History of Punjab - Knowledge

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in the Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it `Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."

3558: 5230: 6042: 6009: 6630: 6056: 6694: 5782: 4118: 3739: 5434:). His first attempt was a failure. Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again. This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking 4160:. Alexander besieged the city after arriving there some days later. During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander reputedly leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he killed the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The Greek army thereafter started killing civilians and animals and whatever came in their way to take revenge of their injured leader. The Mallian army eventually surrendered, preventing further bloodshed. 5005: 6167:. The first time Ahmad Shah invaded Hindustan, the Mughal imperial army checked his advance successfully. Yet subsequent events led to a double alliance, one by marriage and another politically, between the Afghan King and the Mughal Emperor. The battle of Panipat was the effect of this political alliance. After the victory of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Durrani became the primary ruler over Northern India. The influence of Durrani monarch continued in Northern India up to his death. 5049: 6370: 13581: 4371: 2527: 4449: 9002:"I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the level of the earth as did the chambers above." 13328: 6755: 6272:

invasion, Singh had recovered his own fort at Rohtas. During the second invasion, he had emerged as a leading Sikh chief. After the third invasion, he had decisively defeated Zamah Shah. This had eventually led to the takeover of Lahore in 1799. In 1809, Singh signed the Treaty of Amritsar with the British; in this treaty, Singh was recognised as the sole ruler of Punjab up to River Sutlej by the British.

3822:) in central Punjab, in c. 14th century BCE, between the Bharata clan on the one hand and a confederation of ten tribes on the other. The ten tribes pitted against Sudas comprised five major tribes: the Purus, the Druhyus, the Anus, the Turvasas and the Yadus; in addition to five minor ones: the Pakthas, the Alinas, the Bhalanas, the Visanins and the Sivas. Sudas was supported by the Vedic 7915:, p. 29 "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4–6 million people." 6487:. In his Burahin-i-Ahmaddiya, which was meant to rejuvenate Islam on the basis of the Quran, he had attempted to refute both Christian missionaries, and Hindus and Sikhs. In another work, Ahmad argued that Guru Nanak was a Muslim. He interpreted Jihad as a peaceful method, and declared himself to be the Messiah. This was met with significant controversy. 6712: 6618:. A strong supporter of colonial rule, the Unionists were weakened by the war as they were directed to sacrifice their political interests to support the war effort. Unable to placate their traditional support base with benefits from the colonial administration, they suffered a loss of authority which led to their disastrous performance at the 7484:. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the 10674: 9492:

picture of my father and grandfather, they accompanied me, many of them armed with swords and bows, and our numbers increased daily; and when we reached this city, the inhabitants, with torches lit at the altar of the Sun, and singing the praises of my father and grandfather, came out and welcomed me, and brought me hither.

6916:, Gandhi further called in Indian troops to extinguish the few militants who had taken shelter in the Golden Temple, killing thousands of civilians in the crossfire. Attacks then targeted the Punjab State police and Indian Security forces that opposed the creation of Khalistan and wished Punjab stay under Indian rule. 6334: 6994:"When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278 5664:. Various road and irrigation projects were taken under his rule, and the rule had patronized Persian culture. Despite this, there was still persecution of the local Hindu people as many temples, such as that of Mathura, were destroyed and had a system of widespread discrimination against Hindus. The rule of 6276:

come in and take over control of the area. After the British victories at the battles of the Sutlej in 1845–46, the army and territory of the boy Raja Duleep Singh was cut down. Lahore was garrisoned by British troops, and given a resident in the Durbar. In 1849, the British had formally taken control.

4082:. Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused. This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus. Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 9448:

How on this his father, then sixteen years of age, fled to the king beyond the Hydaspes, a greater king than himself, who received him kindly... he requested to be sent to the Brahmans; and how the Brahmans educated him; and how in time he married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, and received with

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McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p. 377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to

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Menander king in India, known locally as Milinda, born at a village named Kalasi near Alasanda (Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus), and who was himself the son of a king. After conquering the Punjab, where he made Sagala his capital, he made an expedition across northern India and visited Patna, the capital

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he bought the boy by paying on the spot 1000 kdrshapanas. Kautilya(Chanakya) then took the boy with him to his native city of Takshasila (Taxila), then the most renowned seat of learning in India, and had him educated there for a period of seven or eight years in the humanities and the practical arts

5226:, established an independent kingdom in western Afghanistan with Ghazni as its capital. When the Ghaznavids began expanding eastwards they came into conflict with the Hindu Shahis. This led to the Hindu Shahi ruler to form an alliance with Rajput rulers in the Punjab to check the Ghaznavid expansion. 5028:

at Taxila, a high center of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where apparently some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. One

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The king then told how his father, the son of a king, had been left very young an orphan; and how during his minority two of his relatives according to Indian custom acted as regents, but with so little regard to law, that some nobles conspired against them, and slow them as they were sacrificing to

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Philostratus comments that the people who live between the River Kophen and Taxila have a coinage not of gold and silver but of Orichalcum and black brass. He describes the houses as designed so that if you look at them from the outside, they appear to have only one storey, but if you go inside they

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Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro near the banks of the Indus,

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The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for 'Five rivers' the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point

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led fifty riflemen from the 1/9th Gurkhas, 54th Sikhs, and 59th Sikhs into the Bagh and ordered them to open fire into the crowd that had gathered there. The official number of deaths, as reported by the British government, was given as 379 killed, but some reports claimed that more than 1,000 were

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Despite these developments, colonial rule was marked by exploitation of resources. For the purpose of exports, the majority of external trade was controlled by British export banks. The Imperial government exercised control over the finances of Punjab and took the majority of the income for itself.

