National League for Democracy
499:American Enterprise Institute
455:
193:held in Poland in June 1989.
172:
51:
1647:Alexanderplatz demonstration
1612:Polish Round Table Agreement
1286:People's Movement of Ukraine
472:University of Michigan Press
260:Heenan & Lamontagne 1999
7:
1845:Hungarian People's Republic
1692:January Events in Lithuania
1627:Hungarian Round Table Talks
1266:Democratic Party of Albania
683:University of Chicago Press
18:Hungarian Round Table Talks
10:
1871:
1346:Hungarian Democratic Forum
1341:Alliance of Free Democrats
1331:Union of Democratic Forces
572:Cambridge University Press
462:Bartlett, David L (1997),
74:Hungarian Democratic Forum
66:Alliance of Free Democrats
1811:
1745:
1707:1991 protests in Belgrade
1587:
1512:
1421:
1363:
1354:
1236:
1098:
1045:
942:
874:
811:
733:
539:De Nevers, Renée (2003),
199:Hungarian Socialist Party
1697:January Events in Latvia
1687:Reunification of Germany
1672:1990s post-Soviet aliyah
1602:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest
1326:National Salvation Front
1311:Belarusian Popular Front
1301:Popular Front of Estonia
1070:Polish underground press
831:List of socialist states
589:Falk, Barbara J (2003),
447:Butler & Ranney 1994
423:Butler & Ranney 1994
217:
82:Hungarian People's Party
1773:Economic liberalization
1712:1991 Belarusian strikes
1652:Fall of the Berlin Wall
1306:Public Against Violence
1296:Popular Front of Latvia
1075:Political demonstration
924:Chinese economic reform
836:People Power Revolution
26:Kerekasztal-tárgyalások
907:New political thinking
290:Cox & Furlong 1995
25:
1778:Post-Soviet conflicts
1732:Tajikistani Civil War
1682:Revolution on Granite
1642:Monday Demonstrations
1168:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig
1002:Mengistu Haile Mariam
768:Eastern Bloc politics
181:, establishment of a
92:(KNDP) were invited.
70:Ellenzéki Kerekasztal
46:40-year grip on power
1188:Vytautas Landsbergis
1183:Viacheslav Chornovil
1012:Denis Sassou Nguesso
637:Taylor & Francis
183:Constitutional Court
1840:Revolutions of 1989
1632:Pan-European Picnic
1607:1988 Polish strikes
987:Wojciech Jaruzelski
727:Revolutions of 1989
435:Grzymała-Busse 2002
394:Grzymała-Busse 2002
245:Grzymała-Busse 2002
191:semi-free elections
98:Nemzeti Kerekasztal
44:or MSzMP) lose its
992:Slobodan Milošević
861:Vatican Opposition
1827:
1826:
1753:Colour revolution
1583:
1582:
1550:Congo-Brazzaville
1271:Democratic Russia
1228:Pope John Paul II
1223:George H. W. Bush
1173:Vladimir Bukovsky
962:Mikhail Gorbachev
957:Nicolae Ceaușescu
743:Era of Stagnation
396:, pp. 108–9.
133:social safety net
1862:
1855:1989 conferences
1702:Transnistria War
1361:
1360:
1203:Aung San Suu Kyi
1118:Alexander Dubček
1055:Civil resistance
912:Sinatra Doctrine
892:Demokratizatsiya
793:Shortage economy
720:
713:
706:
697:
696:
649:
626:
607:
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166:Workers' Militia
1870:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1850:1989 in Hungary
1830:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1807:
1768:Democratization
1758:Decommunization
1741:
1677:Helsinki Summit
1617:April 9 tragedy
1589:
1579:
1508:
1417:
1365:
1356:
1350:
1238:
1232:
1100:
1094:
1047:
1041:
997:Mathieu Kérékou
944:
938:
870:
846:Reagan Doctrine
821:Active measures
813:
807:
798:Totalitarianism
735:
729:
724:
657:
655:Further reading
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624:
605:
582:
555:
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232:Bartlett, p.143
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150:Péter Tölgyessy
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11:
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1793:Post-communism
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1383:Czechoslovakia
1380:
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1366:Eastern Europe
1358:
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1213:Isaias Afwerki
1210:
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1193:Zianon Pazniak
1190:
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1024:
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1009:
1004:
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989:
984:
979:
974:
972:Erich Honecker
969:
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795:
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753:Anti-communism
750:
745:
739:
737:
731:
730:
723:
722:
715:
708:
700:
694:
693:
675:
661:Bozóki, András
656:
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507:
486:
480:
457:
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452:
451:
449:, p. 186.
439:
437:, p. 109.
427:
425:, p. 185.
415:
398:
386:
384:, p. 130.
382:De Nevers 2003
369:
354:
329:Schriftenreihe
318:
316:, p. 149.
