245:
445:
20:
361:
123:
288:
32:
267:, which Jerome also had available, translated the verse as "Moses knew not that the appearance of the skin of his face was glorified." Medieval theologians and scholars believed that Jerome had intended to express a glorification of Moses' face, by his use of the Latin word for "horned." The understanding that the original Hebrew was difficult and was not likely to actually mean "horns" developed during the Renaissance.
279:. Given that Moses was the holder of the old, now replaced, law, it may have been preferable to Jerome to portray him in a negative light. Furthermore, implying that Moses' face was "glorified" would imply an association with Jesus, and place the Old Law on a parallel with the new. Thus Bertman concludes Jerome may simply have been acting on his own biases and theological preferences.
523:, a change represented in art by the "horns" or rays. Logically, in narrative images he should only have been shown with these visible from this point in his life onwards, but artists did not always follow this and he is often shown with them in earlier episodes. By the 19th century some images of the infant Moses in scenes of the
375:
depicting Moses with horns, this is sometimes done to depict him in glory, as a prophet and precursor of Jesus, but also in negative contexts, especially about
Pauline contrasts between faith and law; the iconography was not clear-cut. Art historian Debra Strickland identifies the horned Moses on the
425:
functioned as an important means for theological ideas to be disseminated. Stage depictions of Moses may have commonly featured him with horns. Although stage directions for him to be horned are found in only one preserved play, it may also be that it was such a normal expectation that it would have
315:
translation made before about 1050. Mellinkoff argues that
English art of this period was innovative, so a new interpretation and depiction of Moses would be in keeping with other new ideas found from the period. She also argues that it is important that the depiction occurs in a vernacular text, as
270:
The cultural historian
Stephen Bertman argues that Jerome is known himself to have held antisemitic views, and may have made the choice to associate Moses with "horns" consciously for theological reasons. Bertman argues that for Aquila, as a Jew, "horns" as presented in the Old Testament, would have
235:
as a metaphor for "glorified", based on other commentaries he wrote, including one on
Ezekiel, where he wrote that Moses' face had "become 'glorified', or as it says in the Hebrew, 'horned'." The use of the term "horned" in fact predates Jerome, and was contained in existing translations he is known
418:
seem to have incorporated a horn. It is also possible that Moses' horned figure served as a means to reinforce the belief that Jews had horns. In any case, such associations in the popular imagination would, in
Bertman, Mellinkoff and Strickland's view, have overriden theological or other concerns.
322:, or "horned", and that Old English artists were not "scholarly", that is they were not necessariy familiar with scholarly traditions that may have led them to depict Moses differently. However, it has often been suggested that the pictures in this are derived from a much earlier manuscript then in
403:
in the later medieval period. Bertman agrees that the medieval perception of Moses with horns would have acted to create associations between Moses and devils. Associations between Jews and devils in
Christian antisemitic imagery were strong, and Jews were sometimes portrayed as having horns. The
105:
Moses with horns probably first appears in visual depictions in the eleventh century. These portrayals continue to compete with unhorned depictions of Moses through the medieval and
Renaissance periods. Many are clearly positive depictions, as a prophet and precursor to Jesus. Other depictions of
503:
episode, and in iconic settings the tablets with the commandments, become his usual attributes with or without the rays or horns, and together with an imposing figure and long white beard, usually make him recognisable even in crowded scenes. Another well known example is the 1544 statue on the
147:
translation spread in the later Middle Ages, and by about 1500 it was realized in scholarly circles that "horned" was a mistranslation. Horns were often replaced by two bunches of rays of light, springing from the same parts of the head, as seen in the 1481–1482 Moses frescoes in the
345:, as well as an Austrian bible. These early images respect the timing of the change in Moses' appearance, showing him without horns before he comes down Mount Sinai. Afterwards, such images proliferated and can be found, for example, in the stained glass windows at
470:. The figure is usually viewed in broadly positive terms, while containing a demotic element. Art historian Jennifer Koosed has argued that the statue is the culmination of the horned Moses tradition, mixing animal and human qualities to present the divine.
240:
from Hebrew to Greek; other translations used included the alternative "glorified". Medjuck argues that "horned" is a metaphorical or allegorical concept relating to glory in both Jerome's translation and Jewish tradition, which Jerome was familiar with.
118:
featuring horns they were mandated to wear; it may have been hard for the images of a horned Moses and the "horned" Jew to have been kept apart in the popular imagination. Horned Moses iconography may also have reinforced the idea that Jews have horns.