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destroyed the last remains of Kushan rule. In the early 3rd century BC, a union formed between the Punjab janapadas to expel the Kushans, resulting in a Kushan defeat and them being pushed all the way out of Eastern Punjab. Thus starting the fall of the empire and resulting in a century of peace in

6566:. They were also responsible for the bombing of the Legislative Assembly in Delhi on 8 April 1929. The three believed that the nonviolent movement was a failure. Nevertheless, the use of violence in the Indian independence movement became unpopular after the execution of the trio on 23 March 1931. 6490:

In the first and second decades of the early 20th century, the idea of Hindu and Muslim separation had become an active political tone. Muslims were told to remain aloof of the Indian National Congress, the main body seeking Indian Independence, because there was a general fear that representation

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in western Punjab between 1860 and 1947 brought 14 million acres of land under cultivation, and revolutionised agricultural practices in the region. To the agrarian and commercial class was added a professional middle class that had risen the social ladder through the use of the English education,

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Colonial rule had a profound impact on all areas of Punjabi life. Economically it transformed the Punjab into the richest farming area of India, socially it sustained the power of large landowners and politically it encouraged cross-communal co-operation amongst land owning groups. The Punjab also

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Within ten years of Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the Empire was taken over by the British who had already more or less exerted indirect or direct influence throughout the Subcontinent. At Lahore, there were increasing levels of nobles vying for power. A growing instability, allowed the British to

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In 1799, a process to unify Punjab was started by Ranjit Singh. Training his army under the style of the East India Company, he was able to conquer much of Punjab and surrounding areas. The invasions of Zaman Shah, the second successor of Ahmad Shah Abdali had served as a catalyst. After the first

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During the reign of Muḥammad Shah (1719–48), the empire began to decline, accelerated by warfare and rivalries, and. After the death of Muḥammad Shah in 1748, the Marathas attacked and ruled almost all of northern India. Mughal rule was reduced to only a small area around Delhi, which passed under

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who ruled from 1469 to 1498 is considered to most illustrious of the Langah Sultans. Multan experienced prosperity during this time, and a large number of Baloch settlers arrived in the city at the invitation of Shah Husayn. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Delhi Sultans

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Digby, Simon (1976). "Mohammad Habib: Politics and society during the early medieval period. Collected works, Vol. 1. Edited by K. A. Nizami. xx, 451 pp., front. New Delhi: People's Publishing House [for the] Centre of Advanced Study, Dept. of History, Aligarh Muslim University, 1974. Rs.

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It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as

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Subhagasena seems to be the successor of Virasena, who came to the throne after Ashoka, according to Taranatha. It appears that after the secession of the north-western half of India from the Maurya empire after the death of Ashoka, Virasena entrenched his hold over it while the other eastern and

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in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge,

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at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) and re-established Mughal rule. Akbar's son Jahangir had furthered the size of the Mughal Empire through conquest, yet left much of the state bankrupt as a result. He was later buried in Lahore. Jahangir's son Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was known for his

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When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king". Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces

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In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions. Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction. By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all

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occupied the cities of Uch, Multan, Peshawar, Lahore, and Delhi. In 1206, the Ghurid general Qutb-al-din Aybeg and his successor Iltutmish founded the first of the series of Delhi Sultanates. Each dynasty would be an alternation of various inner-Asian military lords and their clients, constantly

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The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large minority population of Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority. The Gurdaspur district which is partially now part of the Indian state of Punjab had a slight Muslim majority (50.2%

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western part became the Pakistani province of West Punjab and the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became the Indian province of Punjab. Many Sikhs and Hindus lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. All

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was established in Lahore, the 4th university to be established in South Asia. In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence

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and many other regions in India His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine.

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When I crossed the Hydraotis, I heard that, of the usurpers, one was already dead, and the other besieged in this very palace; so I hurried on, proclaiming to the villages I passed through who I was, and what were my rights : and the people received me gladly, and declaring I was the very

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was ousted from his ancestral domain in Central Asia. Bābur turned to India and crossed the Khyber Pass. He was able to secure control of Punjab, and in 1526 he decisively defeated the forces of the Delhi sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī at the First Battle of Panipat. The next year, he defeated the Rajput

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As stated, a major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by

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respectively, resisted Mahmud for another quarter of a century and later by Bhimapala and local Ghakkhar chieftains until Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad's victory in Second battle of Tarain in 1192. Mahmud's battles against the Hindu Shahi between 1001 and 1026 were significant in establishing Muslim

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Phraotes, in answer, said that he was moderate because his wants were few, and that as he was wealthy, he employed his wealth in doing good to his friends, and in subsidizing the barbarians, his neighbours, to prevent them from themselves ravaging, or allowing other barbarians to ravage his

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was the second dynasty of the Delhi sultanates, ruling from 1290 to 1320. This dynasty was a short-lived one, and extended Islamic rule to Gujarat, Rajasthan, the Deccan, and parts of Southern India. The first Mongol invasion of Punjab occurred when they were pursuing the Khwarezmian Shah,

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The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi

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Administratively, colonial rule instated a system of bureaucracy and measure of the law. The 'paternal' system of the ruling elite was replaced by 'machine rule' with a system of laws, codes, and procedures. For purposes of control, the British established new forms of communication and

8747:"Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed as within Menander's empire -Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics.", Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India 7927:, p. 387: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity." 4955:, who around 390 AD invaded Punjab and replaced remaining remnants of the Kushans. They seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire, particularly central and western Punjab, until they were displaced by the invasion of the Alchon Huns at the end of the 5th century. 4792:

also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the

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means 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab " for this region. Again it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes

4394:. Following the death of Menander, most of his empire splintered and Indo-Greek influence was considerably reduced. Many new kingdoms and republics east of the Ravi River began to mint new coinage depicting military victories. The most prominent entities to form were the 3938:

had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. Therefore, following Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with the growth of Achaemenid power under the kings

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Chanakya, who is described as a resident of the city of Taxila, returned to his native city with the boy and had him educated for a period of 7 or 8 years at that famous seat of learning where all the ' sciences and arts ' of the times were taught, as we know from the

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in the 1970s, along the lines of Pakistan, which led to a state of emergency being declared by Indira Gandhi, who believed the creation of Khalistan would drastically weaken India, particularly since the Punjab region grew up to 70% of the country's wheat (during the

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killed. There had been many Indian independence movements in Punjab at the time as well. Notably, the actions of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on 17 December 1928 in which the trio was responsible for killing J.P. Saunders in revenge for the latter's killing of

6495:'s demand for separate electorates for Muslims was granted at Amritsar in 1909. The Muslim League also demanded separate electorates in every province, even in those without Muslim majority populations, which was also granted by the Indian National Congress in 1916. 8021:

Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru, he did not probably come to the throne before 540 or 530 bc, and Pukkusati also may be regarded as ruling in Gandhara about that time. He would be thus a contemporary of Cyrus who established his power and authority in 549

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can be strongly attributed to Punjab. Although their distribution patterns are not satisfactorily ascertainable, they are associated with the Porusni, Asikni, Satudri, Vipas, and Saraswati. The rivers of Punjab often corresponded to the eastern Janapadas.

