Vedic period - Knowledge

849: 782: 6529:: "The 'revisionist project' certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise. Though the ones pursuing this project use dialectic methods quite effectively, they frequently also turn traditional Indian discussion methods and scholastic tricks to their advantage The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the 'truth' of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at 'rewriting' history out of national pride or for the purpose of 'nation building'." 4126:

stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs. In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top. After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another. Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry. Pottery is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead. Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave. Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.

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painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age. The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas. Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips. There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".

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the end of Harrapan culture. This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors. This pottery was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad. This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with the culture.

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of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities. Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt. There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.

121: 6726: 6984: 7196: 477: 439: 2912: 555: 3204: 901:(horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of 3192: 3820: 3492:, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver. 3634:). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine 6486:, p. 186: "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent." 612:. In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)." Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion, the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream. 3381:, the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley: along with the growth of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the Upanishads and the subsequent 848: 6630:, p. 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from mediaeval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." 3043:. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared. The wife enjoyed a respectable position. People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled 4090:(2nd millennium CE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the 3171:, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period." 6308:"The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a 6299:, contains 1,028 hymns, some of which may be as old as 1500 BCE. Because the Vedic texts are the primary way in which we can understand the period between the fall of the IVC (ca 1700) and the second wave of urbanization (600 BCE), we call the intervening era of South Asian history the 'Vedic Period.'" 4129:

Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece. Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels. Most

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Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district. It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between the Indus Valley civilization and

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In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system. To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox

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plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

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Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus. These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation. This culture is thought to occur in 3

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traders, but the evidence for this is slim. Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of

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comments: "...the parallels between the Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above.

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associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher

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priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and the Vedic

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had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic

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The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab. It differed from the

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is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period. It's also thought that the groups that introduced the

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characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose rituals that also served to

3312:(polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as 3757:. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute. Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. 769:. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the 264:. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and 6295:, p. xxiv: "Although the Vedas are essentially liturgical documents and increasingly mystical reflections on Vedic ritual, they are sufficiently rich and extensive to give us some understanding of what life was like at the time. The earliest of the Vedas, the 6537:

However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religion-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus."

6335:, University of Minnesota Press: "Patriarchal culture entered Siam late, through the royal family, which, though to this day Buddhist, in the late Sukhothai period—as Angkor long before it—imported brahminical priests and, with them, Vedic patriarchal culture." 3730:, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common 3401:

itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy. Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society.

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and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic

6471:) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."Narasimhan et al. state that there was no genetic impact from Bactria-Margiana populations on the ancestry of South Asians. 438: 3364:, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic context. The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack of cities; Bellah compares this to early 876:, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox 3162:

indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as

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focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations. Various artefacts may belong to the

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The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:

6328:, Penguin UK: "The Vedic patriarchal culture was defined by an extremely aggressive need to establish a social order that catered to male sexuality, both on earth and in the heavens—among humans and also among the gods." 3392:

According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple

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The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the

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are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states

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which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as

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is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."

3158:. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like 3418:, to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in large jars. War bounty was also a major source of wealth. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings ( 6731: 6729: 639: 1400–1000 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised 325:

were adopted, which allowed for the clearing of forests and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns,

6375:, pp. 33, 35 states that they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone and "chased them to the extremities of Central Eurasia." 1055:," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Greater Magadha reached its zenith under the 798:

leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The

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and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic."

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IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."

657:) and (present-day) Tajikistan. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the 3638:—into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'. 1051:) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in " 6200: 4025: 9552: 3426:), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the 9560: 7960: 6954: 6552: 6312:

of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present"

6459:, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the 6342:, Concept Publishing Company: "But the most important transformation that occurred in the patriarchal Vedic society is the exclusion of women from the sacrifices." 4217: 3498:

in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were

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Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a

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refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (

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is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the

988:. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. 765:, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of 3519:) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities. 6110: 7792: 6170: 3963:: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the 6234: 6140: 3147:

as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole. Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like

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endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three

6150: 2555: 1737: 1612: 7744: 6511:, p. 7: "This does not mean that the Indigenous Aryan position is historically probable. The available evidence by no means denies the 3785:, but interpret the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of 6567:

cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."

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and the Indo-Iranian religion. Funeral sacrifices from the Sintashta culture show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the

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The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after the collapse of the

649:, while, according to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the 2947: 6523:, p. 342 used the term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents. 9689: 2441: 3137:

place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The

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The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the

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of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, which continued in the Kingdoms of the

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elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic text. Its time span likely corresponds to the

3974:(MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware culture from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the 3925:, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of 9591: 9570: 9462: 9441: 9404: 9386: 9363: 9322: 9279: 9258: 9238: 9200: 9066: 8932: 8884: 8846: 8816: 8793: 8772: 8751: 8724: 8588: 8565: 8524: 8504: 8484: 8463: 8440: 8332: 8313: 8286: 8262: 8219: 7931: 7554: 7481: 7462: 3256:

was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils.

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The Wonder that was India: A survey of the history and culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims

4094:(1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura. 3320:

increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (

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Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an

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Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans

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Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations".

8660: 8403:. Waterloo, Ontario (Canada); Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey (US): Wilfrid Laurier University Press; Humanities Press. 2966: 1024:

formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.

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into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and

4426: 2041: 8474: 4149:, the timeline of events in ancient Indian history and mythology as narrated in post-Vedic Hindu texts such as the 2965:

While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or

1447: 9714: 6359:, p. 408 states that around 1800–1600 BCE, the Indo-Aryans are believed to have split off from the Iranians. 3601:, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing 3507:. Some of these might have needed full-time specialists. There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of the 3031:, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk 2339: 2036: 7776: 7728: 369: 9298: 6220: 4469: 4227: 4107: 3870: 2064: 388: 83: 9603:

The Gandhara Grave Culture: New Perspectives on Protohistoric Cemeteries in Northern and Northwestern Pakistan

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Kak, Subhash (2005), "Vedic astronomy and early Indian chronology", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie (eds.),

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and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are mentioned. One verse mentions purification of

3100:. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The 2940: 2824: 1322: 6443:, pp. 454–455, at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god 3533: 3240:

could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear.

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The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

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Selective remembrances: archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts

9433: 7770: 6155: 6025: 3731: 3023:, such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility: 2301: 280: 9429: 9423: 4161:, envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received by the 2046: 9694: 8342: 8305: 6205: 4115: 4091: 2829: 2799: 832:

which reflected a division of labor among various social classes". The Vedic period estates were four:

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system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were a "hierarchical

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Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the

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Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; Bernardos, Rebecca (2019).

6493:, pp. 460–461 note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency" as to the 3220:

Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a

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Worlds together, worlds apart: A history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present

8345:(2002). "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization". In K. N. Panikkar; T. J. Byres; U. Patnaik (eds.). 6258: 6253: 6175: 6135: 6125: 5600: 5194: 4543: 4415: 4133: 4082: 4074: 4009: 3766: 3528: 2779: 2568: 2505: 2071: 1792: 807:

related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the

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valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (

3167:, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads. 1340: 1027:

The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of

7808: 6060: 4974: 4814: 3642: 2933: 2915: 2852: 2399: 2351: 2316: 2106: 1312: 527:, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent 417: 9190: 8229:

Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Perspectives",

4038:: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the 3356:, it can be characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic Period. However, 2609: 761:, against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river 8902:

Mishra, Anup (2007), "Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware of Balathal, Upaidur, Rajasthan: A Study",

8628: 8295: 8272: 6165: 6130: 5965: 5745: 5294: 4846: 4775: 3241: 2589: 2346: 2199: 2031: 1930: 1625: 1482: 744: 261: 9168:(2008). "The Aryan homeland debate in India". In P. L. Kohl; M. Kozelsky; N. Ben-Yehuda (eds.). 3773:". Vedic religion survived in the srayta ritual, whereas ascetic and devotional traditions like 1697: 9684: 9674: 8802: 6494: 6080: 6055: 6005: 5945: 5530: 5466: 5264: 4480: 4355: 4111: 3866: 3858: 2921: 2897: 2454: 1956: 1327: 688: 683: 585: 559: 392: 9581: 9452: 9312: 9269: 9228: 8514: 8494: 8451: 7802: 7786: 7754: 7738: 936:(approximately between 900 and 750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of 9669: 9376: 9248: 8920: 8428: 8024: 6115: 6085: 5950: 5905: 5735: 5374: 5364: 5334: 5066: 5046: 4907: 4276: 4238: 4078: 2136: 1772: 1407: 504: 256:

texts which formed the basis of the influential Brahmanical ideology, which developed in the

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rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king

8960: 8243: 6502: 6498: 6195: 6050: 6035: 5980: 5621: 4087: 4032:(N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political centre of the Vedic period. 3398: 2814: 2584: 2261: 2226: 2024: 1757: 1677: 1387: 1382: 1167: 829: 593: 523:

before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in the

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Jamison, Stephanie W.; Witzel, Michael (2003). "Vedic Hinduism". In Arvind Sharma (ed.).

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Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present

8254:

India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200

6268: 5975: 5703: 5550: 5244: 5224: 4636: 4584: 4013: 3102: 2789: 2141: 1750: 1692: 1347: 1302: 799: 609: 345:. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called 243: 231: 208: 131: 39: 9177: 9153: 9111: 9019: 8984: 6180: 6040: 6020: 5665: 5274: 5184: 4954: 4944: 4877: 4826: 4532: 4448: 4177:(aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE. The 4146: 3946: 3862: 3360:

observes that it is difficult to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a

2887: 2819: 2804: 2794: 2774: 2739: 2714: 2689: 2572: 2131: 2096: 2006: 1961: 1917: 1762: 1422: 1307: 1036: 933: 895:

The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the

733: 601: 589: 512: 501: 455: 421: 338: 78: 9314:

A History of Ancient and Early Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

8066: 3074:

The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the

337:. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic 28: 9628: 9587: 9566: 9534: 9458: 9437: 9410: 9400: 9382: 9359: 9336: 9318: 9294: 9275: 9254: 9234: 9196: 9157: 9080: 9062: 9041: 9024: 9006: 8928: 8880: 8852: 8842: 8812: 8789: 8768: 8747: 8730: 8720: 8656: 8614: 8584: 8561: 8520: 8500: 8480: 8459: 8436: 8404: 8328: 8309: 8282: 8258: 8215: 7550: 6190: 6160: 6070: 6065: 6010: 5955: 5785: 5675: 5654: 5610: 5580: 5284: 5214: 5204: 5174: 4656: 4618: 4498: 4250: 3950: 3770: 2809: 2709: 2535: 2510: 2311: 2221: 2211: 2186: 1727: 1687: 1547: 1537: 1392: 1292: 1267: 1127: 1115: 973: 957: 888:, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern 569: 524: 520: 429: 377: 212: 3857:

is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common

3071:

was used. Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes.

