History of Zimbabwe

1517:. It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. In practice its purpose was to punish political opponents. The UN estimates 700,000 people have been left without jobs or homes as a result. Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter., . The government interfered with non-governmental organisation (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances. Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced. 1669:, which was to be held on 27 June 2008. Despite Tsvangirai's continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round. The period following the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF blamed the MDC supporters for perpetrating this violence; Western governments and prominent Western organisations have blamed ZANU-PF for the violence which seems very likely to be true. On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a "violent sham" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him. The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai's name remained on the ballot. Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn in for another term as president on 29 June. 760:, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. During the pre-colonial period, the Ndebele social structure was stratified. It was composed mainly of three social groups, abeZansi, Enhla and Amahole. The Zansi were the ruling class of the original Khumalo people who migrated from south of Limpopo with Mzilikazi. The Enhla and Amahole groups were made up of other tribes and ethnics who had been incorporated into the empire during the migration. However, with the passage of time, this stratification has slowly disappeared The Ndebele people have for long ascribed to the worship of Unkunkulu as their supreme being. Their religious life in general, rituals, ceremonies, practices, devotion and loyalty revolves around the worship of this Supreme Being. However, with the popularisation of Christianity and other religions, Ndebele traditional religion is now uncommon. 1592:, which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 because of the country's economic meltdown. One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, 19 kilometres (12 miles) west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils. The high school exam system unravelled in 2007. Examiners refused to mark examination papers when they were offered just Z$ 79 a paper, enough to buy three small candies. Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed "excellent" in subjects they had not sat. However, as of late the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa. 1273:

government. Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet. Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith's party to sit as "independents" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies. As a result of what they saw as persecution of Nkomo and his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, army deserters began a campaign of dissidence against the government. Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987. It involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.

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courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions. Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government. The MDC split over whether to field candidates and partially boycotted the vote. In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation. The split in the MDC hardened into factions, each of which claimed control of the party. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify.

883:(1898–1902), when the four South African colonies joined under the auspices of one flag and began to work towards the creation of a unified administrative structure. The territory was made open to white settlement, and these settlers were then in turn given considerable administrative powers, including a franchise that, while on the surface non-racial, ensured "a predominantly European electorate" which "operated to preclude Great Britain from modifying her policy in Southern Rhodesia and subsequently treating it as a territory inhabited mainly by Africans whose interests should be paramount and to whom British power should be transferred". 1477: 1390:

government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans, some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.

1335:. Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia. This led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe. At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers. 967: 1770: 82: 994:, but technically able to do as it pleased. And in theory, Southern Rhodesia was able to govern itself, draft its own legislation, and elect its own parliamentary leaders. But in reality, this was self-government subject to supervision. Until the white minority settler government's declaration of unilateral independence in 1965, London remained in control of the colony's external affairs, and all legislation was subject to approval from the United Kingdom Government and the Queen. 642: 1573:

electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre. The power shortages are because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and that due to an unpaid bill of $ 35 million Mozambique had reduced the amount of electrical power it supplies. On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they "played a central role in the regime's escalated human rights abuses."

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was made free and secondary school enrolment increased by 33 per cent in two years. These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio. Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps. However, the gaps remained considerable. In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men. Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband.

1424: 1642:, an independent. As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%). Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party's supporters. The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe. 767:. King Mzilikazi had established the Ndebele Kingdom, with Shona subjects paying tribute to him. The nascent kingdom encountered European powers for the first time and Lonbengula signed various treaties with the various nations jostling for power in the region, playing them off one another in order to preserve the sovereignty of his kingdom and gain the aid of the Europeans should the kingdom become involved in a war. 1506:

using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting. Some voters were 'turned away' from polling station despite having proper identification, further guaranteeing that the government could control the results. Additionally Mugabe had started to appoint judges sympathetic to the government, making any judicial appeal futile. Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 of the members of parliament.

714:. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozvi (which means "destroyers") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozvi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests. Around 1821, the 1658:

majority needed to avoid a second round. The MDC declared that Tsvangirai won a narrow majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round. ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round; the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe's score, and as a result a recount was conducted.

1208:, people of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU which then reappointed them. In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly's membership to include members nominated by the President. 521:, which had never recognised Rhodesian independence, briefly imposed direct rule in order to grant independence on 18 April that year as the new country of Zimbabwe. In the 2000s Zimbabwe's economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including the imposition of economic sanctions by Western countries led by the United Kingdom and widespread corruption in government. 1277:

it used quite widely. In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe. The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the

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the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists.) The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu-speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is about the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. It seems that the makers of the Ziwa/Gokomere wares were not the ancestral speakers of the

1711:. With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister, ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe's Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and 1510:

party he was not bound by the majority's decision. Again the opposition was weakened. As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe's party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud.

1812:"If it looks like a coup, walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it's a coup". Naunihal Singh, an assistant professor at the U.S. Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup. He tweeted that "'The President is safe' is a classic coup catch-phrase" of such an event. 631:), Nyasa and Makwa. While it may well be the case that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa. 1762:. By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless. The opposition shared power with the Mugabe regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe switched to using the US dollar as currency and the economy improved reaching a growth rate of 10% per year. 1521:

years", said Amnesty International. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale.

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took place throughout the country and the finance minister admitted "Right now we literally have nothing." There was the introduction of bond notes to literally fight the biting cash crisis and liquidity crunch. Special Historical bonds was created to help the economy but never seen the light and was

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The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007. In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world's highest. There are frequent power and water outages. Harare's drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006

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However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew considerably after the mid-1990s in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions brought about by the seizure of farmland

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ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration. Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987

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people. He returned in 1513 and explored the northern region of the territory, coming into contact with Chikuyo Chisamarengu, the ruler of Mutapa. In the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse. As a direct response

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No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round. The failure to release results was strongly criticised by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought an order from the High Court to force their release. An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the

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An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence. Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party's final break-up in November 2005. These division severely weakened the opposition. In addition

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The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted

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During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and

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one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The government began further amending the constitution. The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases

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In 1930, the Land Apportionment Act divided rural land along racial lines, creating four types of land: white-owned land that could not be acquired by Africans; purchase areas for those Africans who could afford to purchase land; Tribal Trust Lands designated as the African reserves; and Crown lands

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These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, of the third to fifth centuries A.D., found in southeast Zimbabwe. This tradition was part of the eastern stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kwale) which originated west of the

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Zimbabwe's bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms. The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that

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The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members. For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege. It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an

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Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70%