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In 1757, the Sikhs were persistently ambushing guards to loot trains. In order to send a message, and prevent such occurrences from recurring, Ahmad Shah destroyed the Shri Harimandir Sahib and filled the Sarovar (Holy water pool) with cow carcasses.

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Many Janapadas were mentioned from Vedic texts and there was a large level of contact between all the Janapadas with descriptions being given of trading caravans, movement of students from universities, and itineraries of princes. In its heyday, the

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Demetrius died in 166 B.C., and Apollodotus, who was a near relation of the King died in 161 B.C. After his death, Menander carved out a kingdom in Punjab. Thus from 161 B.C. onward Menander was the ruler of Punjab till his death in 145 B.C. or 130

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from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the earlier Indo-Greeks. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE and soon they were replaced with Indo-Parthians by the mid 1st century AD.

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introduced increased provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The

6282: 10258: 4406:. The Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas both are said to have won "victory by the sword" and the Audumbaras are said to of checked the Indo-Greek advance all the way up the upper bari doab, depicting a short Indo-Greek rule in Eastern Punjab. The 4272:

warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans. The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.

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the Reliquary Inscription of Ariaśrava et al (No. 31), dated 98 Azes (50/51 CE), whose donor, Ariaśrava, stipulates her relic dedication was made in the reign of Gondopahres' nephew Abdagases and the General Aśpavarma, son of Indravarma

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reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during the reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology,

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of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.

8714:"A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", 8371:

This tradition is curiously confirmed by Plutarch's statement that Chandragupta as a youth had met Alexander during his campaigns in the Panjab. This was possible because Chandragupta was already living in that locality with Kautilya

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fell in 1528 after an extended siege and Shah Husayn appointed his son Mirza Askari as governor of the city, assisted by Langar Khan, one of the powerful amirs of Sultan Mahmud Langah I. Shortly after Shah Husayn departed Multan for

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and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek and Indian ideas, as seen in the archaeological remains. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of

3840:. This was fought between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Duryodhana, a descendant of Kuru (who was the son of king Samvaran), had tried to insult the Panchali princess Draupadi in revenge for defeating his ancestor Samvaran. 4821:

against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.

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The Mauryan empire proper, north of the line of the Nerbudda and the Vindhya mountains, had pivoted upon three great cities: pataliputra the capital and the seat of the emperor, Taxila the seat of the viceroy of the North

4202:, the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years. 9593:

Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29,

5181:. The Banu Munnabih later gave allegiance to the Abbasids, and remained unchallenged for over a century. Visitors at the time noted the power, prestige and prosperity brought to the region under Banu Munnabih rule. 7586:

The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. In the later period the word

5503:. The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured 6622:

and a breakdown in inter-communal cooperation at a political level. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.

4986:. Between 460 and 470 AD, the Alchons took over Gandhara and Western Punjab which also had remained under the control of the Kidarites, while the Gupta Empire remained further east. Their most famous ruler was 5060:

visited in 630 AD and described it as a large and prosperous kingdom. It ruled the region in 6th and 7th centuries, as evident from the chronicles of Xuanzang and other sources. The capital of the kingdom was

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and abducted in the favour of his son. His successor, Budhan Khan, who assumed the title Sultan Mahmud Shah I, inherited the Sultanate stretched encompassing the neighbouring regions, including the cities of

4665:, and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. The city of Taxila is thought to have been a capital of the Indo-Parthians however this is where the Eastern boundary of the empire was limited to. The Greek philosopher 8455:

Polybius states: "He (Antiochus the Great) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India, renewed his friendship with Sophogsenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had 150 altogether

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following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became

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Maratha (1785) and the British (1803) control. The last Mughal, Bahādur Shah II (reigned 1837–57), was exiled to Burma by the British. Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include

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The apracas were also connected by marital alliance with the Odi kings in the Swat valley since a royal relative and officer named Suhasoma in a Buddhist reliquary inscription of Senavarman was married to

5817:. The history of the Sikh faith is closely associated with the history of Punjab and the socio-political situation in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent in the 17th century. The hymns composed by 9059:

The interesting additional information we get from these coins is that Sasan, a former associate of Gondophares and afterwards one of his successors in the Taxila region, was the son of Aspa's brother

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The Persians indeed summoned the Hydrakai from India to serve as mercenaries, but they did not lead an army into the country and only approached its borders when Kyros marched against the Massagatai.

13536: 3588:, the first to be excavated early in the 20th century in Punjab. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work that had begun after the founding of the 6458:. By patronising influential local allies and focusing administrative, economic and constitutional policies on the rural population, the British ensured the loyalty of its large rural population. 10242: 8392:

According to tradition he began by strengthening his position by an alliance with the Himalayan chief Parvataka, as stated in both the Sanskrit and Jaina texts, Mudradkshasa and Parisishtaparvan.

3833:, sided with the confederation of ten tribes. Sudas had earlier defeated Samvaran and ousted him from Hastinapur. It was only after the death of Sudas that Samvaran could return to his kingdom. 9642:

Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906

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emerged as a major power in the southern Punjab. The newly conquered region became known as Sind and was the easternmost state of the Umayyad Caliphate. Umayyad rule was later replaced with

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king, whilst having one son who was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of

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in India. The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century,

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very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual

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grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help. In 1882,

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confederacy under Rana Sanga of Mewar, and in 1529 defeated the remnants of the Delhi sultanates. At his death in 1530 the Mughal Empire encompassed almost all of Northern India.

5438:, which he did over 1324–1325 AD, after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign. 5140:

was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas. This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI):

6311: 5257:

and seized Hindu Shahi territory north of the river Sindh. In 1006 Mahmud attacked the Kingdom of Multan, returning a few years later to massacre the local Ismaili population.

4844: 5578:). He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh. Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty. Khizr Khan did not take up the title of 6849:, a Sikh-dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, sought to create a Sikh State but idea was not very popular. However, there was push in many regions of India for 4152:

in the south Punjab. The Malli, together with nearby tribe of Oxydracj, gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to fight against an army of 50,000 Greeks. Alexander started his

2459: 8731: 9151:

Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017

8001:

According to the Buddhist account Pukkusati, king of Taksasila, sent an embassy and a letter to king Bimbisara of Magadha and he also defeated Pradyota, king of Avanti.

4341:

The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila,

13569: 8447: 8425: 7727:

Quote: “Soanian and Soanian‐like assemblages are known throughout the entire Siwalik or Sub‐ Himalayan region, from Pakistan to northeast India including Nepal...”