160:, Switzerland. These remained common until the 19th century. Artists often ignored the idea that Moses' rays were given to him when he received the tablets of the law, and by the 19th century some images of the infant Moses in scenes of the
477:
developed, awareness that "horned" was a mistranslation gradually spread, and the horns were dropped in art, often replaced by two bunches of rays of light, springing from the same parts of the head, Moses is depicted numerous times in the
97:
may reflect an allegorical concept of "glorified", or rings of light. Horns tend to have positive associations in the Old
Testament, and in ancient middle eastern culture more widely, but are associated with negative forces in the
298:
Although Jerome completed the
Vulgate in the late 4th century, it is usually said that the first known applications in art of the literal language of the Vulgate on this point are found in numerous images in the
198:(1609) translates the Vulgate as, "And when Moses came down from the Mount Sinai, he held the two tables of the testimony, and he knew not that his face was horned from the conversation of the Lord." This was
142:
of c.1513–1515 comes at the end of the tradition of this depiction, and is generally seen as a positive depiction of the prophet, if containing an animalistic or demotic element. Awareness of flaws in the
337:
For the next century or so, evidence for further images of a horned Moses is sparse, although surviving images of him are generally few. Around 1120 he reappears in
English manuscripts such as the
436:(Sermon on the Creed against the Jews, Pagans and Arians) in which Moses and other Old Testament prophets serve as witnesses to persuade Jews of their error in persisting with their beliefs.
244:
226:
of only a few years later has no horns, but a shining face "… when he came down from the mount, that Moses wist not that the skin of his face shone while he talked with him."
512:, Switzerland, with the rays of light added in gilded metal. The presentation of Moses with rays of light reflected the usual view in rabbinical literature by this time.
444:
1218:
79:, and many later vernacular translations dependent on that. Moses is said to be "horned", or radiant, or glorified, after he sees God who presents him with the
342:
426:
been considered unnecessary to state; and stage directions themselves are relatively uncommon. The most commonly known plays to feature Moses are based on
102:
in the New Testament. These considerations may have influenced the translators in their choices, for Aquila as a positive, or for Jerome, as a negative.
194:
chapter 34, specifically verses 29, 30 and 35, in which Moses returns to the people after receiving the commandments for the second time. The Catholic
67:
was presented as having two horns on his head, later replaced by rays of light. The idea comes from a translation, or mis-translation, of a
106:
Moses, horned and unhorned, are likely to have had antisemitic connotations, especially in the later medieval period, for example, on the
515:
The presentation of Moses with rays of light remained common until the 19th century, for example appearing in the Bible illustrations of
419:
In the end, Moses was a Jew, could be associated with contemporary counterparts, and the same negative ideas could be applied to both.
263:
Another interpretation was that qeren also represented 'rings of light' as when Moses became enlightened after his journey. The Greek
488:
229:
The usual view in recent centuries has been that Jerome made an outright error, but it has recently been argued that Jerome regarded
330:
on the illustrations in the manuscript suggests that this ancient prototype drew on ideas about charismatic leadership current in
222:, which often means "horn"); the term is now interpreted to mean "shining" or "emitting rays" (somewhat like horns). The Anglican
110:. Associations between Jews and devils were established, and a belief that Jews possessed horns developed, including through the
486:
of 1481-82, all without horns, but in the last three scenes, after he receives the Commandments, he is given rays of light; the
380:
as an overtly antisemitic example, which she argues is associated with the redefining the Exodus story as a defence of the 1290
1593:
395:
Art historian Ruth Mellinkoff speculated that while the horns of Moses in origin were in no way associated with those of the
87:. The use of the term "horned" to describe Moses in fact predates Jerome, and can be traced to the Greek Jewish scholar
1226:
1565:
1351:
1176:
1143:
1122:
716:
519:(1866). The Bible says that Moses' appearance had changed when he returned from his lengthy encounter with God on
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1306:
1588:
1383:
1330:
746:
646:
623:
400:
1583:
1241:
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473:
By the 16th century, the prevalence of depictions of a horned Moses steeply diminished. As Renaissance
1608:
1135:
Moses the Egyptian in the Illustrated Old English Hexateuch (British Library Cotton MS Claudius B.iv)
553:
271:
generally positive associations, but that Jerome could have expected his readers to have in mind the
19:
1486:
1196:
1187:
531:
168:
1362:
253:
195:
1434:
1341:
545:
387:
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from England. Sometimes Moses appears in a negative context with or instead of the figure of
300:
573:
565:
474:
462:
415:
399:, the horns may nevertheless have developed a negative connotation with the development of
377:
365:
360:
354:
202:'s effort to faithfully translate the difficult, original Hebrew text, which uses the term
137:
126:
107:
40:
1325:. California Studies in the History of Art. Vol. 14. University of California Press.