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Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a "state of emergency". This gave the government widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge which

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Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kalundu) has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dating back to the seventh century. (The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson

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Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned. The operation was "the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for

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As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred. Ncube's supporters argued that the M.D.C. should field a slate of candidates; Tsvangirai's argued for a boycott. When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube's side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the

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against the Smith regime in the 1970s – set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition. Despite strong international criticism, these measures, together with organised subversion of the electoral process, ensured a Mugabe victory . The government's behaviour drew strong

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In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980. The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years. Enrolment increased by 232 per cent one year after primary education

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In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one. In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the "harmonisation" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe's

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In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land. This converted all ownership rights into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the

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in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. The British government took full command of the British South Africa Company's holdings, including both Northern and Southern Rhodesia. Northern Rhodesia retained its status as a colonial protectorate; Southern Rhodesia was given

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The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries can be traced back to western stream (Kalunndu) pottery styles in South Africa. The Ziwa /Gokomere and Zhizo

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was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare. The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe's government. Kolawole Olaniyan,

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were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed. Mugabe's political operatives were thus able to weaken the opposition internally and the security apparatus of the state was able to destabilise it externally by

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was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed. These policies also failed at that time. Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and

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in south-western Zimbabwe. Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the

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said the government would not be "held ransom by racial misfits" and told "all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags." He also said the government continued to consider taking "legal or administrative action" against Walls. Mugabe, returning from a visit with United

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A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Their capital there was Schroda (just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe). Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there,

1788:. The military stated that the president was safe. The military placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main road to the airport. Public opinion in the capital favored the dictators removal although they were uncertain about his replacement with another dictatorship. 1491:

Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr. Mugabe's removal from power. He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason

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ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. The discontent with the government spawned draconian government

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had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs. The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as

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The colony's first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape. Many within the administrative framework of the BSAC assumed that Southern

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of today's Zimbabwe, who did not arrive in there until around the tenth century, from south of the Limpopo river, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the western stream. The linguist and historian Ehret believes that in view of the similarity of the Ziwa/Gokomere pottery to the Nkope of the

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ceramic wares, of the fourth century A.D. Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast.

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in Nigeria. Mugabe's government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government's control over the media. The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria in

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and January 2007. Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%. There was widespread hunger, manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most. Availability of bread was severely constrained after a poor wheat harvest and the closure of all bakeries.

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workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

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Because of Zimbabwe's dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date. Mugabe's opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election;

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to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, saying

963:, in early 1915. A guerrilla war in the German colony began, and the fierce fighting and disease devastated the 2nd Rhodesian Regiment, leading to more regiments of native Africans being raised. By November 1918, the Central Powers surrendered to the Allies, ending World War I. 1691:

to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 July and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams in

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who was the general secretary of the party. In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party's Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death.

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charges. This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalysed a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison. The opposing faction was led by

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including figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast.

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In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Economist described as "rigged," doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on "...misrule and dazzling corruption." However, the United Nations, African Union and SADC endorsed the elections as free and fair.

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served as the first President. In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as president. The bicameral

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Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists were with a southern division of eastern Bantu – such languages as the southeastern languages

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language speakers, the Ziwa/Gokomere people spoke a language closely related to the Nyasa group. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today.

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In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe . On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the

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to replace her husband. A Zimbabwean army officer, Major General Sibusiso Moyo, went on television to say the military was targeting "criminals" around President Mugabe but not actively removing the president from power. However the head of the

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It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states. The

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Presidential elections were held in March 2002. In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called 'war veterans', – very few of whom actually fought in the

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from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970. A civil war ensued, with

871:) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897. Following the failed insurrections of 1896–97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes's administration thus precipitating 1545:'s Africa Programme said "We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists". 584:

Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal. More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the

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brought back Zimbabwe's substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control. The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the ravages of the HIV/AIDS

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criticism from the EU and the US, which imposed limited sanctions against the leading members of the Mugabe regime. Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos.

1565:, which affects 25% of the population. With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena. 990:

responsible self-government – with limitations and still annexed to the crown as a colony. Many studies of the country see it as a state that operated independently within the Commonwealth; nominally under the rule of

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The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant

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of compulsory purchase of land by the government. The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the

1231:, tension soon developed. On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, "Why are your men trying to kill me?" Walls replied, "If they were my men you would be dead." 1735:

claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe. Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the

836:, then known as 'Zambesia'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, Cecil Rhodes promoted the immigration of white settlers into the region, as well as the establishment of 1327:

crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society. This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population. Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced.

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were marred by localised violence, electoral irregularities, and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

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owned by the state, reserved for future use and public parks. Fifty one percent of the land was given to approximately 50,000 white inhabitants, with 29.8 per cent left for over a million Africans.

4901: 1354:. This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted. A 40 per cent devaluation of the 1036:

which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. This move was heavily opposed by the residents of Nyasaland, who feared coming under the domination of white Rhodesians. In 1962, however, with growing

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magazine, "To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt." Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa.

2693: 1088:. Although Smith's declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation "Southern", and claimed nation status as the 1259:

in New York City, said, "One thing is quite clear—we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society." Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of

4868: 698: 5867: 3421: 856:' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named 302: 506:

In 1965, the colonial government declared itself independent as Rhodesia, but largely failed to secure international recognition and faced sustained internal opposition in the

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had migrated to the region now known as Zimbabwe from East Africa. Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the

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whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country's first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents.

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and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia.

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On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend. While German chancellor

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in Zimbabwe. The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests.

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GDP growth in Zimbabwe is projected to reach 3.9% in 2021, a significant improvement after a two-year recession, according to the World Bank Zimbabwe Economic Update.

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After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country. Among these was

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After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as

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Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated

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on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence. The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of

4649: 905:, in August 1914. Rhodesia was noted for its patriotic zeal in joining the war. The main priority of British forces in Southern Africa was the capture of the 658:

was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold,

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said that the election was likely to be "deeply flawed". After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the

666:. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom's capital of 5874: 5767: 341: 3763: 4893: 1359:

footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time.

5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 4610: 4571: 3981: 3913: 3027: 1731:. Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000 illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships. In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from 1268:

Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics. Tension between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in

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thousands of Zimbabweans protested and the government responded with a coordinated crackdown that resulted in hundreds of arrests and multiple deaths

1060: 4923: 5962: 4195: 3325: 3270: 1696:, as coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place. The talks were mediated by South African President 3645: 3398: 3303: 2685: 2551: 6891: 6661: 4789:

Zimbabwe's Emmerson Mnangagwa has been sworn in as the country's president, bringing the final curtain down on the 37-year rule of Robert Mugabe.