2356: 984:

By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called

120: 9333:

History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century

9250:Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600 9165: 9145: 9014: 8996: 8970: 8916: 8238: 8207: 6248: 6185: 6120: 6090: 6075: 6030: 6015: 6000: 5970: 5865: 5560: 5344: 5254: 5133: 5123: 5076: 5005: 4984: 4574: 4564: 4403: 4338: 4187:, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of 4103: 4081:

during the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the

3679: 3469: 3361: 3301: 3168: 3080: 3068: 3007: 2970: 2749: 2500: 2485: 2465: 2406: 2291: 2251: 2151: 2119: 2051: 1986: 1887: 1867: 1777: 1632: 1532: 1477: 1432: 1417: 969: 902: 853: 824: 710:

and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (

384: 365: 216: 176: 49: 4073:

In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the

2515: 9622: 9353: 9056: 8874: 8806: 8783: 8575: 8555: 8299: 8276: 7544: 6767: 6765: 5643: 5632: 5590: 5570: 5488: 5455: 5036: 4964: 4924: 4836: 4796: 4758: 4676: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4051: 3964: 3365: 3324:) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. 3236:. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The 2892: 2784: 2679: 2634: 2550: 2525: 2381: 2361: 2321: 2266: 2156: 2011: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1882: 1607: 1592: 1527: 1377: 1317: 1182: 1098: 1060: 1052: 993: 762: 678: 650: 488: 342: 292: 8895:

The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World

8544:

Rethinking the Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to the Education of the Dharma King

8456:

The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States

8433:

The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States

3978:

and the subsequent eastward shift of the political centre from the Kurus to the

9548: 9506: 8420:

The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity

6273: 5853: 5805: 5499: 5477: 5445: 5423: 5384: 5314: 5304: 5164: 4897: 4707: 4209: 4188: 4068: 3739: 3499: 3473: 3349: 3272:

was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the

2882: 2754: 2639: 2594: 2458: 2231: 2181: 1912: 1682: 1495: 1352: 1282: 1202: 1076: 1072: 1021: 965: 889: 276: 141: 9454:

A history of Indian literature: Introduction, Veda, epics, purānas and tantras

9149: 8950:

Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018),

6762: 4039: 4021: 3569: 3382: 476: 350: 9663: 9556: 9414: 9308: 9010: 8856: 8734: 8429:"The prelude to urbanization: ethnicity and the rise of Late Vedic chiefdoms" 6555:: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the 6451:, which according to Anthony was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion." 5775: 5715: 5540: 4934: 4887: 4867: 4741: 4724: 4686: 4666: 4601: 4385: 4375: 4365: 4308: 4183: 3687: 3373: 3357: 3139: 2847: 2684: 2604: 2599: 2426: 2371: 2366: 2126: 2101: 2091: 2081: 1966: 1877: 1872: 1842: 1797: 1767: 1732: 1542: 1512: 1132: 1080: 1056: 1017: 940:

emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is today northern

925: 885: 766: 581: 516: 180: 9001: 6455:, p. 454: "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, 3292:

performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.

2699: 2644: 2271: 2241: 1028: 9372: 9028: 8365:

The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate

6456: 6448: 6382: 5895: 5885: 5765: 5755: 5685: 5520: 5510: 5394: 5324: 5106: 5026: 4646: 4326: 4174: 4162: 3975: 3954: 3836: 3735: 3683: 3537:

A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of

3386: 3353: 2862: 2857: 2744: 2729: 2629: 2619: 2614: 2540: 2530: 2470: 2411: 2376: 2176: 2086: 1837: 1832: 1502: 1412: 1152: 1084: 985: 873: 865: 770: 724: 666: 346: 330: 299:, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a 257: 97: 9553:"Beyond the Flight of the Falcon: Early 'Aryans' Within and Outside India" 8609:

Holdrege, Barbara A. (2004), "Dharma", in Mittal, S.; Thursby, G. (eds.),

272: 9618: 9473:

Dialectes dans les Litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 97–265.

9349: 9220:

The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century

6577: 6365:, p. 454 states that one of these Indo-Aryan groups would found the 5915: 5875: 5835: 5234: 5096: 5086: 4150: 3885: 3802: 3651: 3623: 3464: 3411: 2669: 2624: 2579: 2520: 2490: 2480: 2386: 2306: 1976: 1892: 1822: 1782: 1567: 1437: 1297: 1147: 1068: 997: 961: 577: 540: 536: 508: 446: 300: 288: 284: 9533:(1st paperback ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 68–71. 9115: 753: 6340:

A Dictionary of the Vedic Rituals: Based on the Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras

5825: 5725: 5435: 4043: 3832: 3794: 3565: 3378: 3245: 3047:(not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn. 2867: 2674: 2495: 2171: 1971: 1787: 1667: 1637: 1517: 1372: 1106: 897: 857: 838: 748: 654: 554: 9511:"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts" 8925:

The Arthasastra: Selections from the Classic Indian Work on Statecraft

8692: 3723: 3385:

movements, and the end of the Vedic Period, which was followed by the

972:; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king 9529:

Witzel, Michael (2005). "Vedas and Upaniṣads". In Gavin Flood (ed.).

5795: 4005: 3993: 3970: 3917: 3828: 3727: 3557: 3538: 3450:

refer to iron-welders. However, philological evidence indicates that

3191: 3089: 3067:), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a 2872: 2769: 2759: 2256: 2236: 1647: 1642: 1397: 1367: 1357: 1242: 1227: 1192: 910: 881: 329:, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the 3581: 3580:

connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17

3541:, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life 3297: 877: 861: 334: 8975: 8965: 8452:"City states of North India and Pakistan at the time of the Buddha" 7159: 7157: 6576:

According to Erdosy, this battle provided a prototype for the epic

6145: 5056: 4521: 4298: 4288: 4154: 4001: 3979: 3942: 3906: 3585: 3561: 3462:, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the post-Rigvedic 3394: 3164: 3113: 2877: 2704: 2421: 2416: 1991: 1981: 1827: 1717: 1712: 1657: 1652: 1587: 1582: 1402: 1262: 1252: 1247: 1222: 1157: 1064: 1048: 1013: 929: 928:, and the political center of Vedic culture shifted east, into the 906: 532: 358: 326: 322: 101: 9481:"Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State" 9133: 9095:

The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization

8982: 8325:

Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age

6771: 3607: 3203: 747:, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day 7990: 7101: 6366: 6263: 5354: 4259: 4158: 3900: 3853: 3819: 3790: 3786: 3778: 3711: 3695: 3597: 3577: 3550:

Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four

3093: 3085: 2969:

was absent, the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of

2734: 2659: 2475: 2276: 2216: 2166: 2161: 2146: 1996: 1937: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1812: 1702: 1672: 1662: 1577: 1562: 1467: 1462: 1362: 1287: 1272: 1217: 1187: 1177: 1044: 1040: 1005: 1001: 953: 914: 833: 816: 803:

Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.

672: 645: 621: 617: 528: 354: 253: 9291:

The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation

8708:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

8672:

Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From

8631:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

8577:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

8557:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

8374:

Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History

7345: 7321: 7297: 7208: 7154: 3967:. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the 3655:. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like 1522: 8574:

Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),

8554:

Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), "Hinduism", in Joseph Kitagawa (ed.),

7411: 6996: 5154: 4055: 4029: 3983: 3880: 3691: 3656: 3646: 3481: 3369: 3308:

was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of

3097: 2764: 2694: 2654: 2649: 2545: 2431: 2326: 2296: 2206: 1951: 1947: 1847: 1802: 1722: 1597: 1572: 1277: 1237: 1232: 1212: 1207: 1162: 949: 937: 918: 812: 318: 296: 105: 9562:

Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins

8985:"The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia" 8037: 8035: 8033: 7500: 7261: 6642: 6580:, Hiltebeitel calls this idea a "particularly baffling fancy." 3410:

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of

8764:

A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India

7859: 7399: 7050: 6830: 6828: 6444: 3814: 3750: 3719: 3715: 3703: 3699: 3671: 3660: 3631: 3619: 3615: 3592: 3552: 2719: 2664: 2246: 2001: 1807: 1707: 1602: 1557: 1552: 1507: 1472: 1427: 1197: 1172: 1122: 1032: 1009: 945: 941: 842: 758: 728: 662: 631: 547: 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at 383:

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan

368:

that would remain influential. Vedic religion developed into

220: 9653:

The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE – 500 BCE)

8537:, vol. 49, Cambridge University Press, pp. 187–190 8112: 8110: 8108: 8106: 7978: 7919: 6385:, who were pursued by the Iranians "across Iran into India." 924:

The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic

776: 8327:(1st ed.). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 8030: 7718: 7716: 7273: 5815: 3798: 3774: 3707: 3675: 3635: 3084:

hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—

2724: 1817: 1452: 1142: 1137: 989: 707: 466: 9422:

Trigger, Bruce G. (2003). "States: City and Territorial".

9355:

Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights

7512: 7374: 7372: 6825: 6813: 3738:

cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in

539:) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian 8681:"New reports clearly confirm 'Arya' migration into India" 8602:

Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative

8103: 7883: 7871: 7677: 7067: 7065: 7013: 7011: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6701: 6699: 4140: 3754: 3260:

had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (

789:(c. 1000–600 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture 706:

contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the

8056: 8054: 8052: 8050: 7966: 7895: 7713: 7665: 7653: 7629: 6532:

In her review of Bryant's "The Indo-Aryan Controversy,"

4102:

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic

3839:

is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.

8655:. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 65–113. 8401:

The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature

8281:, Scholarly Publishing Office, University of Michigan, 8160: 7849: 7847: 7701: 7619: 7617: 7615: 7590: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7582: 7580: 7578: 7440: 7438: 7389: 7387: 7369: 7285: 7174: 7172: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7040: 7038: 6686: 6684: 6388:

For an overview of the current relevant research, see:

3614:

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (

9471:

Witzel, Michael (1989), "Tracing the Vedic dialects",

9425:

Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study

9399:(4th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 9138:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

8356:

Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India

8172: 8133: 8131: 8129: 8127: 8125: 8093: 8091: 8089: 8087: 8085: 8083: 8081: 7689: 7524: 7488: 7469: 7450: 7062: 7023: 7008: 6972: 6852: 6840: 6777: 6696: 3197:

Ancient Indian antennae sword; metalwork, 1500–500 BCE

9293:. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. 8839:

The dawn of civilization – Earliest times to 700 B. C

8150: 8148: 8146: 8047: 8002: 7938: 7357: 7251: 7249: 7247: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7235: 7089: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6716: 6714: 6659: 6657: 1000:), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. 615:

The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the

600:

cultures are candidates for cultures associated with

364:

The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of

9451:

Winternitz, Moriz; Sarma, Vuppala Srinivasa (1981),

8184: 7907: 7844: 7641: 7612: 7575: 7543:

Wan, Peter P.; Reins, Thomas D. (17 February 2021).