8597:

of the Mauraya empire, though he did not succeed in conquering this land as he appears to have been overtaken by wars on the north-west frontier with Eucratides.

7570: 11487: 476: 4768:

and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe

4631:

noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of

4004:, it further states that the Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of 6388:

Bahawal Khan Abbasi. The role of Bahawalpur state was important as the sole surviving Muslim state in Punjab. On 22 February 1833, Abbasi III entered into a

6257:, and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states. The rebuilt Harminder Sahib was destroyed, and the pool was filled with cow entrails, again. 12306: 10844:

Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398–1526

10814:

Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398–1526

10730:

Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398–1526

4114:

and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.

4713:, after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following 4090:

victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative. Alexander later founded two cities—

13511: 13316: 12123: 8041:

The Behistun inscription of the Achaemenid emperor Darius indicates that Gandhara was conquered by the Persians in the later part of the 6th century BCE.

8034: 7401:

The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata.

5968: 4970:(5th century AD) features two Kidarite royal hunters as well as two Alchon hunters, suggesting a period of peaceful coexistence between the two entities. 9079:

The coins further show that Sasan, who was at first a subordinate ruler under Gondophares, subsequently assumed independent or quasi-independent status.

5986: 5445:

assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach. He attacked and plundered

4512:, a descendant of Viyakamitra, approximately half a century after the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage. 4377:(155–130 BC) is the most famous Indo-Greek king mentioned in both Graeco-Roman and Indian sources. The capital of the Indo-Greeks during his reign was 11365: 7463: 6507:

opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870. The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the

4265:

descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch.

4137:

annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom. The battle is historically significant because it resulted in the

8312: 2369: 7534:

The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words,

10988: 9603:

which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.

5477:

The Tughlaq empire after Muhammed Bin Tughluqs death was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence, it was at this point that

3920: 2429: 7476:

used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g.,

6644: 5125:. He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of 11117: 10939:

History of civilizations of Central Asia, v. 4: THE REGIONS OF SIND, BALUCHISTAN, MULTAN AND KASHMIR: THE HISTORICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SETTING

10215: 2493: 2399: 11694: 6693: 6210:

were under Maratha rule. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas were now major players. As Punjab served as the frontier province of the Marathas,

5763:, however, the governor was thrown out of the city. The rebels under Sultan Mahmud II administered Multan for a time independently but in 1541, 5106:, replaced the Taank kingdom in the Punjab, ruling much of Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan. In the 10th century, the tribe of the 3531:

Relics and human skulls have been found dating back to 5000 BCE in the Pothohar Plateau in north of Punjab that indicate the region was home to

8412:

The army of Malayaketu (Parvataka) comprised recruits from the following peoples : Khasa, Magadha, Gandhara, Yavana, Saka, Chedi and Huna.

6659: 5056:

After the retreat of Huns in the early 6th century, Takkas, an ancient warrior group of Punjab, seized control of the Punjab. The Chinese monk

4999: 13562: 10076: 9512: 8488: 4679:

to have visited India, and specifically the city of Taxila around 46 AD. He describes constructions of the Greek type, probably referring to

2409: 13547: 11971: 9006: 8993: 8885: 5742:

Baloch in 1469 or 1471 and appointed him as "Jagir". The city was invaded during the reign of Sultan Husseyn II by ruler Shah Husayn of the

5319:

vying for power. These sultanates would make Delhi a safe haven for Muslim Turks and Persians who would flee the eventual Mongol invasions.

10758: 8705:

be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."

8648: 2732: 2692: 11025:

Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.

9848: 9765: 9714: 9542: 9025: 8774: 7388: 7091: 452: 12970: 12771: 12348: 7738: 7714: 7676: 7658: 5942:

in the period 1645 to 1656. Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb was deeply religious and undertook extensive campaign in Deccan. He built famous

5715:. He fought off attempts to reinstall Shiekh Yousaf who had taken refuge under Delhi Sultans. Eventually, he signed a peace treaty with 7521: 6574: 10829:

Hoshang tried his luck against Sultan of Delhi but he was beaten back by Mubarak Shah Saiyyad to whom he had to pay a handsome tribute

8854: 8841:

The domain of the Apracas was probably centred in Bajaur and extended to Swat, Gandhara, Taxila and other parts of Eastern Afghanistan

8824: 5894:

in 1556 and re-established the Mughal Empire across the Punjab and northern India. In 1580 the Punjab was divided into two provinces,

9572: 5029:

of the long lasting impact of this was the decline of Buddhism in Punjab, which was soon replaced by Hinduism as the major religion.

4026:

Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as

8515: 7832: 7819:

Paterson, T.T., Drummond, H.J.H., 1962. Soan the Palaeolithic of Pakistan.Department of Archaeology, Government of Pakistan Karachi.

7685:

An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective

7355: 3161:

in central Punjab which attracted many followers. After a long period of anarchy due to decline of Mughals in the 18th century, the

13690: 13555: 13294: 8912: 6619: 5121:

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 BC after it had been lost under his predecessor to the

4635:. A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of 8960: 8856:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

8826:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

13309: 3886: 10034: 5466:

Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351 while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in

13501: 10745:

This considerably depleted Iqbal's strength and encouraged Khizr Khan to collect his forces of Multan, Deopalpur and the Punjab

10438: 9668: 6629: 4797:. This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the 4017: 11781: 6396:, to get protection against the expanding Sikh Empire. When British rule ended in 1947 and British India was partitioned into 6117:, took offence at Guru Hargobind's declaration and after a series of assaults on Amritsar, forced the Sikhs to retreat to the 13340: 13089: 13066: 13048: 13030: 12995: 12964: 12891: 12865: 12835: 12815: 12796: 12765: 12736: 12689: 12662: 12644: 12609: 12567: 12539: 12521: 12493: 12441: 12407: 12387: 12332: 12259: 12217: 12154: 12117: 12090: 12046: 11941: 11791: 11675: 11623: 11481: 11434: 11263: 11148: 10950: 10852: 10822: 10738: 10552: 10525: 10481: 10225: 10170: 10044: 9678: 9186: 9159: 9132: 9102: 9035: 8970: 8922: 8895: 8864: 8834: 8807: 8552: 8525: 8498: 8322: 8226: 7708: 7619: 7424: 7382: 7339: 7310: 7283: 7219: 7085: 6650: 6146: 5344:, and the cities of Multan and Lahore were even sacked. Ultimately, they were defeated during the rule by its able generals, 4888:(Benares). By the 3rd century, their empire in Indian subcontinent was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was 3370: 17: 12841: 12615: 12573: 12265: 11269: 8797: 8558: 8232: 7625: 7430: 6027: 5621:

on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah. He defeated the advancing

10347:

Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233–234

9613: 6150: 5909:

Over the next twentyfour years, the Mughals gradually consolidated power in the Punjab. Campaigns followed to subdue local

5269:

political dominance in the Afghanistan region and surrounding Gandhar region west of Punjab. After Ghazni was conquered by

5184:

Between 982–5, the power of the Banu Munnabih began to erode and Multan was conquered by Halam b. Shayban on behalf of the

5136:

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 BC.