8:
1519:
1293:
1281:
1157:
549:
1515:
Nouum Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi latine, secundum editionem Sancti Hieronymi
460:
The most well-known depiction of Moses with horns dates to this time, in Michelangelo's
1559:
1509:
1402:
1098:
381:
346:
308:
276:
257:
223:
99:
60:
1245:
1541:
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1347:
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331:
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122:
1598:
1411:
1268:
1205:
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525:
453:
422:
237:
162:
88:
80:
36:
1209:
1081:
Bertman, Stephen (2009). "The Antisemitic Origin of Michelangelo's Horned Moses".
1505:
1320:
1133:
683:
350:
304:
68:
1394:
516:
1308:
Exodus 34:29–35: Moses' "Horns" in Early Bible Translations and Interpretations
1110:
496:
483:
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292:
191:
149:
84:
31:
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672:
1577:
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272:
76:
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1027:
505:
500:
153:
111:
1433:
180:
Depictions of a horned Moses stem from the description of Moses' face as "
1314:(Master of Arts thesis). Department of Jewish Studies, McGill University.
520:
372:
312:
249:
56:
1102:
1460:
1442:
1094:
405:
338:
323:
264:
115:
334:, and the horns were in these images, as horns of power and holiness.
291:
Moses strikes the rock, 1350-1375, Fulda MS of the World Chronicle by
427:
327:
275:
association of horns with dragons, wild beasts and the antichrist in
1528:
544:
A rather late horned Moses, from the 1890s, is the bronze statue by
357:, even as Moses continued to be depicted many times without horns.
1452:
1415:
1500:(According to the Masoretic Text and the JPS 1917 ed.). 1917.
499:, which is first mentioned in the Bible during the account of the
537:
187:
91:, whose Greek translations were well known to Jerome. The Hebrew
44:
835:
317:
199:
72:
24:
1468:
1343:
The Agency of Female Typology in Italian Renaissance Paintings
466:. Its qualities have been extensively discussed, including by
1546:. Translated by William Tyndale. Bible Study Tools. 1522–1535
935:
887:
396:
64:
1376:
Saracens, demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art
509:
157:
979:
923:
316:
it is a literal depiction of the Old English translation,
1395:"Edward I, Exodus, and England on the Hereford World Map"
1156:(1672) . "Chap. IX. Of the Picture of Moses with Horns".
899:
1015:
1450:
Bellarminus, Robertus Franciscus Romulus, ed. (1598) .
1219:"Horny Jew: What's the deal with Michelangelo's Moses?"
967:
991:
1169:
Bronzino's Chapel of Eleonora in the Palazzo Vecchio
433:
Contra Judaeos, Paganos, et Arianos Sermo de Symbolo
408:
mandated in France and elsewhere, were known as the
1470:English translation of the Greek Septuagint Bible
1259:Koosed, J. L. (2014). "Moses: The Face of Fear".
1575:
1162:. Vol. ix (6th ed.). pp. 286–288.
1451:
311:B.iv.) a heavily illustrated manuscript of the
1467:
1298:Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700
738:
535:show the rays (an idea with support from the
1322:The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought
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829:
817:
805:
761:
706:
694:
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1378:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1339:
1131:
1021:
841:
326:, and now lost. Herbert Broderick, in a
1526:
1216:
1056:
657:
642:
443:
414:(horned hat) and the badges enforced by
359:
286:
243:
236:to have worked with, especially that of
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30:
18:
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1089:(4). Purdue University Press: 95–106.
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627:
603:
175:
1240:
591:
1138:. London: University of Notre Dame.
1073:
190:translation of the passage found at
1504:
619:
13:
1424:
1188:"Shedding Light on Michelangelo's
1171:. University of California Press.
282:
14:
1620:
1529:The Bible, Douay-Rheims, Complete
1436:Contra Judaeos paganos et Arianos
1346:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
1393:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2018).
1374:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2003).
1363:"Moses' Shining or Horned Face?"
1067:Library of Congress, online tour
224:King James or Authorised Version
1246:"Moses, Michelangelo (1513–16)"
1061:
1050:
1039:
1036:, p. Note 59 on Chapter 7.
1003:
947:
911:
871:
859:
847:
823:
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779:
767:
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732:
1432:Augustinus, Aurelius (1841) .
700:
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662:
651:
636:
613:
585:
1:
1564:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1305:Medjuck, Bena Elisha (1998).
1210:10.1001/archdermatol.2011.225
579:
1594:Cultural depictions of Moses
1340:Olszewski, Edward J (2023).
800:, pp. 97–101; see also
371:In the Christian art of the
7:
1282:"Ki Tissa: Horns of Light""
1186:Hoenig, Leonard J. (2011).
1167:Cox-Rearick, Janet (2023).
1132:Broderick, Herbert (2017).
559:
248:Moses with horns, with the
132:, detail of the horned head
10:
1625:
186:" ("horned") in the Latin
1361:Strawn, Brent A. (2021).
1319:Mellinkoff, Ruth (1970).
1273:10.1163/15685152-02245p03
554:Thomas Jefferson Building
452:and the tablets with the
440:Renaissance and later art
213:
203:
1217:Holloway, Simon (2009).
600:Blech & Doliner 2008
492:is the first of these.
489:Descent from Mount Sinai
1518:. Vol. 1. Oxford:
1459:(in Latin) – via
1441:(in Latin) – via
1280:Lebens, Samuel (2020).
1267:(4–5). Brill: 414–429.
1261:Biblical Interpretation
1197:Archives of Dermatology
1113:; Doliner, Roy (2008).
844:, pp. 60–61, 65–6.
725:, pp. 97–98, 106,
532:Moses in the Bullrushes
318:
169:Moses in the Bullrushes
16:Iconographic convention
1604:History of translation
556:, in Washington D.C..
457:
432:
410:
386:
368:
295:
260:
254:illuminated manuscript
231:
218:
208:
182:
136:Michelangelo's horned
133:
93:
48:
28:
1589:Christian iconography
1540:"Exodus chapter 34".
1159:Pseudodoxia Epidemica
880:, pp. 125–133;
546:Charles Henry Niehaus
447:
401:anti-Jewish sentiment
382:Expulsion of the Jews
363:
301:Old English Hexateuch
290:
247:
125:
59:convention common in
34:
22:
1498:Hebrew–English Bible
1294:MacCulloch, Diarmaid
956:, pp. 133–137,
574:Hereford Mappa Mundi
482:fresco cycle in the
475:Biblical scholarship
416:Philip III of France
378:Hereford Mappa Mundi
366:Hereford Mappa Mundi
364:Horned Moses on the
355:Notre Dame Cathedral
252:, in a 13th-century
212:(based on the root,
108:Hereford Mappa Mundi
41:Nuremberg Chronicles
35:Moses receiving the
1584:Antisemitism in art
1520:The Clarendon Press
1510:White, Henry Julian
1115:The Sistine Secrets
944:, pp. 135–136.
932:, pp. 101–103.
896:, pp. 436–437.
550:Library of Congress
548:in the hall of the
343:Shaftesbury Psalter
176:Etymological origin
172:feature the rays.
1479:Douay–Rheims Bible
1454:Vulgata Clementina
1223:galusaustralis.com
1154:Browne, Sir Thomas
1117:. Harper Collins.
1095:10.1353/sho.0.0393
964:, pp. 101–103
960:, pp. 106–7,
920:, pp. 133–137
776:, pp. 286–288
458:
456:, mid-17th century
369:
347:Chartres Cathedral
309:Cotton MS Claudius
296:
261:
258:William de Brailes
196:Douay–Rheims Bible
134:
100:Book of Revelation
81:tablets of the law
61:Latin Christianity
49:
29:
1534:Project Gutenberg
1300:. London: Viking.
1074:Secondary sources
739:SeptuagintEnglish
713:, pp. 98–105
332:Hellenistic Egypt
1616:
1609:Linguistic error
1569:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1536:
1523:
1506:Wordsworth, John
1501:
1496:"Exodus 34:29".
1492:
1485:"Εξοδος 34:29".
1474:
1464:
1458:
1446:
1440:
1419:
1399:
1389:
1370:
1357:
1336:
1315:
1313:
1301:
1289:
1276:
1255:
1244:(June 7, 2002).
1237:
1235:
1234:
1225:. Archived from
1213:
1182:
1163:
1149:
1128:
1106:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1054:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1034:Cox-Rearick 2023
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
988:, pp. 32–3.
983:
977:
971:
965:
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
909:
903:
897:
891:
885:
875:
869:
868:, pp. 65–74
863:
857:
856:, pp. 61–65
851:
845:
839:
833:
832:, pp. 14–15
827:
821:
820:, pp. 13–14
815:
809:
795:
789:
783:
777:
771:
765:
764:, pp. 74–90
759:
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666:
660:
655:
649:
640:
634:
617:
611:
610:, pp. 29–35
606:, p. 1092,
589:
526:Finding of Moses
454:Ten Commandments
435:
413:
391:
321:
234:
221:
215:
211:
205:
185:
163:Finding of Moses
96:
89:Aquila of Sinope
37:Ten Commandments
1624:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1557:
1556:
1549:
1547:
1512:, eds. (1889).