7435: 7423: 7384: 7333: 7220: 7169: 7142: 7125: 7113: 7035: 6908: 6881: 6801: 6681: 4077:, but the following millennium, coinciding with the 2973:. Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where 8945:, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 8717:

Military manpower, armies and warfare in South Asia

8700:

Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research

8693:"On the Chronological Framework for Indian Culture" 8496:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

8122: 8078: 7832: 7820: 7600: 7563: 7309: 6960: 6932: 6920: 6898: 6896: 6789: 6463:. He was associated more than any other deity with 6286: 3921:. Many of these texts are largely derived from the 3805:, are essential parts of these later developments. 3345:), and tribal principalities had emerged in India. 3055:were popular drinks in the Vedic society, of which 2993:(non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom. The words 8143: 7232: 7184: 7077: 6869: 6741: 6711: 6654: 6583: 6515:—that of external Aryan origins and, if anything, 6381:, p. 34 states that the other group were the 4165:thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of 3252:was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, 372:, and around the beginning of the Common Era, the 9428:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9134:"Kuru kings, Tura Kavaseya and the -tvaya Gerund" 8949: 6669: 6474: 515:represented a sub-group that diverged from other 500:, which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of 9661: 9583:Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult 8741: 8020: 6893: 6435: 6433: 3957:, dating from c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE. 3649:tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the 3458:refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or 9450: 8953:The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia 8914: 8828:"The Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age" 8781: 8742:Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). 8633:. London and New York: Routledge (Book review)" 8458:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–122. 7865: 7351: 7327: 7303: 7214: 7163: 7056: 6648: 6621: 6542: 6292: 3726:gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially 1039:. Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the 727:connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes 317:culture spread eastward to the fertile western 8435:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–98. 3414:and agriculture. There are references, in the 3377:structure social relations. The period of the 673:Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE) 8650: 7984: 6627: 6430: 6369:kingdom in northern Syria (c. 1500–1300 BCE). 6228: 3945:in north-western India, corresponding to the 3472:culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an 3468:, and therefore the Early Vedic Period was a 3228:was restricted by the tribal councils called 2941: 1035:texts, and at the same time the beginning of 9288: 9176: 8892: 8833:. In Ahmad Hasan Dani; V. M. Masson (eds.). 8782:Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998), 8760: 8744:The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development 8372:Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie, eds. (2005), 8371: 8228: 7956: 7405: 6520: 6490: 3769:formed one of the main constituents of the " 3765:Around the beginning of the Common Era, the 3670:The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were 3005:, but they are not associated with the term 736:culture, a difference also noted by Samuel. 9267: 8599: 8573: 8553: 8541: 8392:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archeology 8041: 7930:sfn error: no target: CITEREFSinghalGupta ( 7480:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 ( 7461:sfn error: no target: CITEREFMajumdar1998 ( 7279: 7107: 6735: 6592: 6276:(Contemporaneous period in Iranian history) 3734:religion remain visible, especially in the 2985:(the common people) in the middle, and the 1087:, which resulted in the "Hindu Synthesis". 751:). The battle was fought between the tribe 9518:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) 8629:"Edward F. Bryant and Laurie Patton, eds. 8353: 7071: 6235: 6221: 2948: 2934: 1031:marks a final apex in the codification of 1004:expanded towards the south and settled in 475: 119: 27: 9184:. Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press. 9018: 9000: 8974: 8964: 8767:. Rishikesh, India: Divine Life Society. 8613:, New York: Routledge, pp. 213–248, 8242: 6467:, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from 3702:and Amsa, further nature deities such as 3686:and some deities of social order such as 3174: 948:, reaching its prominence under the king 777:Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE) 743:. Most notable of such conflicts was the 698:), associated with Vedic material culture 580:cultures have often been associated with 219:when the Vedic literature, including the 60: 9644:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 9164: 9131: 9122: 9101: 9074: 9054: 8940: 8872: 8835:History of civilizations of Central Asia 8608: 8512: 8294: 8008: 7996: 7972: 7925: 7877: 7817:, "Notes on the translation": pp. xii–x. 7814: 7695: 7683: 7659: 7542: 7475: 7456: 7417: 7029: 6990: 6783: 6611: 6598: 6589:Witzel's study is furthermore cited by: 6407: 6378: 6372: 3818: 3760: 3532: 3035:, would you impart to me endless wealth. 2981:(tribal nobility) stood at the top, the 1059:. Meanwhile, the Achaemenid invasion of 847: 780: 682: 558:Archaeological cultures associated with 553: 376:formed one of the main constituents of " 361:) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. 230:–900 BCE), was composed in the northern 9579: 9421: 9230:Ancient Indian History And Civilization 9092: 8801: 8714: 8626: 8492: 8449: 8426: 8394:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press 8389: 8383:Gandhara Grave Complex in West Pakistan 8206: 8072: 7838: 7826: 7766: 7494: 7202: 7017: 7002: 6978: 6863: 6846: 6834: 6533: 6452: 6440: 6412: 6402: 6362: 6356: 3911:(containing some 75 mantras not in the 3630:and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras ( 3209:Ancient Indian axe blade, 1500–1000 BCE 3129:is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. 3078:from the people and the emergence of a 979: 9662: 9650: 9641: 9547: 9528: 9505: 9478: 9470: 9394: 9289:Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan (2003). 9246: 9217: 9208: 8901: 8678: 8669: 8417: 8362: 8322: 8271: 8244:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812 8178: 8137: 7901: 7798: 7782: 7750: 7734: 7707: 7623: 7606: 7546:Asia Past and Present: A Brief History 7506: 7444: 7429: 7393: 7378: 7363: 7339: 7291: 7267: 7255: 7190: 7178: 7136: 7095: 7083: 6950: 6914: 6875: 6807: 6795: 6756: 6705: 6690: 6675: 6548: 6526: 6508: 6422: 6417: 6392: 4141:Puranic chronology of the Vedic period 4000:belong to this period, as well as the 444: 9617: 9600: 9371: 9348: 9330: 9307: 9188: 9035: 8923:, in M. McClish; P. Olivelle (eds.), 8893:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006), 8532: 8472: 8250: 8190: 8154: 8116: 8060: 7913: 7889: 7853: 7722: 7671: 7647: 7635: 7594: 7569: 7315: 7226: 7148: 7119: 7044: 6966: 6938: 6926: 6887: 6819: 6720: 6663: 6503:migration out of the Eurasian steppes 6483: 6347: 3572:are also considered to be Vedic. The 3001:occur in various family books of the 952:, whose court provided patronage for 464: 453: 16:Ancient South Asian historical period 9580:Woodard, Roger D. (18 August 2006). 9127:. Britannica Educational Publishing. 8927:, Hackett Publishing, p. xxiv, 8863: 8690: 8381:Dani, Ahmad Hasan (15 August 1966), 8380: 8341: 8097: 7805:, citing Olivelle (1998), pp. xii–x. 7518: 6902: 6397: 3823:An early-19th-century manuscript of 3595:, the composers of the hymns of the 3300:rituals) to strengthen the emerging 1012:which was governed from its capital 1008:. To the south of their kingdom was 714:) or obey the commandments of gods ( 610:indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans 507:and started to inhabit the northern 9624:The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism 9531:The Blackwell companion to Hinduism 9488:Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 9268:Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). 9226: 9077:The Vedic Experience: Mantramañjari 9040:. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. 8825: 8705: 8398: 8367:, New York: Oxford University Press 8166: 7944: 7530: 4118:and the Painted Grey Ware culture. 3059:was sanctified by religion. Flute ( 2282:Western Mexico Shaft Tomb Tradition 905:, the division of Vedic society in 841:and many Sutras important to later 793:After the 12th century BCE, as the 13: 9705:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures 9611: 9182:Political History of Ancient India 9079:, Bangalore: Motilal Banarsidass, 8719:. London: Pickering & Chatto. 8679:Joseph, Tony (13 September 2019), 8385:, Pakistan: University of Peshawar 3268:). The main responsibility of the 1079:. This period culminated with the 932:kingdom on the Ganges, under King 14: 9731: 9601:Zahir, Muhammad (15 April 2016), 9038:Axiological approach to the Vedas 8873:Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977), 8513:Griswold, Hervey De Witt (1971), 4191:, is dated in this chronology at 3941:). This is the time of the early 3781:acknowledge the authority of the 3545: 992:, a small kingdom to the east of 505:migrated into north-western India 275:with precision by speakers of an 9646:, University of California Press 9586:. University of Illinois Press. 8640:Journal of Indo-European Studies 8533:Hedge, K.T.M. (2 January 2015), 6605: 4216: 3879:: This period includes both the 3714:(the earth). Goddesses included 3202: 3190: 2911: 2910: 1683:Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans 996:(on the door step of modern-day 718:). Their speech is described as 437: 9690:Iron Age cultures of South Asia 8808:The Origin of the Indo-Iranians 7536: 6570: 2977:(tribal king or chieftain) and 852:Modern replica of utensils and 234:, between the end of the urban 9627:. Malden, MA (US): Blackwell. 9195:, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 8627:Jamison, Stephanie W. (2006). 8535:The Painted Grey Ware of India 8479:, Cambridge University Press, 8390:Darvill, Timothy, ed. (2009), 8214:. Princeton University Press. 