4218:

region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with

4156:

and advanced quickly than the expectations of the Mallians. Many of them were killed and rest fled to the Mallian capital,

4148:

After battle of Hydaspes, Alexander moved further southward during his in Punjab which brought him in confrontation to the

4074:

which was ruled by his extended family. When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in

13685: 10785: 10648: 10383:

Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240

10371:

Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians – The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237

9278:

They are taken to the palace. They found the city divided by narrow streets, well-arranged, and reminding them of Athens.

8076: 7031: 2486: 2219: 6853:

based on language. In Punjab, instead of religion, the Akalis launched the Punjabi Suba movement aimed at creation of a

4422:, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the 13302: 12944: 12466: 11584: 11236: 10577: 10471: 10402: 10143: 10017: 9815: 8467:

Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard; Dodwell, Henry; Wheeler, Sir Robert Eric Mortimer (1968).

8285: 3414: 2897: 7555: 3961:

confirms that his empire had inherited this region from conquests carried out earlier by Cyrus. It is unknown whether

12921: 12589:

Kumar, Sunil (2020). "The Delhi Sultanate as Empire". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.).

12290: 11996: 11536: 11471: 11448: 11060: 11030: 11014: 10876: 10795: 10768: 10698: 10658: 10631: 10621: 10252: 10070: 9825: 9798: 9788: 9759: 9708: 8768: 8589: 8468: 8295: 8180: 6508: 5377: 5200:, that the Friday sermon was in the name of the Fatimid and all decisions are taken in accordance with his commands. 696: 96: 8959:

Fisher, W. B.; Yarshater, Ehsan; Gershevitch, Ilya; Frye, R. N.; Boyle, J. A.; Avery, Peter; Jackson, Peter (1968).

5303:, who described it as a region irrigated by Indus , Jhelum , Lahore (now known as Ravi), Satluj and Beas rivers. 3471:

across what are now India, Pakistan and Nepal. The Soanian culture was a prehistoric technological culture from the

685: 89: 11323: 8989:"Taxila, they tell us, is about as big as Nineveh, and was fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities" 7273: 7256: 6850: 5177:

In the mid 800s, Abbasid authority in Sind weakened and five independent principalities emerged. The Banu Munnabih

3792: 3780: 3776: 3394: 9176: 9122: 9092: 6008: 13247: 13059:

Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries

12303: 10842: 10812: 10728: 10515: 6816: 6763: 6504: 6421: 5946:

in Lahore. Aurangzeb had instilled heavy taxes on Hindus and Sikhs that had later led to an economic depression.

4687:, received a Greek education at the court. The kingdom was conquered in the 1st century AD by the Kushan empire. 4569: 4545: 3366: 3170: 3055:, with Taxila being designated as the provincial capital of the Northwestern territories. After its decline, the 445: 382: 10542: 9027:

Rise of the Tang Dynasty: The Reunification of China and the Military Response to the Steppe Nomads (AD 581–626)

7300: 3836:

A second battle, referred to as the Mahabharat in ancient texts, was fought in Punjab on a battlefield known as

3615:, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their 11827: 9989: 7798: 5923: 5913:

and the Hill forts. The Gakkhars were co-opted and assimilated into the Mughal polity under Kamal Khan, son of

5602:

was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from

3589: 2479: 728: 486: 13268:

The last two dynasties of the Sahis : an analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography

12107: 9149: 6113:, but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The succeeding son of Jahangir, 5426:

During Ghazi Maliks reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to

4788:

is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom.

4030:. The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the 3122:

conquered southern portions of the region up to Multan, which became independent from the caliphate under the

13608: 13577: 11528: 7236: 6512: 5614: 4908:), several "Little Kushans" are known, who ruled locally in the area of Punjab with their capital at Taxila: 3523:, and numerous flake type tools, all occurring in varying typo-technological frequencies at different sites. 2304: 11357: 5882:, about whom he suspected of being friendly with the Mughals. During this period, Sher Shah constructed the 2980:

that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C. The migrating Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the

13521: 13353: 6582: 6578: 4418:. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the 3869: 3410: 2696: 813: 10498: 10454: 10380: 10368: 10344: 10136:

The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys

10036:

The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys

7673: 6446:, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful. In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by 6408:. Bahawalpur remained an autonomous entity until 14 October 1955, when it was merged with the province of 2958:

developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in the

13634: 13388: 8914:

Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200

6800: 6665: 6516: 6381: 5373: 5345: 5137: 4675: 3402: 2414: 2284: 375: 10982: 10711: 10356: 4484:, this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between 13680: 11121: 10197: 6912:, incentives had been provided to the people of Punjab to switch to growing wheat exclusively). During 6219: 6000: 5149: 3977:. The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of 3965:

remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian

3149:, established in 1526 AD, has left an immense cultural and architectural legacy in Punjab. The city of 2464: 438: 34: 7542:(water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features." 5890:. Following the death of Sher Shah, in 1556, the Mughal forces under Humayun defeated Sikandar at the 4141:

of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as

13408: 13348: 12187:

Alram, Michael (2014). "From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush".

11009:

Davies, C. Collin. "Arghun." The Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume I. New ed. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960.

9935:

Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".