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Rhodesia, when its "development" was "suitably advanced", would "take its rightful place as a member of" the Union of South Africa after the

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P. Mitchell; G. Whitelaw (2005). "The Archaeology of Southernmost Africa from c. 2000 bp to the Early 1800s: a Review of Recent Research".

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was declared the winner after receiving 50.8% of votes. The opposition accused the government of rigging the vote. In subsequent riots by

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to the second round have varied. The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions. On 11 July, the

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voted to impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed. The African Union has called for a "government of national unity."

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inhabitants of the region arrived and developed ceramic production in the area. A series of trading empires emerged, including the

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Bastin Y, Coupez A, Mann M (1999). "Continuity and divergence in the Bantu languages: perspectives from a lexicostatistic study".

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began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in

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The new Constitution provided for an executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. Reverend

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The country, which used to be one of Africa's richest, became one of its poorest. Many observers now view the country as a '

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at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair, though balloting met international standards. Unsatisfied with a

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Following the British victory over German forces in Southern Africa, many Rhodesian units, mostly white, were sent to the

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sang 'Zimbabwe', a song he wrote, at the government's invitation in a concert at the country's independence festivities.

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observer mission, described the election as "a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe."

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abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe's out-of-town retreat.

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supporters, the army opened fire and killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the following day.

1501:

the government employed its own operatives to both spy on each side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage.

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criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support.

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in Europe, where they took part in major battles of the war. A small number of Rhodesian soldiers saw action in the

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helped to orchestrate the coup. He had recently been sacked by Mr Mugabe so that the path could be smoothed for

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traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century.

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The Constitutional History and Law of Southern Rhodesia, 1888-1965: with special reference to imperial control

6917: 6255: 6069: 5721: 1985: 1925: 1662: 1113: 4594: 4555: 3978: 3917: 3019: 6995: 6681: 6482: 5972: 4062: 1915: 1344: 793: 734:, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the 496: 448: 61: 3830: 6964: 6960: 6495: 6468: 6280: 2969:

Southern African Political History: A chronological of key political events from independence to mid-1997

1014: 937: 4192: 2459: 2245: 529:. Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: 6569: 6390: 6250: 6128: 6121: 6028: 5096: 3338: 3050:"From Corporatism to Liberalization in Zimbabwe: Economic Policy Regimes and Political Crisis, 1980–97" 2547: 2325:

Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages

1980: 1940: 1759: 930: 4869:"The new 'scramble for Africa': how a UAE sheikh quietly made carbon deals for forests bigger than UK" 2914:

Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997

2896:

Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997

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On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by

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The Zimbabwe African People's Union, 1961-87: A Political History of Insurgency in Southern Rhodesia

5001:

The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy Toward Rhodesia During the UDI Era, 1965-1979

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Zimbabwe's Socialist development experiment 1980-1989, Peter Makaye and Constantine Munhande, 2013

1247:, Deputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election. 925:. Meanwhile, a force was sent to assist British forces in South Africa suppressing the pro-German 681:. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central 6956: 6831: 6821: 6626: 6347: 6194: 6096: 6091: 6084: 1910: 1665:(ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a 1514: 1434: 1368: 1184: 1145: 5040:

The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940-1964

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President Shagari pledged $ 15 million at the celebration to train Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe and

872: 828:. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the 731: 624: 3082:"REPORT: Policing the State – an evaluation of 1,981 political arrests in Zimbabwe: 2000–2005" 2686:"The role of Cecil John Rhodes' British South African Company in the Conquest of Matabeleland" 2015: 756:

as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental

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kept by the then President Robert Mugabe. Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017.

1724: 1589: 1542: 1476: 983: 655: 580:. The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago. 488: 115: 6947: 5012: 3128:

Makumbe, John (2006). "Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe: Authoritarianism Versus the People".

2980: 6771: 6270: 6235: 6052: 6038: 5998: 4766: 4277: 1950: 1935: 662:

and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the

522: 1727:

was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at

763:

Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son,

8: 6846: 6696: 6691: 6671: 6636: 6621: 6534: 6431: 6400: 6314: 6223: 6204: 6152: 5899: 5830: 3672: 3458: 3104:"Not a Level Playing Field: Zimbabwe's Parliamentary Elections in 2005 : Background" 2215:

Phillipson, D.W.title=An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion. : 69–84.

1382:(MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist 1052: 1037: 1018: 663: 526: 492: 259: 134: 3089: 1865:

In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country's land to the

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of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognised majority rule in 1980. The

37:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader

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In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second term in an outcome of the

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on 18 April 1980. The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium in

1044: 857: 853: 797: 776: 694: 678: 538: 534: 500: 366: 169: 6921: 6841: 6791: 6746: 6731: 6711: 6701: 6676: 6616: 6515: 6510: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5078: 4524: 3227: 2656: 2402: 2394: 2367: 2347: 2145: 1712: 1666: 1557: 1215:, the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the 941: 926: 635: 421: 153: 4244: 2517: 2466:. African Historical Dictionaries. Vol. 86 (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: 1786:

the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power

1740:, based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition 1227:. While Western media outlets praised Mugabe's efforts at reconciliation with the 6851: 6761: 6651: 5835: 5825: 5805: 4801: 4671: 4272: 4265: 4199: 4069: 4046: 4039: 4023: 4016: 4004: 3985: 3900: 3881: 3858: 3813: 3790: 3767: 3748: 3725: 3607: 3506: 2987: 2942: 2866:

Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912

2467: 2338:

K. Rexová; Y. Bastin; D. Frynta (2006). "Cladistic analysis of Bantu Languages".

2052:

Phillipson, D.W. (1985). "An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion".

1351: 1301: 1261: 880: 833: 801: 786: 745:

converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward.

710:

to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the

628: 620: 607: 602: 561: 224: 4137: 3893: 3355: 966: 6490: 6463: 6352: 6245: 6013: 5815: 2956:

Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms

2383:"Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub- Saharan Africa" 1493: 1224: 1141: 1133: 1024:

In 1953, the British government consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with

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Phillipson, D.W. "An Archaeological Reconsideration of Bantu Expansion": 77–8.