1427:
1425:Primary sources
1422:
1397:
1386:
1354:
1333:
1311:
1242:Jones, Jonathan
1232:
1230:
1179:
1146:
1125:
1111:Blech, Benjamin
1076:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1010:Mellinkoff 1970
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
986:Mellinkoff 1970
984:
980:
974:Augustinus 1841
972:
968:
958:Strickland 2003
954:Mellinkoff 1970
952:
948:
942:Mellinkoff 1970
940:
936:
928:
924:
918:Mellinkoff 1970
916:
912:
906:Strickland 2018
904:
900:
894:Strickland 2018
892:
888:
884:, pp. 9–10
878:Mellinkoff 1970
876:
872:
866:Mellinkoff 1970
864:
860:
854:Mellinkoff 1970
852:
848:
840:
836:
830:Mellinkoff 1970
828:
824:
818:Mellinkoff 1970
816:
812:
806:Strickland 2018
796:
792:
784:
780:
772:
768:
762:Mellinkoff 1970
760:
756:
747:Exodus 34:29–35
743:SeptuagintGreek
737:
733:
721:
717:
707:Mellinkoff 1970
705:
701:
695:MacCulloch 2004
693:
689:
684:Exodus 34 29-34
682:
678:
667:
663:
656:
652:
647:Exodus 34:29–35
641:
637:
624:Exodus 34:29–35
618:
614:
602:, p. 238,
598:, p. 238,
596:Mellinkoff 1970
590:
586:
582:
562:
448:With rays, the
442:
423:Religious plays
411:pileus cornutus
351:Sainte-Chapelle
305:British Library
285:
283:In medieval art
178:
152:or on the 1544
127:Michelangelo's
17:
12:
11:
5:
1622:
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1416:10.1086/696540
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1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1069:
1060:
1049:
1038:
1026:
1024:, p. 120.
1022:Olszewski 2023
1014:
1002:
1000:, p. 242.
990:
978:
966:
946:
934:
922:
910:
908:, p. 106.
898:
886:
870:
858:
846:
842:Broderick 2017
834:
822:
810:
790:
778:
766:
754:
745:, p. 34;
731:
715:
709:, p. 77;
699:
687:
676:
661:
650:
635:
612:
583:
581:
578:
577:
576:
571:
569:(Michelangelo)
561:
558:
497:Staff of Moses
484:Sistine Chapel
450:Staff of Moses
441:
438:
293:Rudolf von Ems
284:
281:
177:
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150:Sistine Chapel
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506:Mosesbrunnen
501:Burning bush
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156:fountain in
154:Mosesbrunnen
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57:iconographic
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1488:Greek Bible
1204:(9): 1092.
1046:Lebens 2020
998:Koosed 2014
802:Strawn 2021
787:Strawn 2021
774:Browne 1672
751:Strawn 2021
727:Strawn 2021
669:Hebrew 1917
628:Strawn 2021
604:Hoenig 2011
521:Mount Sinai
406:Jewish hats
373:Middle Ages
313:Old English
277:Revelations
250:Golden Calf
47:with colour
1578:Categories
1461:Wikisource
1443:Wikisource
1385:0691057192
1332:0520017056
1233:2009-09-08
804:n.39, and
592:Jones 2002
580:References
339:Bury Bible
324:Canterbury
265:Septuagint
1560:cite book
785:See also
428:Augustine
328:monograph
206:,
75:'s Latin
27:, c. 1500
1403:Speculum
1296:(2004).
1103:42944790
560:See also
430:'s text
388:Synagoga
319:gehyrned
216:
71:term in
63:whereby
43:, 1493,
23:Italian
1599:Vulgate
1550:18 July
620:Vulgata
538:Midrash
188:Vulgate
183:cornuta
145:Vulgate
83:in the
55:are an
45:woodcut
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1083:Shofar
353:, and
349:, the
238:Aquila
200:Jerome
192:Exodus
112:badges
73:Jerome
69:Hebrew
25:fresco
1398:(PDF)
1312:(PDF)
1190:Moses
1099:JSTOR
567:Moses
463:Moses
397:Devil
256:, by
232:qeren
219:qeren
214:קֶרֶן
209:qāran
204:קָרַן
139:Moses
129:Moses
94:qāran
65:Moses
1566:link
1552:2024
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