7252: 6909: 6727: 6595: 6554: 6542: 6503:

In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and

6041: 5863: 5341: 5254: 3574: 3548: 3484: 3165:

in 1799 unified most of the Punjab region. The region was conquered by the British EIC in 1849 after

2624: 2434: 2394: 2384: 1859: 1453: 802: 674: 13324: 10304:. Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 332. 6865:

state of India in the 1950s.In 1966, it resulted in the formation of the Punjabi speaking -majority

6055: 5629:

and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign. Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of

4299:) invaded Punjab from Bactria in 200 BC, taking advantage of decline of Mauryans. The Greeks in the 13473: 13443: 13022: 11922:

Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.105

9878:, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 97–100 7492:, the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for 6680: 6611: 6538: 6443: 6435: 6033: 5891: 5411: 5079: 4619:

whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with a Buddhist

4249:, and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors, Virasena's successor, 3292: 2721: 2510: 2319: 1233: 1073: 11913:

Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.96

10060: 9504: 6610:. Its influence over the rural population severely limited the local appeal and reach of both the 5249:

succeeded his father in 997, and began a series of raids into northern India. In 1001 he defeated

4776:, being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe 3872:

attracted students from all over Indian subcontinent as well as those from surrounding countries.

13654: 13368: 11968: 9003: 8990: 8643: 6615: 6603: 6587: 6492: 6352: 6318: 6223: 5669: 4411: 4262: 3695: 3091: 2919: 2595: 2424: 2389: 2224: 2004: 1553: 1105: 1034: 12787:

Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017b). "From the Kushans to the Western Turks". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.).

12747:

Afghanistan Revisited: The Brahmana Hindu Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab ( C.840.-1026 CE)

11713:, A History of the Sikhs, Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129 8638: 7614:. The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1. 5598:

and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.

4705:, emerged as a figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with 4492:. Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and the rulers of 3067:

successively established reigns in Punjab however during this time a local kingdom known as the

2938:

in India. It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab traces to the

13603: 13531: 13483: 13478: 13413: 13266: 12364: 12226: 10295: 8053: 7471:. Weber. p. 4: "That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is named 6935: 5712: 5508: 5482: 5419: 5393: 5353: 5333: 4304: 4292: 4125: 4097: 4039: 2966: 2890: 2717: 2648: 2339: 2314: 2264: 2204: 1789: 1725: 1523: 739: 614: 12036: 10419: 10327: 10160: 9842: 9749: 9698: 9534: 8758: 7769: 7372: 7209: 7075: 6819:

riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer

4468:

was a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of

3973:

sources claim that he renounced his throne and became a monk after becoming a disciple of the

3807:, Bhalanasas, Visanins, and Sivas were associated with areas in the north and west of Punjab. 3727:. Archaeologically, the time span of these entities corresponds to phases also present in the 3479:

in Punjab, Pakistan. The Soanian culture has been approximated to have taken place during the

13613: 13506: 13458: 12954: 12755: 12342: 11691: 7698: 7413:

Rajesh Bala (2005). "Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab". In Sukhdial Singh (ed.).

6599: 6463: 6439: 6374: 5786: 5435: 4691: 4656: 3516: 3512: 3166: 3064: 2977: 2973: 2707: 2683: 2374: 2344: 2209: 2164: 1994: 1633: 1623: 1593: 1325: 1305: 1166: 535: 497: 221: 13143:

Fenech, Louis E. (2001), "Martyrdom and the Execution of Guru Arjan in Early Sikh Sources",

7511: 7500:

render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."

7460: 5686: 3743: 3671: 110: 13659: 13463: 13448: 13423: 13398: 13393: 13192: 7753: 6808: 6699: 6529: 6515:

linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into

6405: 6288: 5442: 4355: 3993: 3958: 2976:

that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the

2454: 2309: 2294: 2239: 1880: 402: 12235:. Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. 12229:(1992) . "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (ed.). 10298:(1992) . "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Habib, Mohammad; Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad (eds.). 9817:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750

9700:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

9564: 6811:) prior to the partition. Many Muslims fled the partition violence to settle in Pakistan. 4864:

expanded out of central Asia into the Punjab under the leadership of their first emperor,

8: 13585: 13433: 12008:

Talbot, Ian (1993). "The role of the crowd in the Muslim League struggled for Pakistan".

11896:

Railway Development in Colonial Punjab: Social and Cultural Assimilation, Vol. 3, Issue 1

11510: 9320:

and was the residence of a sovereign who ruled over what of old was the kingdom of Porus.

7836: 6925: 6913: 6684: 6591: 6462:

transportation, including post systems, railways, roads, and telegraphs. The creation of

6455: 6389: 6253:, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the 5959: 5951: 5349: 4749: 4666: 4603:

is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the

4300: 4226:. This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and 4211: 4207: 4199: 4043: 4005: 3848: 3843: 3815: 3728: 3612: 3304: 3095: 3087:

cultural zenith occurred during this period in which artwork from the region flourished.

3036: 3020: 2643: 2572: 2234: 1962: 1809: 1503: 1483: 895: 843: 424: 13196: 9109:

In the Indus valley Gondophares was succeeded by his nephew Abdagases and then by Sases.

7757: 7739:"Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment" 6491:

based on elections and employment-based upon competition was not in their interest. The

3269:, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the 13468: 13428: 13418: 13383: 13378: 13223: 13180: 13168: 12196: 11315: 11206: 9482: 9439: 9396: 9353: 9311: 9269: 9227: 8939:"Buddhism and Society in the Indic North and Northwest, 2nd Century BCE–3rd Century CE" 7145: 7027: 6898: 6787: 6741: 6484: 6427: 6302: 6254: 6191: 5914: 5776: 5739: 5524: 5481:, Ghazi Maliks nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of 5478: 5401: 5009: 4951:

started migrating towards Punjab and other regions of Pakistan. First of them were the

4473: 4391: 4331: 4282: 4142: 3784: 3699: 3691: 3631:

systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and

3552: 3520: 3333: 3174: 3056: 2984: 2702: 2653: 2439: 2299: 2279: 1924: 1533: 1443: 1213: 1203: 1136: 1085: 791: 707: 194: 103: 9919: 9889: 9072: 9052: 8405: 8385: 8364: 8343: 8014: 7994: 7652: 7188: 5407: 4958: 3557: 3015:

wherein tribute rendered by Gandhara to him is first documented. A century later, the