6315: 6302: 4470:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 4181:, the background-scene of the 4108:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 4097: 4062: 3953:(PGW) cultures, and the early 3871:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 837:era texts including the early 389:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 84:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture 1: 9036:Nigal, Sahebrao Genu (1986). 8546:, University of Chicago Press 8493:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011), 8354:Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007), 6636: 6614:, pp. 350–351 remarks: " 5400: 5139: 5112: 5011: 4990: 4913: 4852: 4781: 4764: 4747: 4730: 4713: 4692: 4607: 4590: 4344: 4192: 3808: 3749:are based on the concepts of 3663:etc. trace their root to the 3641:Vedic people believed in the 3442:refers to iron and the words 3438:. Some scholars believe that 692: 636: 548: 544: 307: 246: 242:, which began in the central 224: 207:), is the period in the late 197: 151: 9222:, Cambridge University Press 8841:. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 8761:Krishnananda, Swami (1994). 8231:Annual Review of Linguistics 8021:Krishan & Tadikonda 1996 4555:Northern Black Polished Ware 864:ritual originating from the 809:Northern Black Polished Ware 641:Proto-Indo-European religion 271:The Vedas were composed and 260:, a tribal union of several 7: 9680:Ancient history of Pakistan 9317:, Pearson Education India, 9271:A Dictionary of Archaeology 9247:Sharma, Ram Sharan (1990). 9132:Proferes, Theodore (2003). 9075:Panikkar, Raimundo (2001), 9061:, Oxford University Press, 8516:The Religion of the Ṛigveda 8476:An Introduction to Hinduism 8075:, "ochre‐coloured pottery". 7866:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7352:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7328:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7304:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7215:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7164:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 7057:Kulke & Rothermund 1998 6649:McClish & Olivelle 2012 6559:for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The 6293:McClish & Olivelle 2012 6151:Influence on Southeast Asia 4201: 3522: 3133:and verse 13.8.3.11 of the 1020:and parts of North Western 535:area (present-day northern 335:orthodox sacrificial ritual 268:to be traced and inferred. 10: 9736: 9395:Tignor, Robert L. (2014). 9213:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 9189:Reddy, K. Krishna (2011), 9123:Pletcher, Kenneth (2010). 9055:Olivelle, Patrick (1998), 8943:Hinduism. Past and present 8746:. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 8604:. Oxford University Press. 8454:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.). 8431:. In F. R. Allchin (ed.). 8323:Bellah, Robert N. (2011). 8306:Princeton University Press 8199: 6333:The Alphonso Lingis Reader 4533:Black and Red ware culture 4116:Black and red ware culture 4092:Black and red ware culture 4066: 3937:verbal stem (for Rigvedic 3915:), and the mantras of the 3883:and prose language of the 3812: 3793:. Later texts such as the 3643:transmigration of the soul 3526: 3405: 3117:sacrifice depended on the 3019:are absent. Verses of the 2960: 1090: 944:of India and southeastern 676: 415: 411: 406: 397:black and red ware culture 9720:Historical Vedic religion 9651:Prasad, R. U. S. (2020), 9494:(4): 1–26, archived from 9381:, John Wiley & Sons, 9274:. John Wiley & Sons. 9233:, New Age International, 9218:Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), 9150:10.1017/S0041977X03000120 9097:, Oxford University Press 8897:, Oxford University Press 8864:Long, Jeffrey D. (2013), 8600:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). 8542:Hiltebeitel, Alf (2001), 8499:, John Wiley & Sons, 7985:Jamison & Witzel 2003 7549:. John Wiley & Sons. 6628:Jamison & Witzel 2003 6259:Indus Valley civilisation 6254:Historical Vedic religion 4544:Painted Grey Ware culture 4416:Indus Valley Civilisation 4134:Painted grey ware culture 4075:Indus Valley Civilisation 3529:Historical Vedic religion 3184: 2072:Indus Valley Civilisation 811:and the Mahajanapadas of 787:Painted Grey Ware culture 498:Indus Valley Civilisation 401:Painted Grey Ware culture 236:Indus Valley Civilisation 172: 164: 147: 137: 127: 118: 92: 74:Indus Valley Civilisation 66: 55: 45: 35: 26: 9710:Bronze Age civilizations 9565:. Aleph. pp. 1–29. 9479:Witzel, Michael (1995), 8866:Jainism: An Introduction 8473:Flood, Gavin D. (1996), 8450:Erdosy, George (1995b). 8427:Erdosy, George (1995a). 8399:Day, Terence P. (1982). 8296:Beckwith, Christopher I. 7999:, pp. 112–115, 125. 7757:, citing Trigger (2003). 7509:, pp. 48–51, ch. 3. 7270:, pp. 48–51, 61–93. 6521:Bryant & Patton 2005 6491:Mallory & Adams 2006 6338:Chitrabhanu Sen (1978), 6331:Alphonso Lingis (2018), 6280: 5195:Gurjara-Pratihara Empire 5175:Eastern Chalukya Kingdom 4776:Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire 4028:, VadhSS). In the east, 3933:, and the spread of the 3718:(the dawn), Prithvi and 3622:of Rigvedic verses (see 3611:means "what is heard"). 3337:), oligarchical states ( 3244:, a noted historian and 2853:Ancient Maritime History 845:culture were completed. 659:Bactria–Margiana culture 629:the oldest layer of the 418:Indo-European migrations 9642:Thapar, Romila (2004), 9457:, Motilal Banarsidass, 9358:, Penguin Books India, 9331:Singh, Upinder (2009), 9253:. Motilal Banarsidass. 9002:10.1126/science.aat7487 8941:Michaels, Axel (2004), 8904:Indian History Congress 8879:, Motilal Banarsidass, 8519:, Motilal Banarsidass, 8418:Erdosy, George (1995), 8042:Shaw & Jameson 2008 7420:, pp. xxviii–xxix. 7005:, p. 375, 408–411. 5295:Western Chalukya Empire 4438:Mature Harappan culture 3264:) and chiefs of sects ( 3242:Arthur Llewellyn Basham 745:Battle of the Ten Kings 560:Indo-Iranian migrations 295:society centred in the 9715:Ancient Indian culture 9093:Parpola, Asko (2015), 8691:Kak, Subhash (2001b), 8363:Bryant, Edwin (2001), 8251:Avari, Burjor (2016). 6772:Narasimhan et al. 2019 6495:Indo-European homeland 6201:Science and technology 4585:Three Crowned Kingdoms 4427:Early Harappan culture 4242:(2,500,000–250,000 BC) 4112:Gandhara grave culture 3867:Gandhara grave culture 3840: 3797:and epics, namely the 3568:as well as the oldest 3542: 3224:. The autonomy of the 3175:Political organisation 3037: 2922:Post-classical History 2898:Cradle of Civilization 1957:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 1658:Massylii Confederation 869: 790: 699: 689:Gandhara grave culture 605: 393:Gandhara grave culture 9209:Rocher, Ludo (1986), 8715:Kaushik, Roy (2013). 8670:Joseph, Tony (2018), 8653:The Study of Hinduism 8347:The Making of History 7521:, p. chapter II. 7110:, p. 2, note 12. 6822:, pp. 30, 33–35. 6447:and the ritual drink 6324:Rita Banerji (2008), 6104:Specialised histories 5375:Kalachuris of Kalyani 5365:Kalachuris of Tripuri 5047:Western Ganga Kingdom 4975:Indo-Sassanid Kingdom 4925:Western Satrap Empire 4908:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 4898:Indo-Scythian Kingdom 4449:Late Harappan culture 4210:History of South Asia 3877:Mantra language texts 3863:Late Harappan culture 3822: 3761:Influence on Hinduism 3618:) which included the 3536: 3316:(supreme ruler). The 3131:Panchavamsha Brahmana 3025: 1668:Kingdom of Mauretania 1043:movements (including 851: 784: 757:, led by their chief 687:Cremation urn of the 686: 665:and the ritual drink 635:, which was composed 557: 487:Bronze Age spread of 370:Brahmanical orthodoxy 353:movements (including 9125:The History of India 8009:Paul & Paul 1989 7997:Paul & Paul 1989 6499:Anatolian hypothesis 5622:Ahmadnagar Sultanate 5424:Late medieval period 5335:Eastern Ganga Empire 5067:Vishnukundina Empire 4088:Copper Hoard culture 4083:early Vedic religion 4079:Indo–Aryan migration 4036:Sutra language texts 4004:, the oldest of the 3990:Brahmana prose texts 3399:Kurukshetra district 3143:visualised the four 2506:Senegambia Megaliths 1758:Proto-Indo-Europeans 1698:Kingdom of the Aurès 1678:Kingdom of Ouarsenis 980:Towards urbanization 661:, including the god 551: 800 BCE. 426:Indo-Aryan migration 9227:Sen, S. N. (1999), 9178:Raychaudhuri, H. C. 9172:. pp. 349–378. 8826:Lal, B. B. (1996). 8422:, Walter de Gruyter 8169:, pp. 412–419. 8119:, pp. 274–293. 7928:, pp. 150–151. 7926:Singhal & Gupta 7892:, pp. 198–199. 7725:, pp. 200–201. 7674:, pp. 204–206. 7638:, pp. 201–203. 7533:, pp. 117–120. 6837:, pp. 410–411. 6269:Indigenous Aryanism 5704:Early modern period 5551:Vijayanagara Empire 5531:Chitradurga Kingdom 5225:Bhauma-Kara Kingdom 4637:Shaishunaga dynasty 3996:proper of the four 3961:Samhita prose texts 3722:(the mother of the 3352:'s analysis of the 3181: 3135:Shatapatha Brahmana 3121:of the sacrificer. 3103:Shatapatha Brahmana 2142:Ancestral Puebloans 1653:Kingdom of Blemmyes 1348:Aegean Civilization 854:falcon shaped altar 822:In this period the 517:Indo-Iranian tribes 333:'s codification of 252:BCE. The Vedas are 244:Indo-Gangetic Plain 240:second urbanisation 232:Indian subcontinent 168:Early Vedic culture 132:Indian subcontinent 115: 96:Late Vedic period, 40:Indian subcontinent 23: 9605:, pp. 274–293 9378:A History of India 8995:(6457). eaat7487. 8785:A History of India 8581:(Digital printing) 6181:Partition of India 6046:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 5994:Regional histories 5939:National histories 5826:Travancore Kingdom 5796:Thondaiman Kingdom 5666:Golkonda Sultanate 5275:Somavamshi Kingdom 5245:Rashtrakuta Empire 5185:Rashidun Caliphate 5107:Kabul Shahi Empire 4955:Nagas of Padmavati 4878:Indo-Greek Kingdom 4818:(230 BC – AD 1206) 4511:Vedic Civilisation 4459:Vedic Civilisation 4356:Ahar-Banas culture 4147:Puranic chronology 3947:Black and Red Ware 3841: 3543: 3179: 3027:O, Indra, fond of 2888:Ancient Literature 2437:Indigenous Peoples 2097:Satavahana Dynasty 1703:Kingdom of Makuria 1673:Kingdom of Nobatia 1663:Kingdom of Numidia 1643:Nasamones Chiefdom 1638:Garamantes Kingdom 1423:Barbarian Kingdoms 1037:Classical Sanskrit 884:and his successor 870: 791: 700: 606: 502:Indo-Aryan peoples 422:Indo-Aryan peoples 273:orally transmitted 128:Geographical range 113: 79:Cemetery H culture 36:Geographical range 22:Early Vedic period 21: 9695:History of Punjab 9593:978-0-252-09295-4 9572:978-93-88292-38-2 9464:978-81-208-0264-3 9443:978-0-521-82245-9 9406:978-0-393-92207-3 9388:978-1-4443-2351-1 9365:978-0-14-309986-4 9324:978-81-317-1120-0 9281:978-0-470-75196-1 9260:978-81-208-0706-8 9240:978-81-224-1198-0 9202:978-0-07-132923-1 9166:Ratnagar, Shereen 9068:978-0-19-283576-5 8934:978-1-60384-903-6 8917:Olivelle, Patrick 8886:978-81-208-0436-4 8848:978-92-3-102719-2 8818:978-90-04-16054-5 8803:Kuzmina, Elena E. 8795:978-0-415-32920-0 8774:978-81-7052-108-2 8753:978-81-215-0565-9 8726:978-1-84893-292-0 8590:978-1-136-87590-8 8567:978-1-136-87597-7 8526:978-81-208-0745-7 8506:978-1-4443-5968-8 8486:978-0-521-43878-0 8465:978-0-521-37695-2 8442:978-0-521-37695-2 8349:. pp. 41–55. 