1834:

to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament. Ruling party

1304:, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a 6989: 6505: 6342: 6189: 5083: 4961:

Twenty Years of Independence in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Authoritarianism

4714: 4645: 4606: 4567: 4498: 3006: 2787: 1866: 1802: 1623: 1577: 1375: 1294: 1195: 1180: 1169: 1137: 1129: 1125: 1073: 922: 906: 829: 817: 686: 484: 4924:"Zimbabwe's President Mnangagwa wins second term, opposition rejects result" 3326:"Zimbabwe: End harassment, torture and intimidation of opposition activists" 2613: 1819:

became the Acting President. Former Vice-president and new ZANU-PF -leader,

6357: 6337: 6332: 6324: 3640: 3636:"Bakeries close their doors as collapse in wheat production adds to crisis" 3574: 3483: 3393: 3298: 3265: 3197: 2416: 2398: 2359: 2173:

Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa' in Obenga (ed), Les Peuples Bantu

1946: 1843: 1797: 1639: 1553: 1269: 1256: 1065: 1006: 971: 841: 821: 789: 749: 711: 198: 4211: 5916: 1862:

In June 2019, former president Robert Mugabe died in Singapore, aged 95.

1708: 1697: 1332: 1278: 1244: 1212: 1156: 898: 825: 715: 641: 411: 3141: 6385: 1956: 1448: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1312: 1235:

interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980. He told the BBC that he had asked

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After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring

868: 742: 682: 577: 480: 4241:"Government looking for land for mass burial, after killing 78 miners" 6453: 6416: 1789: 1056: 1048: 1025: 1002: 991: 805: 764: 719: 689:, also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with 214: 6561: 5706: 5088: 1423: 1124:". Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister 852:

for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898, '

6362: 5775: 5763: 5737: 5123: 4394: 3941:"VOA News – Zimbabwe Sets Date for Runoff Amid Increasing Violence" 3360: 1693: 1615: 1562: 1232: 1205: 1101: 1089: 960: 753: 589: 565: 530: 499:

began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in

476: 3603:"President leaves behind a people left paralysed by their poverty" 796:(BSAC) started to make inroads into the region. In 1898, the name 5026:

Becoming Zimbabwe. A History from the Pre-colonial Period to 2008

2745:

Ragtime soldiers: the Rhodesian experience in the First World War

2647:

Beach, D.N. (1979). "'Chimurenga': the Shona Rising of 1896–97".

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of 29 March. The three major candidates were incumbent President

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Mugabe's government changed the capital's name from Salisbury to

1161: 914: 845: 735: 706: 4595:"Robert Mugabe Under House Arrest as Rule Over Zimbabwe Teeters" 3998:"Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts" 2828:

Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present

2491: 1120:, gave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played " 812:

peoples. Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the

6420: 4850:"Former Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe dies – DW – 09/06/2019" 3570:"Now Zimbabwe can see end of the road for its 'brutal old man'" 1855:

In January 2019 following a 130% increase in the price of fuel

1815:

Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017. Second Vice-president

1737: 1732: 1688: 1176: 1165: 1105: 1081: 1029: 861: 837: 702: 4894:"Zimbabwe's Economy is Set for Recovery, but Key Risks Remain" 4771: 4632:

Raath, Jan; Davies, Harry; Laing, Aislinn (16 November 2017).

4360:"Opposition Party to Join Zimbabwe's Government - NYTimes.com" 4243:. SW Radio Africa via ZWnews. 11 December 2008. Archived from 4990:

Land Reform, Famine and Environmental Degradation in Zimbabwe

4493:. Vol. 420, no. 8997. 9 July 2016. pp. 43–44. 1838:

won the majority of seats in parliament, incumbent President

1323: 1168:. Later that year Mugabe commissioned a report by the BBC on 897:

As a British territory, Southern Rhodesia immediately joined

757: 723: 701:, a Portuguese explorer, first entered the area in 1511 from 690: 659: 572: 3914:"12 'violent' MDC supporters held: Africa: Zimbabwe: News24" 2518:"Zimbabwe Ndebele people, history: the origins of the tribe" 952:. Other Rhodesian regiments were sent to participate in the 4832:"Civilians beaten and abducted in major Zimbabwe crackdown" 2337: 1661:

After the recount and the verification of the results, the

1077: 1069: 739: 585: 544: 3294:"Zimbabwe's economic crisis drives it back into steam age" 3261:"Zimbabwe surrounded by sound and fury, but little action" 1583: 1092:

in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally.

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owned by white farmers and economic sanctions imposed by

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timesonline.co.uk, Power-sharing deal signed in Zimbabwe

3719:"Zimbabwe's opposition party claims early election lead" 1893:

rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.

2432: 800:

was adopted. In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for

4293:"Bodies pile up as Mugabe wages war on diamond miners" 3389:"Zimbabweans face power cuts for up to 20 hours a day" 2881:

Nigerian Foreign Policy Under Military Rule, 1966–1999

2189:. Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection. 2011. 2135: 4593:

Moyo, Jeffrey; Onishi, Norimitsu (15 November 2017).

5055:

From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe The Politics of Transition

3967:"Zimbabwe opposition leader pulling out of election" 3693:"Mugabe's Presence Hijacks European-African Meeting" 2428: 2426: 722:

of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King

4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4454:. Zimbabwe Metro News. 6 March 2009. Archived from 4017:"Zimbabwe: President Mugabe Wins Run-Off, Sworn in" 3058:. Vol. 26, no. 1. 2005. pp. 91–106. 2680: 2678: 1884: 1703:On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member 730:. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the 4996:Research Papers: Issue 06/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 4985:Research Papers: Issue 12/08, Stadtschlaining 2008 4866: 1718: 1164:, and soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in 2423: 2041:. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press. p. 123. 1823:, was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017. 1628:Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front 848:ores present. In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name ' 475:Until roughly 2,000 years ago, what would become 6987: 4703:"Analysis | Zimbabwe: When a coup is not a coup" 4631: 4470: 2675: 2587:A New History of Southern Africa, Second Edition 2303: 4759: 2457: 2458:Rubert, Steven C.; Rasmussen, R. Kent (2001). 1808:Ugandan writer Charles Onyango-Obbo stated on 1005:served on behalf of the United Kingdom during 6577: 5722: 5104: 5052: 4958: 4525:"Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse" 4010: 3959: 1095: 929:. Afterwards, Rhodesians participated in the 456: 5053:Wiseman, Henry; Taylor, Alastair M. (1981). 5024:Raftopoulos, Brian & Alois Mlambo, Eds. 4767:"Zimbabwe's Mnangagwa sworn in as president" 3819: 3742:"Zimbabwe presidential candidates confirmed" 2263:. University Press of Virginia. p. 239. 1100:The country gained official independence as 1061:Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) 867:The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as 4084:"2 Vetoes Quash U.N. Sanctions on Zimbabwe" 4081: 4033: 3778: 3776: 3222: 3220: 2820: 2611: 1832:General elections were held on 30 July 2018 1742:Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai 1683:Preliminary talks to set up conditions for 1636:Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai 1611:2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations 770: 6584: 6570: 5729: 5715: 5111: 5097: 4592: 3938: 3875:"Zimbabwe MDC never accepted run-off vote" 3754: 3499: 3074: 2800:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2742: 2655:(3). Cambridge University Press: 395–420. 2433:Hall, Martin; Stephen W. Silliman (2005). 2322: 2199: 2170: 2088: 2051: 1618:held a presidential election along with a 685:. It is known by many names including the 513:After fifteen years of war, following the 463: 449: 4946:Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? 4235: 4233: 3761:"Mugabe accused of election-rigging plan" 3735: 3627: 3561: 3470: 3446: 3380: 3285: 3252: 3184: 2878: 2540: 2406: 2069: 2067: 1464:Learn how and when to remove this message 1394:Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 1221:Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army 1080:using assistance from the governments of 921:from a possible German invasion via. the 820:to his British South Africa Company over 6139:Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth of Nations 4959:Darnolf, Staffan; Laakso, Liisa (2004). 4556:"Zimbabwe's Apparent Coup: What We Know" 4517: 4266:"Zimbabwe meets diamond trade standards" 3972: 3773: 3684: 3668:"US Imposes Sanctions on 39 Zimbabweans" 3660: 3454:"Corn Up Nearly 700 Percent in Zimbabwe" 3413: 3348: 3318: 3217: 3160:"Opposition Splits While Zimbabwe Slips" 3153: 3151: 2863: 2848: 2579: 2202:Bantu-Speaking People in Southern Africa 1768: 1475: 965: 640: 545:Pre-Colonial era (150,000 BCE – 1852 CE) 4867:Patrick Greenfield (30 November 2023). 4672:"Zimbabwe takeover 'seems like a coup'" 4290: 4168:"Rivals sign Zimbabwe power-share deal" 4040:"President Sworn in, Appeals for Unity" 3991: 3827:"Runoff OK, says Zimbabwe ruling party" 3800: 3633: 3567: 3476: 3386: 3291: 3258: 3193:"Mugabe's party wins Zimbabwe election" 3190: 3127: 2605: 2589:, 1993. London: Macmillan. pp. 178–181. 2273: 2036: 1584:Deterioration of the educational system 1503:Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005 875:settlement en masse in the new colony. 6988: 5875:Unilateral Declaration of Independence 4700: 4357: 4230: 4170:. Edition.cnn.com. 16 September 2008. 4056: 3868: 3690: 3055:International Political Science Review 3042: 2911: 2893: 2813: 2811: 2767: 2717: 2566: 2380: 2214: 2103: 2064: 1705:Southern African Development Community 1652:Southern African Development Community 1607:Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008 1339:The economy during the 1980s and 1990s 978:on the 1947 royal tour of South Africa 7001:History of Southern Africa by country 6591: 6565: 5736: 5710: 5118: 5092: 4977:Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama: 4779:from the original on 24 November 2017 4747:from the original on 23 November 2017 4741:"Experts clear the air on succession" 4721:from the original on 16 November 2017 4652:from the original on 16 November 2017 4634:"Mugabe crushed by his own strongman" 4613:from the original on 16 November 2017 4574:from the original on 16 November 2017 4553: 4505:from the original on 15 November 2020 4402:from the original on 14 February 2009 4321: 4315: 3979:"UN impasse irks Zimbabwe opposition" 3887: 3807:"Zimbabwe opposition rejects run-off" 3648:from the original on 31 December 2021 3600: 3582:from the original on 31 December 2021 3529: 3434:from the original on 15 February 2010 3419: 3401:from the original on 31 December 2021 3306:from the original on 31 December 2021 3292:Meldrum, Andrew (29 September 2005). 3273:from the original on 31 December 2021 3205:from the original on 31 December 2021 3157: 3148: 2833: 2713: 2711: 2646: 2437:. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 241–244. 2258: 1055:Southern Rhodesian government led by 917:. A Rhodesian unit was sent to guard 4802:"Violence flares over Zimbabwe poll" 4358:Dugger, Celia W. (31 January 2009). 4339:from the original on 8 December 2008 4303:from the original on 22 January 2009 4259: 4218:from the original on 9 February 2015 4212:"Zimbabwe power-sharing deal signed" 3845: 3712: 3594: 3062:from the original on 11 October 2008 2907: 2905: 2696:from the original on 5 December 2019 2592: 1446:adding citations to reliable sources 1417: 1217:Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army 1034:Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 970:Southern Rhodesia stamp: princesses 931:invasion of German South-West Africa 781:Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 17: 5863:Rhodesia–Nyasaland federation 5042:(Rochester University Press, 2008). 4904:from the original on 31 August 2021 4291:McGreal, Chris (11 December 2008). 4148:from the original on 30 August 2011 3894:"Tsvangirai to run in second round" 3829:. CNN. 4 April 2008. Archived from 3691:Castle, Stephen (9 December 2007). 3422:"How Bad Is Inflation in Zimbabwe?" 3368:from the original on 6 January 2010 3356:"Zimbabwe inflation 'incalculable'" 2981:Zanu-PF's Walls 'manhunt' backfires 2808: 2722:. London: Oxford University Press. 2554:from the original on 7 January 2009 2528:from the original on 30 August 2019 2073: 1776:By 2016 the economy had collapsed, 13: 6291:Zimbabwe at the Commonwealth Games 4938: 4812:from the original on 1 August 2018 4554:Ramzy, Austin (15 November 2017). 4432:from the original on 7 August 2017 4370:from the original on 25 March 2014 4094:from the original on 25 March 2014 4063:"UN move against Zimbabwe blocked" 3259:Tisdall, Simon (8 November 2005). 3172:from the original on 25 March 2014 3088:. 15 December 2006. Archived from 2912:Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). 2894:Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). 2708: 2628:from the original on 30 April 2009 1747: 479:was populated by ancestors of the 14: 7012: 5072: 4701:Taylor, Adam (15 November 2017). 4422:"Zimbabwe PM and wife 'in crash'" 4398:. London: BBC. 11 February 2009. 4390:"Tsvangirai sworn in Zimbabwe PM" 4174:from the original on 3 March 2016 4138:"African call for Zimbabwe unity" 4082:MacFarquhar, Neil (14 May 1999). 3969:, Associated Press, 22 June 2008. 3676:. 4 December 2007. Archived from 3634:McGreal, Chris (2 October 2007). 3517:from the original on 5 March 2008 3507:"Zimbabwe: Column – Mary Revesai" 3477:McGreal, Chris (1 October 2007). 3233:United States Department of State 3030:from the original on 24 June 2012 3012: 2993: 2974: 2961: 2948: 2929: 2902: 2887: 2872: 2857: 2842: 2574:Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career 2464:Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe 2288: 1600: 1513:In May 2005 the government began 901:after the UK declared war on the 824:, and its subject states such as 6892:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6662:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5968:Cricket crisis (2003–2007) 4963:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 4916: 4886: 4860: 4842: 4824: 4794: 4733: 4694: 4682:from the original on 29 May 2018 4664: 4625: 4586: 4547: 4535:from the original on 7 July 2016 4444: 4127: page 7. 11 July 2008. 3568:McVeigh, Tracy (22 April 2007). 3240:from the original on 4 June 2019 2548:"So Who Was Shaka Zulu- Really?" 2498:from the original on 30 May 2019 1885:2023 Zimbabwean general election 1422: 1140:of Botswana, and Prime Minister 893:Southern Rhodesia in World War I 677:–1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the 551:Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe 80: 22: 5021:(Oxford University Press, 2014) 4979:Democracy and Peace in Zimbabwe 4414: 4382: 4284: 4214:. NBC News. 15 September 2008. 4204: 4186: 4160: 4130: 4113:United Nations Security Council 4106: 4075: 3932: 3906: 3549:from the original on 4 May 2007 3387:Meldrum, Andrew (10 May 2007). 3337:. 28 March 2007. Archived from 3191:Sturcke, James (1 April 2005). 3121: 3096: 2920: 2761: 2747:. Bulawayo: Books of Zimbabwe. 2736: 2640: 2614:"A Country in Search of a Name" 2510: 2484: 2451: 2374: 2331: 2316: 2297: 2282: 2267: 2252: 2208: 2193: 1719:Marange diamond fields massacre 1715:becomes deputy prime minister. 1678:United Nations Security Council 1528: 1433:needs additional citations for 1362: 1144:of Australia, representing the 6075:Capital punishment in Zimbabwe 5890:1975 Victoria Falls Conference 4327:"Death stalks a field of gems" 4053:(allAfrica.com), 30 June 2008. 4030:(allAfrica.com), 29 June 2008. 3601:Evans, Ian (7 December 2007). 2768:Mlambo, A. S. (7 April 2014). 2649:The Journal of African History 2179: 2164: 2129: 2097: 2082: 2045: 2030: 2000: 1931:List of presidents of Zimbabwe 1784:On Wednesday 15 November 2017 1590:educational system in Zimbabwe 1534:term as president until 2010. 1380:Movement for Democratic Change 886: 726:and created his own clan, the 1: 6185:Zimbabwean dollar (2019–2024) 5868:Malayan Emergency involvement 5003:(New York: Routledge, 2019). 3852:"Zim run-off set for June 27" 3420:Wines, Michael (2 May 2007). 3158:Wines, Michael (9 May 2007). 2936:Walls: "We will make it work" 2879:Abegunrin, Olayiwola (2003). 2618:The Northern Rhodesia Journal 2093:. Cambridge. pp. 250 ff. 1993: 1986:Governor of Southern Rhodesia 1926:Foreign relations of Zimbabwe 1663:Zimbabwe Electoral Commission 1114:Governor of Southern Rhodesia 671: 555: 203: 174: 158: 139: 120: 101: 5057:. New York: Pergamon Press. 3816:, Al Jazeera, 10 April 2008. 3730:International Herald Tribune 3479:"Zimbabwe runs out of bread" 3462:. 1 May 2007. Archived from 3364:. London. 27 November 2007. 2839:Parsons (1993). pp. 318–320. 2690:South African History Online 2312:: 315–317 (the S languages). 2012:South African History Online 2008:"Pre-colonial history of SA" 1916:Economic history of Zimbabwe 1826: 1752: 1413: 1345:Economic history of Zimbabwe 794:British South Africa Company 497:British South Africa Company 7: 6180:Dollar (suspended currency) 4072:, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008. 3988:, Al Jazeera, 28 June 2008. 3537:"Trip to Africa enlightens" 3228:"Background Note: Zimbabwe" 3000:A soldier faces his critics 2967:Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey. 2600:Impressions of South Africa 2187:Mapungubwe: A Living Legacy 1896: 1620:2008 parliamentary election 1378:countries in response. The 1211:Prime Minister Mugabe kept 982:Southern Rhodesia became a 948:, and some even joined the 525:caused many Zimbabweans to 283:Colony of Southern Rhodesia 10: 7017: 5922:2008–2009 cholera outbreak 3884:, Al Jazeera, 10 May 2008. 2743:McLaughlin, Peter (1980). 2306:Annales, Sciences Humaines 2138:Journal of African History 2091:African Archaeology 3rd ed 1981:Prime Minister of Rhodesia 1941:Prime Minister of Zimbabwe 1848: 1760:Prime Minister of Zimbabwe 1604: 1366: 1342: 1096:Independence and the 1980s 890: 774: 559: 548: 6905: 6880: 6599: 6528: 6481: 6444: 6409: 6376: 6323: 6308: 6299: 6231: 6222: 6160: 6151: 6060: 6051: 5994: 5985: 5963:Cricket (1992–2006) 5945: 5910:Lancaster House Agreement 5791: 5782: 5774:under UDI; 1980–present: 5748: 5468: 5377: 5161: 5130: 5079:Background Note: Zimbabwe 4068:15 September 2008 at the 3861:, Sapa-Associated Press ( 2941:30 September 2007 at the 2864:Pakenham, Thomas (1992). 2849:Williams, Lizzie (2005). 2661:10.1017/S0021853700017382 2352:10.1007/s00114-006-0088-z 2171:Phillipson, D.W. (1989). 2150:10.1017/s0021853705000770 2089:Phillipson, D.W. (1995). 1556:'. The settlement of the 515:Lancaster House Agreement 378:Lancaster House Agreement 342:Unilateral Declaration of 191:White settlement pre-1923 31:This article needs to be 6647:Central African Republic 4428:. London. 6 March 2009. 3903:, BBC News, 10 May 2008. 3899:19 December 2008 at the 3766:4 September 2020 at the 3751:, AFP, 15 February 2008. 3611:. London. Archived from 2986:30 November 2003 at the 2291:An African Classical Age 2276:Handbook to the Iron Age 2261:An African Classical Age 2076:Handbook to the Iron Age 2039:Handbook to the Iron Age 1877:Economic statistics 2021 1288: 1250:Minister of Information 1118:Charles, Prince of Wales 771:Colonial era (1890–1980) 317:Federation with Northern 293:World War II involvement 4452:"Zimbabwe PM wife dies" 4144:. London. 1 July 2008. 3784:"Zim heads for run-off" 2817:Parsons (1993). p. 292. 2718:Palley, Claire (1966). 2323:Guthrie, M. (1967–71). 1911:Land reform in Zimbabwe 1595: 1515:Operation Murambatsvina 1399: 1369:Land reform in Zimbabwe 1185:President of Mozambique 1146:Commonwealth of Nations 273:World War I involvement 6034:Wards (municipalities) 5895:1976 Geneva Conference 5038:Scarnecchia, Timothy. 5028:(Weaver Press, 2009). 4022:4 October 2012 at the 3724:14 August 2008 at the 2954:Raymond, Walter John. 2435:Historical Archaeology 2399:10.1098/rspb.2002.1955 2327:. Gregg International. 2228:Cite journal requires 2117:Cite journal requires 2037:Huffman, T.N. (2007). 1851:Zimbabwe fuel protests 1805:described it as such. 1773: 1729:Marange diamond fields 1674:international reaction 1488: 1237:British Prime Minister 1201:Parliament of Zimbabwe 1132:of Nigeria, President 979: 785:In the 1880s, British 650: 319:Rhodesia and Nyasaland 6807:São Tomé and Príncipe 6667:Republic of the Congo 6175:Zimbabwean bond notes 6170:Zimbabwean bond coins 6134:2007 political crisis 4487:"Bailing out bandits" 4028:The Zimbabwe Guardian 3984:3 August 2008 at the 3770:, CNN, 23 March 2008. 3747:26 March 2008 at the 3334:Amnesty International 3092:on 28 September 2007. 3020:"HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE" 3009:TIME magazine and CNN 2971:, 1999. Page 711-712. 2945:TIME magazine and CNN 2770:A history of Zimbabwe 2381:Holden, C.J. (2002). 2175:. Paris. p. 156. 1976:President of Rhodesia 1921:Education in Zimbabwe 1772: 1725:Air Force of Zimbabwe 1723:In November 2008 the 1685:official negotiations 1543:Amnesty International 1479: 1136:of Zambia, President 1011:East African Campaign 969: 656:Kingdom of Mapungubwe 644: 489:Kingdom of Mapungubwe 5999:Chimanimani District 5045:Sibanda, Eliakim M. 4775:. 24 November 2017. 4678:. 15 November 2017. 4271:16 July 2011 at the 4198:18 July 2011 at the 4007:, AFP, 29 June 2008. 3857:15 June 2006 at the 3812:13 June 2008 at the 3789:15 June 2006 at the 3782:MacDonald Dzirutwe, 3728:, Associated Press ( 3344:on 13 November 2007. 2612:Gray, J. A. (1956). 2492:"The Ndebele People" 1936:Politics of Zimbabwe 1442:improve this article 1128:of India, President 1108:, the capital. Lord 1090:Republic of Rhodesia 705:and encountered the 523:Economic instability 495:. In the 1880s, the 6996:History of Zimbabwe 6882:States with limited 6019:Place name renaming 5900:Internal Settlement 5831:Second Matabele War 5019:History of Zimbabwe 4325:(4 December 2008). 4045:6 July 2008 at the 3880:10 May 2008 at the 3680:on 4 November 2012. 3673:The Washington Post 3466:on 4 November 2012. 3459:The Washington Post 3005:4 February 2013 at 2853:. pp. 169–170. 2460:"Antonio Fernandes" 2340:Naturwissenschaften 2200:Phillipson (1989). 1778:nationwide protests 1738:Mutare City Council 1038:African nationalism 1032:) in the ill-fated 1019:Italian East Africa 664:Kingdom of Zimbabwe 493:Kingdom of Zimbabwe 260:Second Matabele War 6200:Telecommunications 5937:2019 fuel protests 5927:2016–2017 protests 5821:First Matabele War 4948:(Zed Books 2011). 4838:. 16 January 2019. 4599:The New York Times 4560:The New York Times 4364:The New York Times 4088:The New York Times 4003:3 May 2011 at the 3698:The New York Times 3542:Contra Costa Times 3427:The New York Times 3165:The New York Times 3130:Africa Development 2387:Proc. R. Soc. Lond 2259:Ehret, C. (2001). 1840:Emmerson Mnangagwa 1821:Emmerson Mnangagwa 1817:Phelekezela Mphoko 1794:Emmerson Mnangagwa 1774: 1648:Human Rights Watch 1489: 1485:Zimbabwean dollars 1252:Nathan Shamuyarira 1122:God Save the Queen 1110:Christopher Soames 980: 957:German East Africa 950:Royal Flying Corps 814:British government 651: 508:Rhodesian Bush War 389:British Dependency 371:June–December 1979 344:Independence (UDI) 331:Rhodesian Bush War 246:First Matabele War 116:Mapungubwe Kingdom 6983: 6982: 6909:other territories 6682:Equatorial Guinea 6593:History of Africa 6559: 6558: 6524: 6523: 6477: 6476: 6440: 6439: 6286:Sport in Zimbabwe 6256:Human trafficking 6218: 6217: 6147: 6146: 6107:Political parties 6070:Foreign relations 6047: 6046: 5981: 5980: 5958:Cricket (to 1992) 5905:Zimbabwe Rhodesia 5848:Southern Rhodesia 5772:Zimbabwe Rhodesia 5756:Southern Rhodesia 5704: 5703: 5162:Southern Rhodesia 4944:Bourne, Richard. 4808:. 1 August 2018. 4332:Los Angeles Times 3732:), 30 March 2008. 3615:on 9 January 2008 3545:. 16 April 2007. 2958:, 1992. Page 557. 2754:978-0-86920-232-6 2572:Hensman, Howard. 2444:978-1-4051-0751-8 2393:(1493): 793–799. 2240:Missing or empty 1966:Years in Zimbabwe 1903:History of Africa 1632:Morgan Tsvangirai 1538:Morgan Tsvangirai 1474: 1473: 1466: 1407:Second Chimurenga 1384:Morgan Tsvangirai 1356:Zimbabwean dollar 1255:States President 1240:Margaret Thatcher 1223:(ZANLA), and the 1045:Northern Rhodesia 911:South-West Africa 858:Northern Rhodesia 854:Southern Rhodesia 798:Southern Rhodesia 777:Southern Rhodesia 699:António Fernandes 679:Kingdom of Mutapa 539:Zimbabwe Rhodesia 535:Southern Rhodesia 501:Southern Rhodesia 473: 472: 440: 439: 367:Zimbabwe-Rhodesia 303:Malayan Emergency 184: 183: 52: 51: 7008: 6970: 6969:(United Kingdom) 6965:Tristan da Cunha 6961:Ascension Island 6953: 6940: 6931: 6907:Dependencies and 6600:Sovereign states 6586: 6579: 6572: 6563: 6562: 6544: 6537: 6321: 6320: 6306: 6305: 6229: 6228: 6158: 6157: 6058: 6057: 6004:Cities and towns 5992: 5991: 5932:2017 coup d'état 5858:Second World War 5853:colonial history 5789: 5788: 5731: 5724: 5717: 5708: 5707: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5090: 5089: 5068: 4999:Michel, Eddie. 4974: 4932: 4931: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4828: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4798: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4784: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4657: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4551: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4483: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4288: 4282: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4237: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4208: 4202: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4134: 4128: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4079: 4073: 4060: 4054: 4037: 4031: 4014: 4008: 3995: 3989: 3976: 3970: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3943:. 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The Odyssey. 2546: 2545: 2541: 2531: 2529: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2468:Scarecrow Press 2456: 2452: 2445: 2431: 2424: 2379: 2375: 2336: 2332: 2321: 2317: 2302: 2298: 2287: 2283: 2272: 2268: 2257: 2253: 2241: 2239: 2229: 2227: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2198: 2194: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2169: 2165: 2134: 2130: 2118: 2116: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2087: 2083: 2072: 2065: 2050: 2046: 2035: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1899: 1887: 1853: 1829: 1755: 1750: 1748:2009 to present 1721: 1613: 1605:Main articles: 1603: 1598: 1586: 1531: 1470: 1459: 1453: 1450: 1439: 1427: 1416: 1402: 1371: 1365: 1352:budget deficits 1347: 1341: 1302:one-party state 1291: 1098: 895: 889: 881:Second Boer War 840:, primarily to 834:Lake Tanganyika 787:diamond magnate 783: 775:Main articles: 773: 752:, establishing 674: 603:Shona languages 570:By 150,000 BC, 568: 562:Bantu expansion 558: 553: 547: 469: 404: 380: 349: 346: 343: 323: 318: 309: 304: 225:Rudd Concession 206: 177: 161: 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4975: 4969: 4956: 4954:978-1848135215 4940: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4915: 4885: 4859: 4841: 4823: 4793: 4758: 4732: 4693: 4663: 4624: 4585: 4546: 4516: 4469: 4458:on 11 May 2009 4443: 4413: 4381: 4350: 4314: 4297:guardian.co.uk 4283: 4258: 4229: 4203: 4185: 4159: 4129: 4105: 4074: 4055: 4032: 4009: 3990: 3971: 3958: 3947:on 19 May 2008 3931: 3920:on 27 May 2008 3905: 3886: 3867: 3844: 3818: 3799: 3797:), 2 May 2008. 3772: 3753: 3734: 3711: 3683: 3659: 3626: 3593: 3560: 3528: 3513:. 7 May 2007. 3498: 3469: 3445: 3412: 3379: 3347: 3317: 3284: 3251: 3216: 3183: 3147: 3120: 3095: 3073: 3041: 3026:. 4 May 2007. 3011: 2992: 2973: 2960: 2947: 2928: 2919: 2916:. p. 718. 2901: 2898:. p. 711. 2886: 2871: 2868:. p. 669. 2856: 2841: 2832: 2819: 2807: 2778: 2760: 2753: 2735: 2728: 2707: 2674: 2639: 2604: 2598:Bryce, James. 2591: 2578: 2565: 2539: 2509: 2483: 2476: 2470:. p. 90. 2450: 2443: 2422: 2373: 2346:(4): 189–194. 2330: 2315: 2296: 2281: 2266: 2251: 2230:|journal= 2207: 2204:. p. 156. 2192: 2178: 2163: 2144:(2): 209–241. 2128: 2119:|journal= 2096: 2081: 2063: 2044: 2029: 2018:on 2 July 2016 1998: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1963: 1953: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1905: 1898: 1895: 1886: 1883: 1849:Main article: 1828: 1825: 1792:reported that 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1720: 1717: 1602: 1601:2008 elections 1599: 1597: 1594: 1585: 1582: 1530: 1527: 1494:Welshman Ncube 1472: 1471: 1430: 1428: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1401: 1398: 1364: 1361: 1343:Main article: 1340: 1337: 1290: 1287: 1229:white minority 1225:Rhodesian Army 1142:Malcolm Fraser 1134:Kenneth Kaunda 1097: 1094: 1053:white-minority 987:British colony 984:self-governing 942:Salonika Front 919:Victoria Falls 903:Central Powers 891:Main article: 888: 885: 806:King Lobengula 772: 769: 668:Great Zimbabwe 647:Great Zimbabwe 557: 554: 549:Main article: 546: 543: 519:United Kingdom 471: 470: 468: 467: 460: 453: 445: 442: 441: 438: 437: 434: 428: 427: 424: 418: 417: 414: 408: 407: 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5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5762:; 1965–1979: 5761: 5758:; 1953–1963: 5757: 5754:; 1923–1980: 5753: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5732: 5727: 5725: 5720: 5718: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5382: 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2908: 2906: 2897: 2890: 2883:. p. 89. 2882: 2875: 2867: 2860: 2852: 2845: 2836: 2829: 2826:Judd, Denis. 2823: 2814: 2812: 2803: 2797: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2779:9781107021709 2775: 2771: 2764: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2731: 2729:9780198216315 2725: 2721: 2714: 2712: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2681: 2679: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2595: 2588: 2582: 2576:. p. 106–107. 2575: 2569: 2553: 2549: 2543: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2497: 2493: 2487: 2479: 2477:0-8108-3471-5 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2446: 2440: 2436: 2429: 2427: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2326: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2300: 2292: 2285: 2277: 2270: 2262: 2255: 2247: 2235: 2222: 2211: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2182: 2174: 2167: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2132: 2124: 2111: 2100: 2092: 2085: 2077: 2070: 2068: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2040: 2033: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2003: 1999: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1973: 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