13526: 13453: 13438: 13403: 13228: 13210: 13160: 13131: 13085: 13062: 13044: 13026: 13001: 12991: 12960: 12940: 12917: 12897: 12887: 12871: 12861: 12831: 12811: 12792: 12761: 12732: 12716: 12685: 12658: 12640: 12605: 12563: 12545: 12535: 12517: 12489: 12462: 12437: 12403: 12383: 12328: 12321: 12286: 12255: 12236: 12213: 12150: 12113: 12086: 12042: 11992: 11937: 11823: 11787: 11671: 11619: 11580: 11542: 11532: 11477: 11440: 11430: 11307: 11259: 11232: 11198: 11056: 11026: 11010: 10946: 10872: 10848: 10818: 10791: 10764: 10734: 10694: 10654: 10627: 10573: 10548: 10521: 10477: 10398: 10305: 10248: 10221: 10166: 10139: 10066: 10040: 10013: 9985: 9821: 9794: 9755: 9704: 9674: 9474: 9431: 9388: 9345: 9303: 9261: 9219: 9182: 9155: 9128: 9098: 9031: 8966: 8918: 8891: 8860: 8830: 8803: 8764: 8616: 8585: 8548: 8521: 8494: 8318: 8291: 8222: 8176: 7704: 7615: 7420: 7378: 7335: 7306: 7279: 7215: 7081: 6431: 6344: 6164: 6122: 5974: 5822: 5665: 5178: 5171: 5159: 4924:(335–350). They probably were vassals of the Gupta Empire, until the invasion of the 4897: 4500:

The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Viyakamitra, identified as a vassal to

4360: 4086:; the exact site remains unknown. The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive 3997: 3927: 3504: 3464: 3283: 3123: 3119: 3094:

of Punjab occurred in the 5th and 6th century, which were ultimately repelled by the

3008: 2883: 2688: 2666: 2631: 2619: 2449: 2419: 2329: 2269: 2214: 2044: 1934: 1913: 1869: 1839: 1543: 1473: 1463: 1433: 915: 877: 757: 509: 410: 267: 178: 155: 12789:

King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)

12316: 11898:. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research. pp. (80–84). 5797:

A significant event in the late 15th century Punjab was the formation of Sikhism by

5229: 4729:, whilst a numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan togethor with smaller coins of 4315:), and the Indo-Greeks in the present-day north-western Indian Subcontinent. Later, 13618: 13516: 13363: 13358: 13332: 13272: 13218: 13200: 13152: 13123: 12708: 12017: 11987:

The Punjab in 1920s – A Case study of Muslims, Zarina Salamat, Royal Book Company,

8683: 7761: 7455: 7444:

of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus.

6930: 6886: 6858: 6854: 6829: 6783: 6745: 6719: 6607: 6242: 6015: 5806: 5735: 5731: 5707: 5699: 5690:

Approximate territory of the Langah Sultanate at its greatest extent, circa 1475 CE

5681: 5641: 5523:

attacked Punjab however he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by

5520: 5462: 5311: 5246: 5126: 5122: 4982:

during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. They were first mentioned as being located in

4963: 4865: 4849: 4730: 4219: 4153: 4021: 3978: 3944: 3496: 3452: 3398: 3382: 3342: 3186: 3139: 3135: 3044: 3012: 2943: 2927: 2809: 2775: 2673: 2607: 2585: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2444: 2379: 2349: 2334: 2289: 2274: 2259: 2229: 2124: 1819: 1603: 1513: 1392: 1382: 1335: 1264: 1243: 833: 823: 662: 597: 428: 308: 172: 122: 11140: 11118:"The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)" 10244:

Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One

8036:

History Of Ancient And Early Medieval India From The Stone Age To The 12th Century

5024:

The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and

4000:

never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the

13493: 13251: 13079: 13016: 12932: 12909: 12825: 12675: 12634: 12599: 12557: 12479: 12397: 12377: 12310: 12249: 12230: 11975: 11710: 11698: 11613: 11550: 11253: 11101: 10299: 10187: 9010: 8997: 8735: 8610: 8542: 8212: 7680: 7609: 7467: 7416:

Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18–20, 2005: Proceedings

7414: 6874: 6796: 6726:

ordered troops under his command to fire into a crowd of non-violent protestors,

6563: 6356: 6326: 6211: 6199: 6195: 6061: 5943: 5927: 5899: 5895: 5849: 5845: 5814: 5810: 5781: 5657: 5626: 5552: 5548: 5337: 5286: 4738: 4489: 4288: 4254: 4129: 3916: 3904: 3131: 2800: 2727: 2712: 2678: 1902: 1891: 1849: 1829: 1747: 1714: 1295: 1223: 1183: 1095: 1055: 1017: 935: 319: 315: 301: 9621: 8938: 8265:

Arrian (1893). Anabasis of Alexander. George Bell and Sons. OCLC 486120., p. 604

4034:. In 326 B.C. The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as 13373: 13075: 12630: 12399:

The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity

11518: 6882: 6866: 6775: 6703: 6447: 6231: 6227: 6175: 6126: 6098: 6090: 5875: 5867: 5764: 5743: 5716: 5630: 5591: 5544: 5500: 5328: 5315: 5307: 5265: 5114:

formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian

4917: 4853: 4835: 4798: 4616: 4604: 4573: 4521: 4505: 4443: 4419: 4335: 4149: 4117: 4092: 3974: 3908: 3903:

and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of the realm of

3616: 3600: 3318: 3111: 3107: 3028: 2755: 2112: 2064: 1758: 1736: 1704: 1682: 1643: 1573: 1563: 1423: 1156: 966: 468: 341: 334: 294: 201: 114: 13127: 12712: 12379:

A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day

12300:

The Insecurity State: Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India

12021: 10010:

The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation

7765: 7019: 3607:, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial 13674: 13291:

R. M. Chopra, "The Legacy of the Punjab", (1997), Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta.

13214: 13164: 13135: 13012: 13005: 12875: 12720: 12671: 12429: 11514: 11311: 11202: 9478: 9435: 9392: 9349: 9307: 9265: 9223: 7647: 6824: 6749: 6723: 6635: 6558: 6409: 6393: 6118: 6094: 6086: 5992: 5939: 5839: 5802: 5790: 5734:

being unable to hold his trans-Indus possessions, assigned the region around

5661: 5595: 5575: 5512: 5491:. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from 5361: 5270: 5043: 4983: 4913: 4868:. They were descended from an Indo-European, Central Asian people called the 4861: 4831: 4718: 4497: 4453: 4423: 4407: 4370: 4246: 4231: 4195: 4175: 4169: 4075: 4027: 3962: 3892: 3738: 3667: 3644: 3508: 3488: 3472: 3468: 3374: 3350: 3346: 3146: 3099: 3080: 3000: 2935: 2873: 2868: 2526: 2034: 1974: 1799: 1193: 1146: 1126: 1000: 983: 945: 925: 860: 644: 634: 624: 567: 325: 253: 228: 187: 54: 13205: 12901: 12549: 12240: 11554: 11546: 11444: 10309: 8728: 8475:..with whom Antiochus the Great renewed an ancestral relationship in 206 BCE 6985:

Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.