306:
304:, p. 129.
302:De Nevers 2003
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279:
277:, p. 147.
264:
249:
247:, p. 108.
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109:
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53:
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1801:
1799:
1798:Yugoslav Wars
1796:
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1789:
1788:Neo-Stalinism
1786:
1784:
1783:Neo-Sovietism
1781:
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1668:
1667:Black January
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1199:
1198:Zhelyu Zhelev
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1178:Boris Yeltsin
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1032:Todor Zhivkov
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1022:Deng Xiaoping
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851:Soviet Empire
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691:0-226-20628-9
688:
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677:Elster, Jon.
676:
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673:963-9241-21-0
670:
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646:1-57958-089-0
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623:0-521-00146-3
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413:, p. 67.
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366:
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350:on 2011-07-21
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146:György Szabad
143:
142:József Antall
139:
138:László Sólyom
134:
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105:
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31:
27:
23:
19:
1746:Later events
1662:Malta Summit
1626:
1494:Turkmenistan
1422:Soviet Union
1408:Soviet Union
1388:East Germany
1208:Meles Zenawi
1163:Sali Berisha
1113:Václav Havel
1060:Human chains
967:Károly Grósz
897:Khozraschyot
788:Nomenklatura
763:Eastern Bloc
678:
664:
632:
613:
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341:the original
335:, Budapest,
328:
321:
309:
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208:29 July 1990
203:a referendum
195:
179:Constitution
176:
162:Imre Pozsgay
158:
154:Viktor Orbán
127:
120:
111:
97:
94:
80:(FKgP), the
69:
55:
38:Polish model
17:
15:
1722:August Coup
1575:South Yemen
1520:Afghanistan
1364:Central and
1357:by location
1261:Civic Forum
1148:Feng Congde
1123:Ion Iliescu
1108:Lech Wałęsa
1065:Magnitizdat
1027:Zhao Ziyang
1017:Heng Samrin
977:Miloš Jakeš
887:Perestroika
212:Árpád Göncz
115:Berlin Wall
108:Progression
76:(MDF), the
58:János Kádár
1834:Categories
1763:Lustration
1637:Baltic Way
1588:Individual
1565:Mozambique
1504:Uzbekistan
1489:Tajikistan
1474:Kyrgyzstan
1469:Kazakhstan
1434:Azerbaijan
1413:Yugoslavia
1291:Solidarity
1251:Charter 77
1237:Opposition
1133:Wu'erkaixi
1099:Opposition
1046:Opposition
1037:Siad Barre
982:Egon Krenz
952:Ramiz Alia
943:Government
882:Uskoreniye
814:background
736:background
456:References
173:Conclusion
102:Solidarity
52:Background
1803:Pink tide
1597:Jeltoqsan
1513:Elsewhere
1464:Lithuania
1316:Rastokhez
1256:New Forum
1239:movements
1138:Chai Ling
748:Communism
545:MIT Press
522:Routledge
314:Falk 2003
275:Falk 2003
187:elections
123:Imre Nagy
22:Hungarian
1560:Mongolia
1555:Ethiopia
1540:Cambodia
1444:Chechnya
1378:Bulgaria
1153:Tank Man
1143:Wang Dan
1128:Liu Gang
1085:Samizdat
1080:Protests
919:Glasnost
902:500 Days
826:Cold War
734:Internal
681:(1996),
88:and the
64:and the
30:Budapest
1812:Related
1570:Somalia
1499:Ukraine
1479:Moldova
1454:Georgia
1449:Estonia
1439:Belarus
1429:Armenia
1403:Romania
1393:Hungary
1373:Albania
1281:Sąjūdis
1101:leaders
1048:methods
945:leaders
934:Đổi Mới
875:Reforms
34:Hungary
1590:events
1525:Angola
1484:Russia
1459:Latvia
1398:Poland
1355:Events
1007:Ne Win
689:
671:
643:
620:
601:
578:
551:
528:
505:
478:
62:Fidesz
1545:China
1535:Burma
1530:Benin
333:(PDF)
218:Notes
687:ISBN
669:ISBN
641:ISBN
618:ISBN
599:ISBN
576:ISBN
549:ISBN
526:ISBN
503:ISBN
476:ISBN
152:and
16:The
783:KGB
346:PDF
128:not
1836::
685:,
663:.
639:,
635:,
597:,
593:,
574:,
570:,
547:,
543:,
524:,
520:,
501:,
497:,
474:,
470:,
401:^
372:^
357:^
337:HU
282:^
267:^
252:^
237:^
225:^
156:.
148:,
144:,
140:,
48:.
32:,
24::
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712:t
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650:.
627:.
608:.
585:.
558:.
535:.
512:.
485:.
352:.
348:)
344:(
20:(
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