8334:978-0-674-06143-9 8315:978-1-4008-2994-1 8298:(16 March 2009). 8288:978-1-59740-599-7 8264:978-1-317-23673-3 8221:978-0-691-05887-0 8208:Anthony, David W. 7957:Krishnananda 1994 7947:, pp. 42–45. 7904:, pp. 42–43. 7710:, pp. 33–34. 7556:978-1-118-95520-8 7408:, pp. 67–68. 7406:Raychaudhuri 1972 7381:, pp. 48–56. 7354:, pp. 41–43. 7330:, pp. 39–41. 7306:, pp. 39–40. 7294:, pp. 49–50. 7217:, pp. 37–39. 7166:, pp. 37–38. 6708:, pp. 49–52. 6245: 6244: 5930: 5929: 5924: 5923: 5844: 5843: 5746:Thanjavur Kingdom 5694: 5693: 5655:Bijapur Sultanate 5611:Deccan sultanates 5489:Tughlaq Sultanate 5436:Ghaznavid Dynasty 5414: 5413: 5285:Chaulukya Kingdom 5215:Mallabhum kingdom 5205:Umayyad Caliphate 4945:Bharshiva Dynasty 4841:(200 BC – AD 300) 4831:(230 BC – AD 220) 4827:Satavahana Empire 4805: 4804: 4801:(247 BC – AD 224) 4657:Macedonian Empire 4631:(450 BC – AD 489) 4619:Achaemenid Empire 4489: 4488: 4394: 4393: 4317: 4316: 4267: 4266: 4251:Madrasian culture 4046:Sutras, and some 4020:) and the oldest 3951:Painted Grey Ware 3248:, theorises that 3218: 3217: 3214: 3213: 3160:Tattiriya Samhita 3111:. The effects of 2958: 2957: 2536:Sahelian Kingdoms 2511:Pre-Imperial Mali 2187:St. Johns culture 1728:Kingdom of Altava 1723:Kingdom of Alodia 1693:Kingdom of Masuna 1688:Kingdom of Capsus 1538:Kingdom of Simien 1293:Achaemenid Empire 974:Pravahana Jaivali 773:, after the war. 525:Sintashta culture 521:Andronovo horizon 430:Indigenous Aryans 279:language who had 262:Indo-Aryan tribes 186: 185: 114:Late Vedic period 111: 110: 9727: 9700:History of Sindh 9656: 9647: 9638: 9606: 9597: 9576: 9544: 9525: 9515: 9502: 9500: 9485: 9475: 9467: 9447: 9418: 9391: 9368: 9345: 9327: 9304: 9285: 9264: 9243: 9223: 9214: 9205: 9185: 9173: 9161: 9128: 9119: 9110:(1–4): 111–143. 9098: 9089: 9071: 9051: 9032: 9022: 9004: 8979: 8978: 8968: 8958: 8946: 8937: 8911: 8898: 8889: 8869: 8860: 8832: 8822: 8798: 8778: 8757: 8738: 8711: 8702: 8697: 8687: 8675: 8666: 8647: 8637: 8623: 8605: 8593: 8582: 8570: 8547: 8538: 8529: 8509: 8489: 8469: 8446: 8423: 8414: 8395: 8386: 8377: 8368: 8359: 8350: 8338: 8319: 8291: 8268: 8247: 8246: 8225: 8194: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8141: 8135: 8120: 8114: 8101: 8095: 8076: 8070: 8064: 8058: 8045: 8039: 8028: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8000: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7954: 7948: 7942: 7936: 7935: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7880:, p. xxvii. 7875: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7851: 7842: 7836: 7830: 7824: 7818: 7812: 7806: 7796: 7790: 7780: 7774: 7764: 7758: 7748: 7742: 7732: 7726: 7720: 7711: 7705: 7699: 7693: 7687: 7686:, p. xxxvi. 7681: 7675: 7669: 7663: 7657: 7651: 7645: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7621: 7610: 7604: 7598: 7592: 7573: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7516: 7510: 7504: 7498: 7492: 7486: 7485: 7473: 7467: 7466: 7454: 7448: 7442: 7433: 7427: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7382: 7376: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7343: 7337: 7331: 7325: 7319: 7313: 7307: 7301: 7295: 7289: 7283: 7282:, pp. 8–10. 7280:Hiltebeitel 2007 7277: 7271: 7265: 7259: 7253: 7230: 7224: 7218: 7212: 7206: 7200: 7194: 7188: 7182: 7176: 7167: 7161: 7152: 7146: 7140: 7134: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7108:Hiltebeitel 2001 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7060: 7054: 7048: 7042: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7006: 7000: 6994: 6988: 6982: 6976: 6970: 6964: 6958: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6912: 6906: 6900: 6891: 6885: 6879: 6873: 6867: 6861: 6850: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6799: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6775: 6769: 6760: 6754: 6739: 6736:Hiltebeitel 2002 6733: 6724: 6718: 6709: 6703: 6694: 6688: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6652: 6646: 6631: 6625: 6619: 6609: 6603: 6593:Hiltebeitel 2011 6587: 6581: 6574: 6568: 6546: 6540: 6478: 6472: 6437: 6428: 6351: 6345: 6319: 6313: 6306: 6300: 6290: 6249:History of India 6237: 6230: 6223: 6186:Pakistan studies 6026:Himachal Pradesh 5866:Portuguese India 5862: 5861: 5858: 5816:Sikh Confederacy 5712: 5711: 5708: 5561:Bengal Sultanate 5500:Sayyid Sultanate 5478:Khalji Sultanate 5467:Mamluk Sultanate 5432: 5431: 5428: 5409: 5405: 5402: 5345:Kakatiya Kingdom 5255:Paramara Kingdom 5148: 5144: 5141: 5117: 5114: 5057:Kamarupa Kingdom 5020: 5016: 5013: 5006:Kalabhras Empire 4999: 4995: 4992: 4918: 4915: 4902:(50 BC – AD 400) 4882:(180 BC – AD 10) 4861: 4857: 4854: 4823: 4822: 4819: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4769: 4766: 4752: 4749: 4735: 4732: 4718: 4715: 4701: 4697: 4694: 4612: 4609: 4595: 4592: 4575:Haryanka dynasty 4565:Pradyota dynasty 4507: 4506: 4503: 4412: 4411: 4408: 4349: 4346: 4339:Anarta tradition 4335: 4334: 4331: 4299:Mehrgarh culture 4289:Bhirrana culture 4285: 4284: 4281: 4280:(10,800–3300 BC) 4247: 4246: 4243: 4233: 4232: 4220: 4206: 4205: 4197: 4194: 4104:material culture 3680:sacrificial fire 3584:priests and the 3362:complex chiefdom 3302:social hierarchy 3276:(chaplain), the 3206: 3194: 3186: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3169:Patrick Olivelle 3069:heptatonic scale 2950: 2943: 2936: 2914: 2913: 2556:African Kingdoms 2407:Ortoiroid People 2120:Northern America 1943:Bactria–Margiana 1738:African Kingdoms 1713:Nemencha Kingdom 1708:Kingdom of Hodna 1613:African Kingdoms 1513:Kingdom of Kerma 1418:Migration Period 1258:Israel and Judah 1095: 1094: 970:Gargi Vachaknavi 830:order of estates 697: 694: 638: 584:migrations. The 550: 546: 479: 471: 462: 451: 441: 385:material culture 312: 309: 251: 248: 229: 226: 217:history of India 206: 202: 199: 177:Haryanka dynasty 160: 156: 153: 123: 116: 112: 62: 50:Bronze Age India 31: 24: 20: 9735: 9734: 9730: 9729: 9728: 9726: 9725: 9724: 9660: 9659: 9635: 9614: 9612:Further reading 9609: 9594: 9573: 9549:Witzel, Michael 9541: 9513: 9507:Witzel, Michael 9501:on 11 June 2007 9498: 9483: 9465: 9444: 9407: 9389: 9366: 9343: 9325: 9301: 9282: 9261: 9241: 9203: 9087: 9069: 9048: 8956: 8935: 8915:McClish, Mark; 8887: 8849: 8837:. Vol. 1: 8830: 8819: 8796: 8775: 8754: 8727: 8695: 8663: 8635: 8621: 8611:The Hindu World 8596: 8591: 8580: 8568: 8527: 8507: 8487: 8466: 8443: 8411: 8335: 8316: 8289: 8265: 8222: 8202: 8197: 8189: 8185: 8177: 8173: 8165: 8161: 8153: 8144: 8136: 8123: 8115: 8104: 8096: 8079: 8071: 8067: 8059: 8048: 8040: 8031: 8019: 8015: 8007: 8003: 7995: 7991: 7983: 7979: 7971: 7967: 7955: 7951: 7943: 7939: 7929: 7924: 7920: 7912: 7908: 7900: 7896: 7888: 7884: 7876: 7872: 7864: 7860: 7852: 7845: 7837: 7833: 7825: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7797: 7793: 7781: 7777: 7765: 7761: 7749: 7745: 7733: 7729: 7721: 7714: 7706: 7702: 7694: 7690: 7682: 7678: 7670: 7666: 7662:, p. xxvi. 7658: 7654: 7646: 7642: 7634: 7630: 7622: 7613: 7605: 7601: 7593: 7576: 7568: 7564: 7557: 7541: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7517: 7513: 7505: 7501: 7493: 7489: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7460: 7455: 7451: 7443: 7436: 7428: 7424: 7416: 7412: 7404: 7400: 7392: 7385: 7377: 7370: 7366:, pp. 2–8. 7362: 7358: 7350: 7346: 7338: 7334: 7326: 7322: 7314: 7310: 7302: 7298: 7290: 7286: 7278: 7274: 7266: 7262: 7254: 7233: 7225: 7221: 7213: 7209: 7201: 7197: 7189: 7185: 7177: 7170: 7162: 7155: 7147: 7143: 7135: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7072:Bronkhorst 2007 7070: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7043: 7036: 7028: 7024: 7016: 7009: 7001: 6997: 6989: 6985: 6977: 6973: 6965: 6961: 6949: 6945: 6937: 6933: 6925: 6921: 6913: 6909: 6901: 6894: 6886: 6882: 6874: 6870: 6862: 6853: 6845: 6841: 6833: 6826: 6818: 6814: 6806: 6802: 6794: 6790: 6782: 6778: 6770: 6763: 6755: 6742: 6734: 6727: 6719: 6712: 6704: 6697: 6693:, pp. 3–5. 6689: 6682: 6674: 6670: 6662: 6655: 6651:, p. xxiv. 6647: 6643: 6639: 6634: 6626: 6622: 6610: 6606: 6588: 6584: 6575: 6571: 6547: 6543: 6479: 6475: 6438: 6431: 6427: 6352: 6348: 6320: 6316: 6307: 6303: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6241: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6105: 6097: 6096: 6095: 5995: 5987: 5986: 5985: 5940: 5932: 5931: 5926: 5925: 5859: 5856: 5854:Colonial states 5846: 5845: 5736:Madurai Kingdom 5709: 5706: 5696: 5695: 5644:Bidar Sultanate 5633:Berar sultanate 5601:Ladakh Kingdom 5591:Gajapati Empire 5571:Garhwal Kingdom 5456:Delhi Sultanate 5429: 5426: 5416: 5415: 5407: 5403: 5385:Chutiya Kingdom 5355:Zamorin Kingdom 5146: 5142: 5134:Maukhari Empire 5124:Chalukya Empire 5115: 5077:Maitraka Empire 5018: 5014: 4997: 4993: 4985:Vakataka Empire 4965:Sasanian Empire 4916: 4859: 4855: 4837:Kuninda Kingdom 4820: 4817: 4815:Middle Kingdoms 4807: 4806: 4797:Parthian Empire 4788: 4784: 4767: 4750: 4733: 4716: 4699: 4695: 4610: 4593: 4504: 4501: 4491: 4490: 4409: 4406: 4396: 4395: 4347: 4332: 4329: 4319: 4318: 4309:Edakkal culture 4282: 4279: 4269: 4268: 4260:Soanian culture 4244: 4241: 4230: 4204: 4196: 3100 BCE 4195: 4179:Kurukshetra War 4173:of the current 4167:Vaivasvata Manu 4143: 4100: 4071: 4065: 3817: 3811: 3771:Hindu synthesis 3767:Vedic tradition 3763: 3710:(the wind) and 3548: 3531: 3525: 3430:, but the word 3422:) and priests ( 3408: 3366:state formation 3210: 3207: 3198: 3195: 3177: 2963: 2954: 2903: 2902: 2893:Ancient Warfare 2843: 2835: 2834: 2575: 2561: 2560: 2461: 2447: 2446: 2402: 2392: 2391: 2342: 2332: 2331: 2202: 2192: 2191: 2122: 2112: 2111: 2107:Middle Kingdoms 2067: 2057: 2056: 2027: 2017: 2016: 1933: 1923: 1922: 1908:Eurasian Nomads 1903:Five Barbarians 1898:Four Barbarians 1883:Pannonian Avars 1753: 1751:Eurasian Steppe 1743: 1742: 1628: 1618: 1617: 1608:Nilotic Peoples 1533:Kingdom of Axum 1528:Kingdom of Kush 1523:Kingdom of Dʿmt 1498: 1488: 1487: 1343: 1333: 1332: 1118: 1099:Ancient history 1093: 1053:Greater Magadha 982: 860:, an elaborate 785:Pottery of the 779: 696: 1200 BCE 695: 681: 679:Rigvedic tribes 675: 651:Zeravshan River 494: 493: 492: 486: 481: 480: 473: 472: 469: 465: 463: 460: 458: 454: 452: 449: 445: 442: 432: 414: 409: 378:Hindu synthesis 374:Vedic tradition 343:Greater Magadha 310: 293:Late Bronze Age 249: 227: 204: 200: 158: 154: 88: 59:1500-1100 17: 12: 11: 5: 9733: 9723: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9658: 9657: 9655:, Vernon Press 9648: 9639: 9633: 9621:, ed. (2003). 9613: 9610: 9608: 9607: 9598: 9592: 9577: 9571: 9545: 9539: 9526: 9503: 9476: 9468: 9463: 9448: 9442: 9419: 9405: 9392: 9387: 9369: 9364: 9346: 9342:978-8131716779 9341: 9328: 9323: 9309:Singh, Upinder 9305: 9299: 9286: 9280: 9265: 9259: 9244: 9239: 9224: 9215: 9206: 9201: 9192:Indian History 9186: 9174: 9162: 9144:(2): 210–219. 9129: 9120: 9099: 9090: 9085: 9072: 9067: 9052: 9046: 9033: 8980: 8976:10.1101/292581 8966:10.1101/292581 8947: 8938: 8933: 8921:"Introduction" 8912: 8899: 8890: 8885: 8870: 8861: 8847: 8823: 8817: 8799: 8794: 8779: 8773: 8758: 8752: 8739: 8725: 8712: 8703: 8688: 8676: 8667: 8662:978-1570034497 8661: 8648: 8624: 8619: 8606: 8597: 8595: 8594: 8589: 8571: 8566: 8550: 8548: 8539: 8530: 8525: 8510: 8505: 8490: 8485: 8470: 8464: 8447: 8441: 8424: 8415: 8409: 8396: 8387: 8378: 8369: 8360: 8351: 8339: 8333: 8320: 8314: 8292: 8287: 8269: 8263: 8248: 8226: 8220: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8195: 8183: 8181:, p. 122. 8171: 8159: 8142: 8121: 8102: 8077: 8065: 8063:, p. 218. 8046: 8044:, p. 248. 8029: 8013: 8001: 7989: 7977: 7975:, p. 215. 7965: 7949: 7937: 7918: 7906: 7894: 7882: 7870: 7858: 7856:, p. 190. 7843: 7831: 7819: 7807: 7791: 7775: 7759: 7743: 7727: 7712: 7700: 7688: 7676: 7664: 7652: 7650:, p. 204. 7640: 7628: 7611: 7599: 7597:, p. 191. 7574: 7562: 7555: 7535: 7523: 7511: 7499: 7497:, p. 208. 7487: 7468: 7449: 7434: 7422: 7410: 7398: 7383: 7368: 7356: 7344: 7332: 7320: 7308: 7296: 7284: 7272: 7260: 7231: 7229:, p. 200. 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7168: 7153: 7151:, p. 103. 7141: 7124: 7122:, p. 187. 7112: 7100: 7098:, p. 335. 7088: 7076: 7061: 7049: 7047:, p. 192. 7034: 7022: 7020:, p. 462. 7007: 6995: 6983: 6981:, p. 242. 6971: 6959: 6943: 6931: 6919: 6907: 6892: 6890:, p. 186. 6880: 6868: 6866:, p. 454. 6851: 6849:, p. 322. 6839: 6824: 6812: 6800: 6788: 6776: 6761: 6740: 6725: 6710: 6695: 6680: 6668: 6653: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6632: 6620: 6604: 6602: 6601: 6596: 6582: 6569: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6530: 6524: 6513:normative view 6506: 6487: 6473: 6429: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6386: 6376: 6370: 6360: 6346: 6344: 6343: 6336: 6329: 6314: 6310:tape-recording 6301: 6297:Ṛgveda Saṃhitā 6284: 6282: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6274:Avestan period 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6232: 6225: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6209: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6094: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5984: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5868: 5860: 5852: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5842: 5841: 5838: 5832: 5831: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5808: 5806:Maratha Empire 5802: 5801: 5798: 5792: 5791: 5788: 5786:Sikkim Kingdom 5782: 5781: 5778: 5776:Marava Kingdom 5772: 5771: 5768: 5762: 5761: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5718: 5710: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5691: 5688: 5682: 5681: 5678: 5676:Keladi Kingdom 5672: 5671: 5668: 5661: 5660: 5657: 5650: 5649: 5646: 5639: 5638: 5635: 5628: 5627: 5624: 5617: 5616: 5613: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5593: 5587: 5586: 5583: 5581:Mysore Kingdom 5577: 5576: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5523: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5511:Lodi Sultanate 5506: 5505: 5502: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5484: 5483: 5480: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5462: 5461: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5448: 5446:Ghurid Dynasty 5442: 5441: 5438: 5430: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5411: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5317: 5315:Hoysala Empire 5311: 5310: 5307: 5305:Lohara Kingdom 5301: 5300: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5257: 5251: 5250: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5237: 5231: 5230: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5217: 5211: 5210: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5181: 5180: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5165:Tibetan Empire 5161: 5160: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5037:Kadamba Empire 5033: 5032: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4961: 4960: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4947: 4941: 4940: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4821: 4813: 4812: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4761: 4759:Pallava Empire 4755: 4754: 4744: 4738: 4737: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4679: 4677:Seleucid India 4673: 4672: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4629: 4625: 4624: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4604: 4602:Maha Janapadas 4598: 4597: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4550: 4549: 4546: 4539: 4538: 4537:(1300–1000 BC) 4535: 4528: 4527: 4524: 4517: 4516: 4513: 4505: 4497: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4476: 4475: 4474:(2000–1600 BC) 4472: 4465: 4464: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4453:(1900–1300 BC) 4451: 4444: 4443: 4442:(2600–1900 BC) 4440: 4433: 4432: 4431:(3300–2600 BC) 4429: 4422: 4421: 4420:(3300–1300 BC) 4418: 4410: 4407:(3300–1300 BC) 4402: 4401: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4391: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4380:(1600–1300 BC) 4378: 4372: 4371: 4368: 4362: 4361: 4360:(3000–1500 BC) 4358: 4352: 4351: 4341: 4333: 4330:(3500–1500 BC) 4325: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4315: 4314: 4313:(5000–3000 BC) 4311: 4305: 4304: 4303:(7000–3300 BC) 4301: 4295: 4294: 4293:(7570–6200 BC) 4291: 4283: 4275: 4274: 4271: 4270: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4245: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4213: 4212: 4203: 4200: 4142: 4139: 4099: 4096: 4069:Art of Mathura 4064: 4061: 4060: 4059: 4033: 3987: 3958: 3874: 3813:Main article: 3810: 3807: 3762: 3759: 3745:Ethics in the 3740:Zoroastrianism 3626:), singing of 3564:and the older 3547: 3546:Vedic religion 3544: 3527:Main article: 3524: 3521: 3407: 3404: 3350:Michael Witzel 3280:(army chief), 3216: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3201: 3199: 3196: 3189: 3180:Vedic weaponry 3176: 3173: 2971:social classes 2962: 2959: 2956: 2955: 2953: 2952: 2945: 2938: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2925: 2924: 2918: 2905: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2883:Historiography 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2833: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2632: 2627: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2576: 2569:Southeast Asia 2567: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2559: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2468: 2462: 2459:Central Africa 2453: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2445: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2409: 2403: 2398: 2397: 2394: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2343: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2203: 2198: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2123: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2028: 2023: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2009: 2007:Fergana Valley 2004: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1962:Yavana Kingdom 1959: 1954: 1945: 1940: 1934: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1915: 1913:Nomadic Empire 1910: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1754: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1499: 1496:Horn of Africa 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1344: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1119: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1102: 1101: 1092: 1089: 1077:Indo-Parthians 1073:Indo-Scythians 981: 978: 966:Uddalaka Aruni 890:Iron Age India 778: 775: 674: 671: 483: 482: 474: 467: 456: 447: 443: 436: 435: 434: 433: 413: 410: 408: 405: 366:social classes 313:–1000 BCE the 277:Old Indo-Aryan 205: 500 BCE 184: 183: 174: 170: 169: 166: 162: 161: 159: 500 BCE 149: 145: 144: 142:Iron Age India 139: 135: 134: 129: 125: 124: 109: 108: 94: 90: 89: 87: 86: 81: 76: 70: 68: 64: 63: 57: 53: 52: 47: 43: 42: 37: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9732: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9685:Iron Age Asia 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9675:Ancient India 9673: 9671: 9668: 9667: 9665: 9654: 9649: 9645: 9640: 9636: 9634:1-4051-3251-5 9630: 9626: 9625: 9620: 9616: 9615: 9604: 9599: 9595: 9589: 9585: 9584: 9578: 9574: 9568: 9564: 9563: 9558: 9557:Romila Thapar 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9540:1-4051-3251-5 9536: 9532: 9527: 9523: 9519: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9482: 9477: 9474: 9469: 9466: 9460: 9456: 9455: 9449: 9445: 9439: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9426: 9420: 9416: 9412: 9408: 9402: 9398: 9393: 9390: 9384: 9380: 9379: 9374: 9373:Stein, Burton 9370: 9367: 9361: 9357: 9356: 9351: 9347: 9344: 9338: 9334: 9329: 9326: 9320: 9316: 9315: 9310: 9306: 9302: 9296: 9292: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9272: 9266: 9262: 9256: 9252: 9251: 9245: 9242: 9236: 9232: 9231: 9225: 9221: 9216: 9212: 9207: 9204: 9198: 9194: 9193: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9130: 9126: 9121: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9105: 9104:East and West 9100: 9096: 9091: 9088: 9086:81-208-1280-8 9082: 9078: 9073: 9070: 9064: 9060: 9059: 9053: 9049: 9047:81-85119-18-X 9043: 9039: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9021: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8981: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8955: 8954: 8948: 8944: 8939: 8936: 8930: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8900: 8896: 8891: 8888: 8882: 8878: 8877: 8876:Ancient India 8871: 8868:, I.B. Tauris 8867: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8829: 8824: 8820: 8814: 8810: 8809: 8804: 8800: 8797: 8791: 8788:, Routledge, 8787: 8786: 8780: 8776: 8770: 8766: 8765: 8759: 8755: 8749: 8745: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8722: 8718: 8713: 8709: 8704: 8701: 8694: 8689: 8686: 8682: 8677: 8673: 8668: 8664: 8658: 8654: 8649: 8645: 8641: 8634: 8632: 8625: 8622: 8620:0-415-21527-7 8616: 8612: 8607: 8603: 8598: 8592: 8586: 8583:, Routledge, 8579: 8578: 8572: 8569: 8563: 8560:, Routledge, 8559: 8558: 8552: 8551: 8549: 8545: 8540: 8536: 8531: 8528: 8522: 8518: 8517: 8511: 8508: 8502: 8498: 8497: 8491: 8488: 8482: 8478: 8477: 8471: 8467: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8448: 8444: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8425: 8421: 8416: 8412: 8410:0-919812-15-5 8406: 8402: 8397: 8393: 8388: 8384: 8379: 8375: 8370: 8366: 8361: 8357: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8330: 8326: 8321: 8317: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8302: 8297: 8293: 8290: 8284: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8273:Basham, A. L. 8270: 8266: 8260: 8257:. Routledge. 8256: 8255: 8249: 8245: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8227: 8223: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8204: 8193:, p. 19. 8192: 8187: 8180: 8175: 8168: 8163: 8156: 8151: 8149: 8147: 8139: 8134: 8132: 8130: 8128: 8126: 8118: 8113: 8111: 8109: 8107: 8100:, p. 99. 8099: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8088: 8086: 8084: 8082: 8074: 8069: 8062: 8057: 8055: 8053: 8051: 8043: 8038: 8036: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8017: 8010: 8005: 7998: 7993: 7987:, p. 65. 7986: 7981: 7974: 7973:Holdrege 2004 7969: 7962: 7958: 7953: 7946: 7941: 7933: 7927: 7922: 7916:, p. 81. 7915: 7910: 7903: 7898: 7891: 7886: 7879: 7878:Olivelle 1998 7874: 7868:, p. 40. 7867: 7862: 7855: 7850: 7848: 7840: 7835: 7828: 7823: 7816: 7815:Olivelle 1998 7811: 7804: 7800: 7795: 7788: 7784: 7779: 7772: 7768: 7763: 7756: 7752: 7747: 7740: 7736: 7731: 7724: 7719: 7717: 7709: 7704: 7698:, p. 45. 7697: 7696:Majumdar 1977 7692: 7685: 7684:Olivelle 1998 7680: 7673: 7668: 7661: 7660:Olivelle 1998 7656: 7649: 7644: 7637: 7632: 7626:, p. 35. 7625: 7620: 7618: 7616: 7608: 7603: 7596: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7579: 7572:, p. 54. 7571: 7566: 7558: 7552: 7548: 7547: 7539: 7532: 7527: 7520: 7515: 7508: 7503: 7496: 7491: 7483: 7478:, p. 66. 7477: 7476:Majumdar 1998 7472: 7464: 7459:, p. 65. 7458: 7457:Majumdar 1998 7453: 7447:, p. 41. 7446: 7441: 7439: 7432:, p. 40. 7431: 7426: 7419: 7418:Olivelle 1998 7414: 7407: 7402: 7396:, p. 42. 7395: 7390: 7388: 7380: 7375: 7373: 7365: 7360: 7353: 7348: 7342:, p. 33. 7341: 7336: 7329: 7324: 7318:, p. 89. 7317: 7312: 7305: 7300: 7293: 7288: 7281: 7276: 7269: 7264: 7257: 7252: 7250: 7248: 7246: 7244: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7236: 7228: 7223: 7216: 7211: 7204: 7199: 7192: 7187: 7181:, p. 49. 7180: 7175: 7173: 7165: 7160: 7158: 7150: 7145: 7139:, p. 32. 7138: 7133: 7131: 7129: 7121: 7116: 7109: 7104: 7097: 7092: 7085: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7066: 7059:, p. 38. 7058: 7053: 7046: 7041: 7039: 7032:, p. 32. 7031: 7030:Beckwith 2009 7026: 7019: 7014: 7012: 7004: 6999: 6992: 6991:Beckwith 2009 6987: 6980: 6975: 6969:, p. 30. 6968: 6963: 6956: 6952: 6947: 6941:, p. 37. 6940: 6935: 6929:, p. 31. 6928: 6923: 6917:, p. 95. 6916: 6911: 6904: 6899: 6897: 6889: 6884: 6877: 6872: 6865: 6860: 6858: 6856: 6848: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6829: 6821: 6816: 6810:, p. 41. 6809: 6804: 6797: 6792: 6786:, p. 60. 6785: 6784:Pletcher 2010 6780: 6773: 6768: 6766: 6758: 6753: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6737: 6732: 6730: 6723:, p. 82. 6722: 6717: 6715: 6707: 6702: 6700: 6692: 6687: 6685: 6677: 6672: 6666:, p. 50. 6665: 6660: 6658: 6650: 6645: 6641: 6629: 6624: 6617: 6613: 6612:Panikkar 2001 6608: 6600: 6599:Proferes 2003 6597: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6586: 6579: 6573: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6545: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6525: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6507: 6504: 6500: 6497:, namely the 6496: 6492: 6488: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6439:According to 6436: 6434: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6408:Ratnagar 2008 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6384: 6380: 6379:Beckwith 2009 6377: 6374: 6373:Beckwith 2009 6371: 6368: 6364: 6361: 6358: 6355: 6354: 6350: 6341: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6327: 6326:Sex and Power 6323: 6322: 6318: 6311: 6305: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6285: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6238: 6233: 6231: 6226: 6224: 6219: 6218: 6216: 6215: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6101: 6100: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6061:Uttar Pradesh 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5998: 5991: 5990: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5936: 5935: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5855: 5850: 5849: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5719: 5717: 5716:Mughal Empire 5714: 5713: 5705: 5700: 5699: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5656: 5652: 5651: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5618: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5588: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5542: 5541:Reddy Kingdom 5539: 5538: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5528: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5485: 5481: 5479: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5468: 5464: 5463: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5443: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5425: 5420: 5419: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5372: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5266: 5265:Yadava Empire 5263: 5262: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5156: 5155:Harsha Empire 5153: 5152: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5104: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5003: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4962: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4936: 4935:Kushan Empire 4933: 4932: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4869: 4868:Shunga Empire 4866: 4865: 4850: 4848: 4847:Mitra Dynasty 4845: 4844: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4816: 4811: 4810: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4789: AD 500 4785: 250 BC 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4768: 250 AD 4762: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4751: 300 BC 4745: 4743: 4740: 4739: 4734: 300 BC 4728: 4726: 4725:Chera Kingdom 4723: 4722: 4717: 300 BC 4711: 4709: 4708:Pandya Empire 4706: 4705: 4700: 300 AD 4696: 300 BC 4690: 4688: 4687:Sangam period 4685: 4684: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4668: 4667:Maurya Empire 4665: 4664: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4594: 600 BC 4588: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4556: 4552: 4551: 4548:(1200–600 BC) 4547: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4534: 4530: 4529: 4526:(1500–600 BC) 4525: 4523: 4519: 4518: 4515:(1500–500 BC) 4514: 4512: 4509: 4508: 4502:(1500–200 BC) 4500: 4495: 4494: 4485:(1600–500 BC) 4484: 4482: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4466: 4463:(2000–500 BC) 4462: 4460: 4457: 4456: 4452: 4450: 4446: 4445: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4428: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4413: 4405: 4400: 4399: 4390:(1400–700 BC) 4389: 4387: 4386:Jorwe culture 4384: 4383: 4379: 4377: 4376:Malwa culture 4374: 4373: 4370:(1600–750 BC) 4369: 4367: 4366:Pandu culture 4364: 4363: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4328: 4323: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4278: 4273: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4240: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4214: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4199: 4190: 4186: 4185: 4184:Bhagavad Gita 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4138: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4034: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3972: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3908: 3903: 3902: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3849:Rigvedic text 3847: 3846: 3845: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3653: 3648: 3644: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3554: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3403: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3374:Romila Thapar 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3358:Robert Bellah 3355: 3351: 3348:According to 3346: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3284:(envoys) and 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3205: 3200: 3193: 3188: 3187: 3183: 3172: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3140:Purusha Sukta 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3082: 3077: 3072: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3034: 3030: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2939: 2937: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2919: 2917: 2909: 2908: 2907: 2906: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2854: 2851: 2849: 2848:Human History 2846: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2740:Mueang Pahang 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2685:Gangga Negara 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2585:Austronesians 2583: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2516:Djenné-Djenno 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2463: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2450: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2401: 2396: 2395: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2341: 2336: 2335: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2275: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2196: 2195: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2137:Mississippian 2135: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2121: 2116: 2115: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2102:Sangam Period 2100: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2092:Maurya Empire 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2082:Mahajanapadas 2080: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2020: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1967:Kushan Empire 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1932: 1927: 1926: 1919: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1889: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1843:Proto-Mongols 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1768:Indo-Iranians 1766: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1752: 1747: 1746: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1622: 1621: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1543:Harla Kingdom 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1497: 1492: 1491: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1458:British Isles 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1337: 1336: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1057:Maurya Empire 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1018:Narmada River 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 986:Mahajanapadas 977: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 934:Keśin Dālbhya 931: 927: 922: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 899: 893: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 867: 863: 859: 855: 850: 846: 844: 840: 835: 831: 827: 826: 820: 818: 814: 810: 804: 801: 796: 788: 783: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 755: 750: 746: 742: 737: 735: 730: 726: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 690: 685: 680: 670: 668: 664: 660: 656: 653:(present-day 652: 648: 647: 642: 634: 633: 628: 624: 623: 619: 613: 611: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 566: 561: 556: 552: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 503: 499: 490: 485: 478: 470: 461: 450: 440: 431: 427: 423: 419: 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 381: 379: 375: 371: 367: 362: 360: 356: 352: 349:) as well as 348: 347:mahajanapadas 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 304: 303:way of life. 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 269: 267: 266:Vedic culture 263: 259: 255: 245: 241: 237: 233: 222: 218: 214: 210: 195: 191: 182: 181:Mahajanapadas 178: 175: 171: 167: 163: 150: 146: 143: 140: 136: 133: 130: 126: 122: 117: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 71: 69: 65: 58: 54: 51: 48: 44: 41: 38: 34: 30: 25: 19: 9670:Vedic period 9652: 9643: 9623: 9619:Flood, Gavin 9602: 9582: 9561: 9530: 9521: 9517: 9496:the original 9491: 9487: 9472: 9453: 9424: 9396: 9377: 9354: 9350:Staal, Frits 9332: 9313: 9290: 9270: 9249: 9229: 9219: 9210: 9191: 9181: 9169: 9141: 9137: 9124: 9107: 9103: 9094: 9076: 9057: 9037: 8992: 8988: 8952: 8942: 8924: 8907: 8903: 8894: 8875: 8865: 8838: 8834: 8807: 8784: 8763: 8743: 8716: 8707: 8699: 8684: 8674:, Juggernaut 8671: 8652: 8643: 8639: 8630: 8610: 8601: 8576: 8556: 8543: 8534: 8515: 8495: 8475: 8455: 8432: 8419: 8400: 8391: 8382: 8373: 8364: 8355: 8346: 8324: 8300: 8277: 8253: 8234: 8230: 8211: 8186: 8174: 8162: 8073:Darvill 2009 8068: 8016: 8004: 7992: 7980: 7968: 7952: 7940: 7921: 7909: 7897: 7885: 7873: 7861: 7839:Erdosy 1995b 7834: 7827:Erdosy 1995a 7822: 7810: 7794: 7778: 7767:Trigger 2003 7762: 7746: 7730: 7703: 7691: 7679: 7667: 7655: 7643: 7631: 7609:, p. 5. 7602: 7565: 7545: 7538: 7526: 7514: 7502: 7495:Fortson 2011 7490: 7471: 7452: 7425: 7413: 7401: 7359: 7347: 7335: 7323: 7311: 7299: 7287: 7275: 7263: 7222: 7210: 7203:Kaushik 2013 7198: 7186: 7144: 7115: 7103: 7091: 7079: 7052: 7025: 7018:Anthony 2007 7003:Anthony 2007 6998: 6986: 6979:Woodard 2006 6974: 6962: 6946: 6934: 6922: 6910: 6883: 6871: 6864:Anthony 2007 6847:Kuzmina 2007 6842: 6835:Anthony 2007 6815: 6803: 6798:, p. 3. 6791: 6779: 6671: 6644: 6623: 6615: 6607: 6595:, p. 57 6585: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6544: 6534:Jamison 2006 6516: 6512: 6489:As of 2006, 6476: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6457:Verethraghna 6453:Anthony 2007 6441:Anthony 2007 6413:Parpola 2015 6403:Anthony 2007 6383:Vedic people 6363:Anthony 2007 6357:Anthony 2007 6349: 6339: 6332: 6325: 6317: 6309: 6304: 6296: 6288: 6126:Demographics 6116:Architecture 5896:French India 5886:Danish India 5766:Bengal Subah 5756:Bhoi dynasty 5686:Koch Kingdom 5521:Ahom Kingdom 5395:Deva Kingdom 5087:Huna Kingdom 5027:Gupta Empire 4929:(AD 35–405 ) 4888:Kanva Empire 4860: 50 BC 4742:Chola Empire 4681:(312–303 BC) 4671:(321–184 BC) 4661:(330–323 BC) 4651:(380–321 BC) 4647:Nanda Empire 4641:(424–345 BC) 4623:(550–330 BC) 4579:(684–424 BC) 4569:(799–684 BC) 4559:(700–200 BC) 4510: 4481:Swat culture 4458: 4327:Chalcolithic 4239:Palaeolithic 4182: 4163:seven rishis 4144: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4106:include the 4101: 4072: 4047: 4035: 4022:Śrautasutras 3997: 3989: 3976:Kuru Kingdom 3968: 3960: 3955:Kuru Kingdom 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3876: 3859:Indo-Iranian 3852: 3848: 3842: 3837:Vedic accent 3824: 3782: 3764: 3746: 3744: 3732:Indo-Iranian 3669: 3664: 3650: 3640: 3627: 3613: 3606: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3573: 3570:Śrautasutras 3551: 3549: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3486:krishna–ayas 3485: 3478: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3391: 3387:Mahajanapada 3354:Kuru Kingdom 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3219: 3159: 3155: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3108: 3101: 3079: 3075: 3073: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3038: 3032: 3028: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3011:. The words 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2920:Followed by 2858:Protohistory 2730:Tarumanagara 2620:Singhanavati 2615:Suvarnabhumi 2541:Ghana Empire 2471:Dhar Tichitt 2412:Guanahatabey 2352:Casma–Sechin 2177:Thule people 2087:Nanda Empire 2077:Vedic Period 2076: 1931:Central Asia 1838:Hephthalites 1833:Iranian Huns 1626:North Africa 1503:Land of Punt 1105:Preceded by 1085:Gupta Empire 1026: 983: 958:philosophers 923: 896: 894: 874:Kuru Kingdom 871: 866:Kuru Kingdom 823: 821: 805: 794: 792: 752: 740: 738: 725:Asko Parpola 719: 715: 711: 703: 701: 644: 630: 626: 616: 614: 607: 594:Copper Hoard 582:Indo-Iranian 564: 509:Indus Valley 495: 387:include the 382: 363: 341:culture, of 331:Kuru Kingdom 314: 305: 270: 265: 258:Kuru Kingdom 193: 190:Vedic period 189: 187: 98:Kuru Kingdom 18: 9524:(3): 1–115. 9335:, Longman, 9211:The Purāṇas 8910:: 1322–1339 8710:, Routledge 8376:, Routledge 8343:Bhan, Suraj 8237:: 199–219, 8179:Rocher 1986 8138:Mishra 2007 8023:, pp. 7902:Basham 2008 7799:Bellah 2011 7783:Bellah 2011 7769:, pp. 7755:pp. 697–698 7751:Bellah 2011 7735:Bellah 2011 7708:Basham 2008 7624:Basham 2008 7607:Witzel 1995 7507:Samuel 2010 7445:Basham 2008 7430:Basham 2008 7394:Basham 2008 7379:Samuel 2010 7364:Witzel 1995 7340:Sharma 1990 7292:Samuel 2010 7268:Samuel 2010 7256:Witzel 1995 7205:, p. . 7191:Tignor 2014 7179:Samuel 2010 7137:Basham 2008 7096:Erdosy 1995 7084:Samuel 2010 6993:, p. . 6951:Witzel 2019 6915:Witzel 2001 6876:Bryant 2001 6808:Samuel 2010 6796:Witzel 1995 6757:Witzel 1989 6738:, p. . 6706:Samuel 2010 6691:Witzel 1995 6676:Witzel 2005 6578:Mahabharata 6549:Witzel 2019 6527:Witzel 2001 6509:Bryant 2001 6423:Joseph 2019 6418:Joseph 2018 6393:Witzel 2001 6111:Agriculture 6081:South India 6056:Maharashtra 6006:Balochistan 5946:Afghanistan 5920:(1858–1947) 5916:British Raj 5910:(1757–1858) 5906:Company Raj 5900:(1759–1954) 5890:(1620–1869) 5880:(1605–1825) 5876:Dutch India 5870:(1510–1961) 5857:(1510–1961) 5840:(1799–1849) 5836:Sikh Empire 5830:(1729–1947) 5820:(1707–1799) 5810:(1674–1818) 5800:(1650–1948) 5790:(1642–1975) 5780:(1600–1750) 5770:(1576–1757) 5760:(1541–1804) 5750:(1532–1673) 5740:(1529–1736) 5730:(1540–1556) 5720:(1526–1858) 5707:(1526–1858) 5690:(1515–1947) 5680:(1499–1763) 5670:(1518–1687) 5659:(1492–1686) 5648:(1492–1619) 5637:(1490–1574) 5626:(1490–1636) 5615:(1490–1596) 5605:(1470–1842) 5595:(1434–1541) 5585:(1399–1947) 5575:(1358–1803) 5565:(1352–1576) 5555:(1336–1646) 5545:(1325–1448) 5535:(1300–1779) 5525:(1228–1826) 5515:(1451–1526) 5504:(1414–1451) 5493:(1320–1414) 5482:(1290–1320) 5471:(1206–1290) 5460:(1206–1526) 5450:(1170–1206) 5427:(1206–1526) 5408: 1300 5404: 1200 5389:(1187–1673) 5379:(1156–1184) 5359:(1102–1766) 5349:(1083–1323) 5339:(1078–1434) 5329:(1070–1230) 5325:Sena Empire 5319:(1040–1347) 5309:(1003–1320) 5235:Pala Empire 5097:Rai Kingdom 4939:(AD 60–240) 4872:(185–73 BC) 4628:Ror Dynasty 4348: 3950 4151:Mahabharata 4098:Archaeology 4063:Visual arts 3886:Atharvaveda 3803:Mahabharata 3706:(the Sun), 3652:Atharvaveda 3624:Vedic chant 3576:record the 3490:shyama–ayas 3465:Atharvaveda 3412:pastoralism 3397:, with the 3368:in ancient 2825:Philippines 2670:Tambralinga 2625:Sungai Batu 2580:Melanesians 2521:Igodomigodo 2455:West Africa 2307:Teotihuacan 2200:Mesoamerica 2012:Tarim Basin 1977:Transoxiana 1328:Mesopotamia 1298:Sea Peoples 1069:Indo-Greeks 998:West Bengal 962:Yajnavalkya 926:Salva tribe 541:Yaz culture 537:Afghanistan 513:Indo-Aryans 448:Indo-Aryans 311: 1200 289:Indo-Aryans 285:patrilineal 228: 1500 201: 1500 173:Followed by 165:Preceded by 155: 1100 93:Followed by 67:Preceded by 9664:Categories 9300:8126902868 9058:Upanis̥ads 8646:: 255–261. 8191:Singh 2009 8155:Hedge 2015 8117:Zahir 2016 8061:Singh 2008 7959:, p. 7914:Nigal 1986 7890:Singh 2008 7854:Singh 2008 7785:, p. 7737:, p. 7723:Singh 2008 7672:Singh 2008 7648:Singh 2008 7636:Singh 2008 7595:Singh 2008 7570:Staal 2008 7316:Avari 2016 7227:Singh 2008 7149:Reddy 2011 7120:Singh 2008 7045:Singh 2008 6967:Flood 1996 6953:, p. 6939:Flood 1996 6927:Flood 1996 6888:Singh 2008 6820:Flood 1996 6721:Flood 1996 6664:Stein 2010 6637:References 6551:, p. 6484:Singh 2008 6191:Philosophy 6171:Metallurgy 6161:Literature 6086:Tamil Nadu 5951:Bangladesh 5726:Sur Empire 5440:(977–1186) 5406: – c. 5369:(675–1210) 5299:(973–1189) 5289:(942–1244) 5279:(882–1110) 5269:(850–1334) 5259:(800–1327) 5239:(750–1174) 5219:(694–1947) 5199:(650–1036) 5179:(624–1075) 5147: 700 5145: – c. 5143: 550 5116: 500 5061:(350–1100) 5051:(350–1000) 5019: 600 5017: – c. 5015: 250 4998: 500 4996: – c. 4994: 250 4917: 130 4892:(75–26 BC) 4858: – c. 4856: 150 4787: – c. 4753:– AD 1279) 4736:– AD 1102) 4719:– AD 1345) 4698: – c. 4611: 600 4596:– AD 1600) 4404:Bronze Age 4067:See also: 4048:Upanishads 4006:Upanishads 3965:injunctive 3949:(BRW) and 3895:Shaunmkiya 3891:Paippalada 3833:Devanagari 3809:Literature 3795:Upanishads 3645:, and the 3566:Upanishads 3556:, but the 3470:Bronze Age 3460:śyāma ayas 3379:Upanishads 3246:indologist 3090:Kshatriyas 2868:Bronze Age 2863:Copper Age 2775:Shailendra 2690:Sri Ksetra 2675:Langkasuka 2595:Micronesia 2496:Senegambia 2347:Caral-Supe 2287:Teuchitlán 2272:Chupícuaro 2242:Gran Coclé 2172:Pre-Dorset 2065:South Asia 1972:Badakhshan 1788:Tocharians 1763:Afanasievo 1373:Pelasgians 1323:The Levant 1107:prehistory 956:sages and 898:Ashvamedha 886:Janamejaya 858:Agnicayana 839:Upanishads 734:Indo-Aryan 677:See also: 655:Uzbekistan 604:movements. 602:Indo-Aryan 590:Cemetery H 457:Afanasievo 416:See also: 339:Indo-Aryan 323:Iron tools 254:liturgical 250: 600 211:and early 209:Bronze Age 203: – c. 157: – c. 9415:854609153 9158:162246125 9011:0036-8075 8857:760610934 8811:. 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