5793:, Pakistan, commemorates the site where Nanak is believed to have been born. 5380:

near Lahore in 1298 where quite a large number of them were taken prisoner.

5004: 3948: 3724: 3079:

in Eastern Punjab resisted their expansions. In the late 1st century AD the

2805: 13276: 13232: 12485: 10424: 10332: 8620: 8218: 6340: 6179: 6097:'s rival claim to the throne. Guru Arjan Dev's death led to the sixth Guru 6047: 5935: 5751: 5653: 5622: 5397: 5099: 5074: 4905: 4872:, a branch of which was known as the Kushans. By the time of his grandson, 4745: 4695: 4670: 4465: 4439: 4342: 4296: 4223: 4059: 4051: 3986: 3788: 3732: 3657: 3636: 3628: 3539:, and who later developed small communities in the region around 3000 BCE. 3448: 3358: 3310: 3246: 3242: 3153:

became one of the largest in the world under Mughals. In the 16th century,

3103: 3068: 3052: 2951: 2154: 2144: 2024: 2014: 1944: 1779: 1769: 1653: 1583: 1365: 1285: 905: 769: 717: 585: 260: 235: 136: 126: 11889: 11887: 9449:

her seven villages as pin-money, and had issue one son, himself, Phraotes.

8887:

Greco-Buddhist Relations in the Hellenistic Far East: Sources and Contexts

8156:

Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean".

6234:, Ahmad Shah Abdali captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and 3891:

During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King

3799:, and others were associated in Punjab and the Indo-Gangetic plain. Other 12475: 12417: 11523: 11424: 10278: 10276: 8208: 6862: 6771: 6767: 6292: 6266: 5996: 5978: 5883: 5516: 5118:. Three of the most notable rulers were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala. 5087: 5083: 5017: 4975: 4948: 4942: 4909: 4794: 4757: 4714: 4706: 4662: 4640: 4636: 4612: 4590: 4577: 4561: 4509: 4501: 4399: 4308: 4250: 4107: 4031: 3990: 3982: 3954: 3940: 3837: 3620: 3604: 3593: 3536: 3406: 3362: 3354: 3271: 3266: 3162: 2939: 2817: 2770: 2174: 2134: 2094: 1493: 1355: 1345: 355: 242: 12200: 11319: 11295: 11210: 11186: 9486: 9462: 9443: 9419: 9400: 9376: 9357: 9333: 9315: 9291: 9273: 9249: 9231: 9207: 7241:. State Museum, Department of Languages & Culture, Himachal Pradesh. 7149: 7133: 5874:

Bābur's son Humāyūn (reigned 1530–40 and 1555–56) had lost territory to

5668:, the last Lodi emperor, emperor was a weak one and was eclipsed by the 5048: 4363:

in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been a

11884: 10420:

The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911

8078:

Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian by Mccrindle, J. W

6878: 6534: 6369: 6348: 6297: 6295:. It was built by Ranjit Singh in 1818 to celebrate his capture of the 6114: 6102: 6074: 5818: 5798: 5640:, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of 5567: 5540: 5528: 5487: 5458: 5369: 5261: 5215: 5209: 5203: 5193: 4987: 4979: 4889: 4876:, the empire spread to encompass much of south Asia at least as far as 4765: 4722: 4701:, as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of 4596: 4586: 4565: 4557: 4469: 4403: 4386: 4374: 4316: 4312: 4138: 4103: 4035: 4001: 3923:, Pukkusāti might have acted as a bulwark against the expansion of the 3852: 3830: 3819: 3719: 3632: 3476: 3460: 3456: 3418: 3386: 3258: 3250: 3158: 3127: 3076: 2970: 2959: 2923: 2918:

region which is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in the

2855: 2851: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2084: 1984: 1694: 287: 13244: 13172: 10273: 6479:

A highlight of religious controversy during this time was that of the

5129:'s preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding 4552:, designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to 3369:

was a large administrative region encompassing the present-day Indian

12232:

A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526)

11740:

The History of Punjab from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time

11229:

Transnational Soldiers: Foreign Military Enlistment in the Modern Era

10301:

A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526)

8695:"Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p. 83. 8434:

southern half of the country passed under the domination of Samprati.

7513:

History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time

6965: 6904: 6846: 6820: 6480: 6215: 6130: 5955: 5910: 5637: 5633:

and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.

5454: 5431: 4952: 4938: 4925: 4725:

is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of

4702: 4644: 4624: 4600: 4537: 4529: 4238: 3912: 3880: 3826: 3708: 3582: 3532: 3480: 3422: 3276: 3262: 3060: 2847: 2843: 2825: 2821: 2813: 2790: 2054: 246: 7882: 7794: 7696: 6511:

in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The

5617:

after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as

4647:, describing the joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians. 4448: 4182:

held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with

3106:

in the early medieval period. Between the 8th and 12th century, the

3024: 13580: 13156: 12681: 11429:. Richard André. Barraud. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 45. 10003: 10001: 8274:

Dodge, Theodore (1890). Alexander. New York: Da Capo Press. p. 604.

7331: 6903:

Sikhs called for the creation of a separate Sikh homeland known as

6401: 6160: 6134: 6106: 5879: 5607: 5587: 5492: 5250: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5057: 4967: 4921: 4885: 4873: 4839: 4814: 4806: 4789: 4785: 4777: 4753: 4734: 4684: 4632: 4581: 4553: 4493: 4481: 4395: 4338:

and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.

4269: 4258: 4227: 4203: 4191: 4187: 4067: 4066:

had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities. He (alongside

3970: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3896: 3860: 3796: 3755: 3687: 3663: 3624: 3566: 3084: 3072: 3048: 3016: 3004: 2996: 2981: 2931: 2785: 2567: 2518: 2404: 1315: 780: 557: 547: 145: 130: 11508: 11473:

Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707–1803)

6467:

which opened up new professions in law, government, and medicine.

5519:

and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute. During his time Tatar Khan of

5068: 5037: 4756:

in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between the

3023:. The Janapadas exhibited resistance to his advances, notably the 11988: 11813: 11811: 11809: 11807: 11805: 11803: 11392: 10443:. North-Western provinces and Oudh government Press. p. 144. 9467: