1833:
persons who tested HIV positive in
Manhattan are used to compile information deemed critical to realising the extent of the AIDS epidemic. It starts by stating that up to September 1988, IDU was the risk behaviour in 19,139 (or 26%) of the first 72,223 cases of AIDS in the US. Cases among IDUs in New York City in the same period numbered 6,182 (approximately a third of national IDU cases). The study continues to outline the methodology used in the compilation of data. It says that while truly representative samples of IDUs within a community are probably impossible to obtain, samples of IDUs entering treatment provide a good source for monitoring trends. In the results section it states (quoting): "The first evidence for HIV-1 infection among IV drug users in New York is from three cases of AIDS in children born in 1977. These cases were later reported to the New York City Department of Health AIDS Surveillance Unit. These children did not receive any known
1448:, England who died on August 31, 1959, and was for some time mistakenly reported to have died from AIDS-defining opportunistic infections (ADOIs). Following the failure of his immune system, he succumbed to pneumonia. Doctors, baffled by what he had died from, preserved 50 of his tissue samples for inspection. In 1990, the tissues were found to be HIV-positive. However, in 1992, a second test by AIDS researcher David Ho found that the strain of HIV present in the tissues was similar to those found in 1990 rather than an earlier strain (which would have mutated considerably over the course of 30 years). He concluded that the DNA samples provided actually came from a patient with AIDS in the 1990s. Upon retesting David Carr's tissues, he found no sign of the virus.
543:, in Belgium, revealed that because approximately one million people every year would flow through the prominent city of Kinshasa, which served as the origin of the first suspected HIV cases in the 1920s. Kinshasa also experienced the earliest retroactive diagnosis of HIV, in the LEO70 sample, which was isolated from a preserved plasma sample of "an adult Bantu male" who also had a Sickle cell trait and G6PDD taken in 1959. It is also believed that passengers riding on the region's Belgian railway trains were able to spread the virus to larger areas, combining with the active sex trade, rapid population growth and unsterilized needles used in health clinics to create what became the
979:, the virus can be traced to a central African bush hunter in 1921, with colonial medical campaigns using improperly sterilized syringe and needles playing a key role in enabling a future epidemic. Pépin concludes that AIDS spread silently in Africa for decades, fueled by urbanization and prostitution since the initial cross-species infection. Pépin also claims that the virus was brought to the Americas by a Haitian teacher returning home from Zaire in the 1960s. Sex tourism and contaminated blood transfusion centers ultimately propelled AIDS to public consciousness in the 1980s and a worldwide pandemic.
19:
2117:, but Gallo was left out. Gallo said that it was "a disappointment" that he was not named a co-recipient. Montagnier said he was "surprised" Gallo was not recognized by the Nobel Committee: "It was important to prove that HIV was the cause of AIDS, and Gallo had a very important role in that. I'm very sorry for Robert Gallo." Dr Levy's contribution to the discovery of HIV was also cited in the Nobel Prize ceremony.
152:
229:. Another very rare HIV-1 strain (group P) is clearly derived from SIVgor strains of Cameroon. Finally, the primate ancestor of HIV-1 group O, a strain infecting 100,000 people mostly from Cameroon but also from neighbouring countries, was confirmed in 2006 to be SIVgor. The pandemic HIV-1 group M is most closely related to the SIVcpz collected from the southeastern rain forests of Cameroon (modern
1782:
New York City." It continues: "Few people were aware that large numbers of drug users were inexplicably dying of pneumonia. Those few who did notice these deaths did not feel compelled to investigate the public health puzzle they posed." The author's opinion is that if anyone had bothered to investigate these deaths, they would have found an immune system disorder that is now called AIDS.
1632:. With poor hygiene standards he managed to export 1,600 gallons of plasma to the United States a month. Without appropriate preventive action, the disease easily transferred from one donor to another through the reuse of blood tubing. Later, numerous unrelated incidents of AIDS among Haitian immigrants to the U.S. were recorded in the early 1980s. Also, as evidenced by the case of
237:. Thus, this region is presumably where the virus was first transmitted from chimpanzees to humans. However, reviews of the epidemiological evidence of early HIV-1 infection in stored blood samples, and of old cases of AIDS in Central Africa, have led many scientists to believe that HIV-1 group M early human centre was probably not in Cameroon, but rather further south in the
384:, 7.8% in villages where bushmeat is hunted or used, and 17.1% in the most exposed people of these villages. How the SIV virus would have transformed into HIV after infection of the hunter or bushmeat handler from the ape/monkey is still a matter of debate, although natural selection would favour any viruses capable of adjusting so that they could infect and reproduce in the
2170:(the genus to which HIV belongs) in its genetic makeup. This suggests that lentiviruses have existed for at least 14 million years, much longer than the currently known existence of HIV. In addition, the time frame falls in the period when Madagascar was still connected to what is now the African continent; the said lemurs later developed immunity to the virus strain and
265:(MRCA) (that is, started to spread in the human population) in the early 20th century, probably between 1915 and 1941. A study published in 2008, analyzing viral sequences recovered from a biopsy made in Kinshasa, in 1960, along with previously known sequences, suggested a common ancestor between 1873 and 1933 (with central estimates varying between 1902 and 1921).
1636:, isolated occurrences of this infection may have been emerging as early as 1966. The virus eventually entered gay male communities in large United States cities, where a combination of casual, multi-partner sexual activity (with individuals reportedly averaging over 11 unprotected sexual partners per year) and relatively high transmission rates associated with
1736:." She continues: "I actually believe that AIDS kind of existed among this group of people first, because if you look back, there was something called junkie pneumonia, there was something called the dwindles that addicts got, and I think this was another early AIDS population way too helpless to ever do anything for themselves on their own behalf."
1845:(mother-to-child) from IV drug-using women strongly suggest that the introduction of HIV-1 into the IV drug-use group occurred around 1975 or 1976, or perhaps even earlier." It says that without extensive samples from this period, it is not possible to be certain about the spread of HIV among IDUs, but the samples from IDUs with chronic
1789:: "Indeed, those of us who study AIDS have long known that long before common symptoms such as Kaposi sarcoma and pneumonia were showing up among hemophiliacs and gay men, they were likely affecting homeless people who lived off society's radar, people who used IV (intravenous) drugs and those who avoided medical treatment out of fear."
270:
indicate that HIV evolves "fairly reliably". Further research was hindered due to the primates being critically endangered. Sample analyses resulted in little data due to the rarity of experimental material. The researchers, however, were able to hypothesize a phylogeny from the gathered data. They were also able to use the
1778:: "It is plausible that these cases did not come to light in the 1970s for the same reason that 'junkie pneumonia' was not recognized as the sign of an emerging infectious disease: The people in question had such precarious access to health care that news of their death was never communicated to public health authorities."
1841:
positive tests for HIV, mainly using archived samples, are: 1 out of 11 in 1978; 13 out of 50 in 1979; 8 out of 21 in 1980; 14 out of 28 between 1981 and 1983; 75 out of 137 and 38 out of 63 in 1984; 36 out of 55 in 1986 and 169 out of 294 in 1987. In the comments section, it states: "The three cases in 1977 of apparent
4018:
Dr. Marx believes that the crucial event was the introduction into Africa of millions of inexpensive, mass-produced syringes in the 1950s. ... suspect that the growth of colonial cities is to blame. Before 1910, no
Central African town had more than 10,000 people. But urban migration rose, increasing
1274:
frequency, and transmission parameters) vary, and explored several scenarios. Each scenario was run 1,000 times, to test the probability of SIV generating long chains of sexual transmission. The authors postulated that such long chains of sexual transmission were necessary for the SIV strain to adapt
1265:
of sexual transmission obtained from the current HIV literature. They modelled people's 'sexual links', with different levels of sexual partner change among different categories of people (prostitutes, single women with several partners a year, married women, and men), according to data obtained from
813:
chain of 3 or 4 transmissions between humans is an unlikely event (the probability of transmission after a needle reuse is something between 0.3% and 2%, and only a few people have an acute SIV infection at any time), and so HIV emergence may have required the very high frequency of injections of the
605:, which would have contributed to an increase in hunting and, it follows, a higher incidence of human exposure to SIV. Several historical sources support the view that bushmeat hunting indeed increased, both because of the necessity to supply workers and because firearms became more widely available.
2076:
In
January 1985, a number of more-detailed reports were published concerning LAV and HTLV-III, and by March it was clear that the viruses were the same—indeed, it was later determined that the virus isolated by the Gallo lab was from the lymph nodes of the patient studied in the original 1983 report
256:
sequences preserved in human biological samples along with estimates of viral mutation rates, scientists calculate that the jump from chimpanzee to human probably happened during the late 19th or early 20th century, a time of rapid urbanisation and colonisation in equatorial Africa. Exactly when the
2189:
for at least 32,000 years. Previous to this time, it was thought that SIV infection in monkeys had happened over the past few hundred years. Scientists estimated that it would take a similar amount of time before humans adapted naturally to HIV infection in the way monkeys in Africa have adapted to
2000:
At the beginning of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s, there was very little information about the disease. Because AIDS disproportionately affected stigmatized groups, such as homosexuals, people of low socioeconomic status, sex workers and addicts, there was also initially little mass media coverage
1958:
During the beginning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, it was believed that this disease mainly affected gay, white males. Due to this misconception, people of colour were provided with no information or services in order to educate and help those who were HIV positive. Fortunately, as more activists spoke
1781:
An article by
Pattrice Maurer in the newspaper Agenda from April 1992 explores some of the issues surrounding junkie pneumonia. It starts: "In the late 1970s while the epidemic known as 'disco fever' swept through the U.S., an epidemic known as 'junkie pneumonia' raged among injection drug users in
1643:
Because of the long incubation period of HIV (up to a decade or longer) before symptoms of AIDS appear, and because of the initially low incidence, HIV was not noticed at first. By the time the first reported cases of AIDS were found in large United States cities, the prevalence of HIV infection in
872:
groups started to spread. It also focuses on the fact that many of the injections in these campaigns were intravenous (which are more likely to transmit SIV/HIV than subcutaneous or intramuscular injections), and many of the patients received many (often more than 10) injections per year, therefore
570:
and sea ports, railways, other infrastructures, and in plantations. This disrupted traditional tribal values and favored casual sexual activity with an increased number of partners. In the nascent cities women felt relatively liberated from rural tribal rules and many remained unmarried or divorced
492:
practice was the most likely cause of the initial transfer to humans. All of them propose that the simultaneous epidemic emergences of four HIV groups in the late 19th-early 20th century, and the lack of previous known emergences, are explained by new factor(s) that appeared in the relevant
African
1800:
that were originally collected for other purposes. We have sera from IV drug users that go back to the middle 1960s. The first indication of HTLV-III/LAV antibody presence is in one of eleven samples from 1978 ... 29% of 40 samples in 1979 ... 44% of samples from 1980 and 52% of samples from 1982.
1696:
instead of "Patient O", but neither the book nor the movie states that he had been the first to bring the virus to North
America. He was incorrectly called "Patient Zero" because at least 40 of the 248 people known to be infected by HIV in 1983 had had sex with him, or with a person who had sexual
1840:
It continues to outline that the earliest known case of AIDS in an adult IDU occurred in 1979 (mixed risk) and that known cases among IDUs increased rapidly from the 8 cases in 1980 (3 mixed risk), to 31 cases in 1981, to 160 cases in 1982, and to 340 cases in 1983. Statistics on the incidence of
639:
The authors proposed that HIV-1 originated in the area of French
Equatorial Africa in the early 20th century (when the colonial abuses and forced labor were at their peak). Later research established that these theories were mostly correct: HIV-1 groups M and O started to spread in humans in late
1996:
In this short work, they described ways gay men could be sexual and affectionate while dramatically reducing the risk of contracting or spreading HIV. Both authors were themselves gay men living with AIDS. This booklet was one of the first times men were advised to use condoms when having sexual
1940:
agent. The syndrome was initially termed "GRID", or "gay-related immune deficiency"; other less common gay-specific terms included "gay compromise syndrome", "gay lymph node syndrome", "gay cancer", "gay plague", "homosexual syndrome", "community-acquired immunodeficiency" ("CAID") and "acquired
1804:
Anna
Thompson writes on the website TheBody.com in an article dated Autumn 1993: "Many women were dying in the late '70s of pneumonia, cervical cancer, and other illnesses complicated by 'mysteriously' suppressed immune systems. Yet, it was not until 1981 that a case of AIDS in a woman was first
1770:
writes: "People had been sickening and dying of mysterious conditions since the early 1970s, conditions that we can retrospectively diagnose as AIDS related. There was, for example, a phenomenon known as 'junkie pneumonia' which spread among some populations of injecting street drug users in the
1861:
study: "Between 1974 and 1977, the
Department of Health (DOH) budget (in NY) was cut by 20%, and by 1977 the department had lost 1700 staff members – 28% of its 1974 workforce. To achieve these reductions, the department closed 7 of 20 district health centers, cut $ 1 million from its methadone
1619:
around 1967. The current consensus is that HIV was introduced to Haiti by an unknown individual or individuals who contracted it while working in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo circa 1966. A mini-epidemic followed, and circa 1969, yet another unknown individual took HIV from Haiti to the
1875:
of the presence of AIDS." Further, a study from 1987 stated there was a link between the rise in TB, AIDS and drug users within the United States: "AIDS thus compounds the risk of acquiring tuberculosis, and in the United States most patients with AIDS and tuberculosis have been drug users." A
1852:
HIV is thought to have entered the population of people using intravenous drugs in New York City in approximately 1975. In Spring 1975, the government of New York City underwent a fiscal crisis which led to the closing of many social services, with people who used intravenous drugs living in a
1832:
The study "HIV-1 Infection Among Intravenous Drug Users in Manhattan, New York City, from 1977 through 1987", published in February 1989, seeks to understand long term trends in the spread of HIV among intravenous drug users (IDUs). AIDS surveillance data and studies which detail the number of
1425:, chimpanzees with SIVcpz infection do experience an increased mortality, and also suffer from a human AIDS-like illness. SIV pathogenicity in wild animals could exist in other chimpanzee subspecies and other primate species as well, and stay unrecognized by lack of relevant long term studies.
1828:
article from October 1987 about a NYC Department of Health study that showed that 53% of AIDS sufferers were people who injected drugs – more than 150 percent higher than previously reported. Quoting: "City health officials estimated that half of the city's 200,000 intravenous drug users were
269:
had earlier been thought to "seriously confound" such phylogenetic analysis, but later "work has suggested that recombination is not likely to systematically bias ", although recombination is "expected to increase variance". The results of a 2008 phylogenetics study support the later work and
1382:
infection does not cause a fatal disease (but see below). Comparison of the gene sequence of SIV with HIV should, therefore, provide information about the factors necessary to cause disease in humans. The factors that determine the virulence of HIV as compared to most SIVs are only now being
1328:
One of the main advantages of this theory is stressed by the authors: "It also offers a conceptual simplicity because it proposes as causal factors for SIV adaptation to humans and initial spread the very same factors that most promote the continued spread of HIV nowadays: promiscuous sex,
371:
to a human when a hunter was cut or otherwise injured while hunting or butchering an infected animal. The resulting exposure to blood or other bodily fluids of the animal can result in SIV infection. Rural Africans who were not keen to pursue agricultural practices in the jungle turned to
1723:
from the seventies and early eighties onwards, has talked about people at that time whose death would be labelled as "junkie flu" or "the dwindles". In an interview for the Act Up Oral History Project in 2008, she said: "Of course, the horror stories came, mainly concerning women who were
1073:(GUDs) peaked in the colonial cities during their early growth period (up to 1935). The colonial authorities recruited men to work in railways, fluvial and sea ports, and other infrastructure projects, and most of these men did not bring their wives with them. Then, the highly male-biased
968:: "the same procedures could have exponentially amplified HIV-1, from a single hunter/cook occupationally infected with SIVcpz to several thousand patients treated with arsenicals or other drugs, a threshold beyond which sexual transmission could prosper." They do not suggest specifically
5868:
D.C. Des Jarlais; S.R. Friedman; D.M. Novick; J.L. Sotheran; P. Thomas; S.R. Yancovitz; D. Mildvan; J. Weber; M.J. Kreek; R. Maslansky; S. Bartelme; T. Spira; M. Marmor (17 February 1989). "HIV-1 Infection Among Intravenous Drug Users in Manhattan, New York City, From 1977 Through 1987".
2478:
Takehisa, Jun; Kraus, Matthias H.; Ayouba, Ahidjo; Bailes, Elizabeth; Van Heuverswyn, Fran; Decker, Julie M.; Li, Yingying; Rudicell, Rebecca S.; Learn, Gerald H.; Neel, Cecile; Ngole, Eitel Mpoudi; Shaw, George M.; Peeters, Martine; Sharp, Paul M.; Hahn, Beatrice H. (10 December 2008).
1823:
that continues to see the beginning of the epidemic as 1981 ... in spite of widespread anecdotal reporting of a high rate of deaths throughout the 1970s from what was known as 'junkie pneumonia' and was likely Pneumocystis pneumonia." The statistics Crimp writes about were taken from a
1959:
out about their concerns, organizations, such as Black Coalition For AIDS Prevention and Alliance For South Asian AIDS Prevention came to be, providing their communities with services in order to enhance the lives of HIV positive individuals and to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS.
5721:
D.M. Novick; M.J. Creek; D.C. Des Jarlais; T. Spira; E. Khuri; J. Ragunath; V. Kalyanaraman; A.M. Gelb; A. Meische (1986). "Antibody to LAV, the Putative Agent of AIDS, in Parenteral Drug Abusers and Methadone - Maintained Patients:Therapeutic, Historical, and Ethical Aspects".
1510:
detected a virus closely related or identical to HIV-1 in his preserved blood and tissues. The doctors who worked on his case at the time suspected he was a sex worker or the victim of sexual abuse, though the patient did not discuss his sexual history with them in detail.
6771:
Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)".
1048:
strain, the lineage was in a simian. HIV-1 groups M and O split from their closest SIVs around 1931 and 1915, respectively. This information, together with the datations of the HIV groups' MRCAs, mean that all HIV groups likely crossed to humans in the early 20th century.
4669:
372:
non-domesticated animals as their primary source of meat. This over-exposure to bushmeat and malpractice of butchery increased blood-to-blood contact, which then increased the probability of transmission. A recent serological survey showed that human infections by
787:
proposed that unsterile injections (that is, injections where the needle or syringe is reused without sterilization or cleaning between uses), which were likely very prevalent in Africa, during both the colonial period and afterwards, provided the mechanism of
562:, and their colleagues proposed that " most likely reflects changes in population structure and behaviour in Africa during the 20th century and perhaps medical interventions that provided the opportunity for rapid human-to-human spread of the virus". After the
479:
It also remains unexplained why all epidemic HIV groups emerged in humans nearly simultaneously, and only in the 20th century, despite very old human exposure to SIV (a 2010 phylogenetic study demonstrated that SIV is at least tens of thousands of years old).
1153:
transmissibility ever measured was from female prostitutes with 85% prevalence of HIV to uncircumcised men with GUD—"A cumulative 43% ... seroconverted to HIV-1 after a single sexual exposure." There was no seroconversion in the absence of male GUD. Sousa
1796:(9th, San Francisco, California, September 1–6, 1985) gives details about serum samples that were tested for signs of HIV (then called HTLV-III/LAV) antibodies. Quoting: "We have also conducted historical studies of the epidemic in New York City, using
2063:
Dr. Jay Levy's group at the University of California, San Francisco also played a role in the discovery of HIV. He independently isolated the AIDS virus in 1983 and named it the AIDS-associated Retrovirus (ARV), publishing his findings in the journal
2050:
of the United States confirmed the discovery of the virus, but they renamed it human T lymphotropic virus type III. This should not be confused with the HTLV-3 virus, a member of the unrelated PLTV family of viruses, which was discovered in 2005.
7516:
1182:
living in Central and West Africa. They also collected censuses and other literature showing the ethnic composition of colonial cities in this period. Then, they estimated the circumcision frequencies of the Central African cities over time.
362:
According to the natural transfer theory (also called "hunter theory" or "bushmeat theory"), in the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" of SIV or HIV (post mutation), the virus was transmitted from an
1340:
theories propose that medical interventions were responsible for HIV origins. By proposing factors that only appeared in Central and West Africa after the late 19th century, they seek to explain why all HIV groups also started after that.
1747:
of a number of diverse populations in the United States (the retrospectively diagnosed epidemic of 'junkie pneumonia' in New York City in the late 1970s for example) and had for some time been causing devastation in several countries in
2197:, an order of mammals parallel to primates and sharing an immediate common ancestor with them, found endogenous lentiviruses that emerged an estimated 40–60 million years ago based on rates of viral mutation versus modern lentiviruses.
4418:
Keele BF, Jones JH, Terio KA, Estes JD, Rudicell RS, Wilson ML, Li Y, Learn GH, Beasley TM, Schumacher-Stankey J, Wroblewski E, Mosser A, Raphael J, Kamenya S, Lonsdorf EV, Travis DA, Mlengeya T, Kinsel MJ, Else JG, Silvestri G,
1290:) SIV could not spread at all. City size was not an important factor. The authors propose that these findings explain the temporal patterns of HIV emergence: no HIV emerging in tens of thousands of years of human slaughtering of
5368:
Jaffe HW, Darrow WW, Echenberg DF, O'Malley PM, Getchell JP, Kalyanaraman VS, Byers RH, Drennan DP, Braff EH, Curran JW (1985). "The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a cohort of homosexual men. A six-year follow-up study".
2224:. The evidence that HIV causes AIDS is generally considered conclusive among pathologists. Most arguments for denialism are based on misrepresentations of outdated data. The belief that HIV was created by the US government as a
4661:
2219:
argue that AIDS does not exist or that AIDS is not caused by HIV; some of its proponents believe that AIDS is caused by lifestyle, including sexuality or drug use, and not by HIV. Both forms of AIDS denialism contradict
1016:. These diseases increase the probability of HIV transmission dramatically, from around 0.01–0.1% to 4–43% per heterosexual act, because the genital ulcers provide a portal of viral entry, and contain many activated
7830:
1949:
such as heroin, and Haitian immigrants—leading some researchers to call it the "4H" disease. By August 1982, the disease was being referred to by its new CDC-coined name: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
808:
were introduced (around 1950) as being the most likely implicated in the origin of HIV because, by these times (roughly in the period 1950 to 1970), injection intensity in Africa was maximal. They argued that a
3620:
Worobey M, Telfer P, Souquière S, Hunter M, Coleman CA, Metzger MJ, Reed P, Makuwa M, Hearn G, Honarvar S, Roques P, Apetrei C, Kazanji M, Marx PA (2010). "Island Biogeography Reveals the Deep History of SIV".
4376:
Schindler M, Münch J, Kutsch O, Li H, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Müller-Trutwin MC, Novembre FJ, Peeters M, Courgnaud V, Bailes E, Roques P, Sodora DL, Silvestri G, Sharp PM, Hahn BH, Kirchhoff F (2006).
2372:"Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Free-Ranging Sooty Mangabeys (Cercocebus atys atys) from the Tai Forest, Cote d'Ivoire: Implications for the Origin of Epidemic Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2"
1876:
newsletter from Spring 1987 by the National Coalition Of Gay STD Services featured an article titled "Tuberculosis and AIDS - Connecticut" that suggested an association between TB and AIDS within that state.
1104:
Therefore, the peak GUD incidences in cities have a good temporal coincidence with the period when all main HIV groups crossed to humans and started to spread. In addition, the authors gathered evidence that
1298:, several HIV groups emerging in the nascent, GUD-riddled, colonial cities, and no epidemically successful HIV group emerging in mid-20th century, when GUD was more controlled, and cities were much bigger.
1853:
hostile sociopolitical and legal environment. This fiscal crisis led to many agencies with health responsibilities being particularly hard hit, which in turn might have led to an increase in HIV/AIDS and
987:
João Dinis de Sousa, Viktor Müller, Philippe Lemey, and Anne-Mieke Vandamme proposed that HIV became epidemic through sexual serial transmission, in nascent colonial cities, helped by a high frequency of
7533:
4497:
2034:
that they believed was the cause of AIDS. The virus was later named lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV) and a sample was sent to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, which was later passed to the
2001:
when the epidemic started. However, with the rise of activist groups composed of people suffering from AIDS, either directly or through a loved one, more public attention was brought to the epidemic.
656:(which was a German colony between 1884 and 1916, and then fell to Allied forces in World War I, and had most of its area administered by France, in close association with French Equatorial Africa).
425:, which harbour the related SIVsmm virus, exist. However, these relationships do not explain more detailed patterns of biogeography, such as why epidemic HIV-2 groups (A and B) only evolved in the
6637:
861:, Gisselquist argued that the millions of unsafe injections administered during these campaigns were sufficient to spread rare HIV infections into an epidemic, and that evolution of HIV through
4694:
Garry RF, Witte MH, Gottlieb AA, Elvin-Lewis M, Gottlieb MS, Witte CL, Alexander SS, Cole WR, Drake WL (October 1988). "Documentation of an AIDS virus infection in the United States in 1968".
4039:
1862:
program, terminated the employment of 14 of 19 health educators, and closed 20 of 75 child health stations and 6 of 14 chest clinics (the units responsible for TB screening and diagnosis)."
1549:, his wife, and his seven-year-old daughter died of AIDS. The sailor had first presented symptoms in 1969, eight years after he first spent time in ports along the West African coastline. A
1282:
frequency was by far the most decisive factor. For the GUD levels prevailing in Léopoldville in the early 20th century, long chains of SIV transmission had a high probability. For the lower
1190:
charts reveal that male circumcision frequencies were much lower in several cities of western and central Africa in the early 20th century than they are currently. The reason is that many
81:. HIV-1 is more virulent, more easily transmitted, and it is the cause of the vast majority of HIV infections globally. The pandemic strain of HIV-1 is closely related to a virus found in
54:. While various sub-groups of the virus acquired human infectivity at different times, the present pandemic had its origins in the emergence of one specific strain – HIV-1 subgroup M – in
7825:
1553:
infection during his first African voyage shows he was sexually active at this time. Tissue samples from the sailor and his wife were tested in 1988 and found to contain HIV-1 (Group O).
354:
Molecular dating studies suggest that both the epidemic groups (A and B) started to spread among humans between 1905 and 1961 (with the central estimates varying between 1932 and 1945).
1578:
in 1964 then again in 1972 to aid the sick. She was likely directly exposed to blood from many Congolese patients, one of whom infected her. She became unwell in 1974, then returned to
925:
risks: schistosomiasis cases were relatively few; tuberculosis patients only became numerous after mid-century; and there were few smallpox vaccinations in the lifetime of each person.
5453:
453:) did not spawn an epidemic HIV-1 strain to humans, while the Democratic Republic of Congo was the main centre of HIV-1 group M, a virus descended from SIVcpz strains of a subspecies (
628:) of SIV between humans (see discussion of this in the next section). In addition, they proposed that the conditions of extreme stress associated with forced labor could depress the
2178:. The study was hailed as crucial, as it fills the blanks in the origin of the virus, as well as in its evolution, and could be important in the development of new antiviral drugs.
6852:
Popovic M, Sarngadharan MG, Read E, Gallo RC (1984). "Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS".
5019:
2130:
218:, called SIVgor. The pandemic HIV-1 strain (group M or Main) and a rare strain found only in a few Cameroonian people (group N) are clearly derived from SIVcpz strains endemic in
4108:
Pépin J, Labbé AC (2008). "Noble goals, unforeseen consequences: control of tropical diseases in colonial Central Africa and the iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses".
1321:, and several other GUDs have higher incidences in uncircumcised men), or by permitting further spread of the HIV strain, after the first chains of sexual transmission permitted
1286:
levels existing in the same city in the late 1950s (see above), they were much less likely. And without GUD (a situation typical of villages in forested equatorial Africa before
6010:
G. Sunderam; R.J. McDonald; T. Maniatis; J. Oleske; R. Kapila; L.B. Reichman (18 July 1986). "Tuberculosis as a manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)".
4354:
2545:
Keele BF, Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Bailes E, Takehisa J, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Chen Y, Wain LV, Liegeois F, Loul S, Ngole EM, Bienvenue Y, Delaporte E, Brookfield JF,
589:
Amit Chitnis, Diana Rawls, and Jim Moore proposed that HIV may have emerged epidemically as a result of harsh conditions, forced labor, displacement, and unsafe injection and
7475:
which opens with this reasonable statement: 'Despite considerable advances in HIV science in the past 20 years, the reason why HIV-1 infection is pathogenic is still debated.
5831:
5510:
8137:
2707:
Plantier JC, Leoz M, Dickerson JE, De Oliveira F, Cordonnier F, Lemée V, Damond F, Robertson DL, Simon F (2009). "A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas".
1914:. Over the next 18 months, more PCP clusters were discovered among otherwise healthy men in cities throughout the country, along with other opportunistic diseases (such as
675:
In several articles published since 2001, Preston Marx, Philip Alcabes, and Ernest Drucker proposed that HIV emerged because of rapid serial human-to-human transmission of
3282:
Sharp, Paul, Elizabeth Bailes, Roy Chaudhuri, et al. "The Origins of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Viruses: Where and When?" The Royal Society (2001): 867–76. Print.
2134:
1805:
reported by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)." She continues: "The CDC's refusal to address women's issues led to the overall perception that women do not get AIDS."
7610:
8101:
3759:
Friedrichs A (Herzogs zu Mecklenbourg), editor (1924) Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Zentral-Afrika Expedition 1907–1908. Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann.
566:
started in the 1880s, European colonial powers established cities, towns, and other colonial stations. A largely masculine labor force was hastily recruited to work in
6913:
6309:
4528:
1093:, so that, by the late 1950s, Léopoldville (which is the probable center of HIV-1 group M) had a very low GUD incidence. Similar processes happened in the cities of
577:
and colleagues observed that the growth of cities probably played a role in the epidemic emergence of HIV, since the phylogenetic dating of the two older strains of
3901:
8821:
7820:
1871:
in 1986 linked TB and HIV/AIDS: "Severe and unusual presentation of overwhelming tuberculosis in appropriate clinical circumstances may be considered an infection
8192:
1743:
that: "As we uncover more of the early history of HIV infection, it becomes clear that by at least the 1970s the virus was already making major inroads into the
4252:
1406:
gene, however, has lost its ability to down-regulate CD3, which results in the immune activation and apoptosis that is characteristic of chronic HIV infection.
8788:
5081:
4817:
3991:
1125:(either or both of clitoridectomy and infibulation) is responsible for the high incidence of AIDS in Africa, since intercourse with a female who has undergone
5093:
4489:
7281:
6634:
1666:
was referred to as "Case 057" and later "Patient O" with the alphabet letter "O" standing for "outside Southern California", in an early AIDS study by Dr.
6656:
1089:
and other drugs) were organized, and so the GUD incidences started to decline. They declined even further after World War II, because of the heavy use of
472:
groups A and B) spread considerably in human populations, despite bushmeat practices being widespread in Central and West Africa, and the resulting human
8783:
7837:
3722:
Egerton FC (1938) African Majesty: A Record of Refuge at the Court of the King of Bangangté in the French Cameroons. London: George Routledge & Sons.
3015:"Dating the common ancestor of SIVcpz and HIV-1 group M and the origin of HIV-1 subtypes by using a new method to uncover clock-like molecular evolution"
7377:
493:
regions in that timeframe. These new factor(s) would have acted either to increase human exposures to SIV, to help it to adapt to the human organism by
3571:
Kalish ML, Wolfe ND, Ndongmo CB, McNicholl J, Robbins KE, Aidoo M, Fonjungo PN, Alemnji G, Zeh C, Djoko CF, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Burke DS, Folks TM (2005).
1527:. In 1985, retroactive testing of the frozen blood serum indicated that antibodies to a virus related to HIV were present in 50 (67%) of the children.
3848:
2947:"High GUD Incidence in the Early 20th century Created a Particularly Permissive Time Window for the Origin and Initial Spread of Epidemic HIV Strains"
1113:
socially disrupted these areas (starting in the 1880s). Thus, this theory also potentially explains why HIV emerged only after the late 19th century.
457:) that does not exist in this country. It is clear that the several HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains descend from SIVcpz, SIVgor, and SIVsmm viruses, and that
4031:
3207:
Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, Gilbert MT, Wolinsky SM (2008).
3315:"Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa"
1644:
some communities had passed 5%. Worldwide, HIV infection has spread from urban to rural areas, and has appeared in regions such as China and India.
8298:
7082:
2813:
Takebe, Y; Uenishi, R; Li, X (2008). "Global Molecular Epidemiology of HIV: Understanding the Genesis of AIDS Pandemic". In Jeang, Kuan-Teh (ed.).
520:
and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of non-monogamous sexual activity, the spread of
5649:
206:
populations of West Central African forests. In particular, each of the known HIV-1 strains is either closely related to the SIV that infects the
7771:
5909:"Harm reduction theory: Users culture, micro-social indigenous harm reduction, and the self-organization and outside-organizing of users' groups"
2370:
Santiago ML, Range F, Keele BF, Li Y, Bailes E, Bibollet-Ruche F, Fruteau C, Noë R, Peeters M, Brookfield JF, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (2005).
2152:
1158:
reasoned that the adaptation and epidemic emergence of each HIV group may have required such extreme conditions, and thus reviewed the existing
5050:
2614:
2086:
1194:
not performing circumcision by that time gradually adopted it, to imitate other ethnic groups and enhance the social acceptance of their boys (
4881:
8172:
5416:
571:
during long periods, this being rare in African traditional societies. This was accompanied by unprecedented increase in people's movements.
5449:
8814:
5220:
1991:
636:
period of someone newly infected by SIV, thus increasing the odds of both adaptation of the virus to humans, and of further transmissions.
2097:
Whether Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier deserve more credit than Gallo for the discovery of the virus that causes AIDS has been a matter of
1444:
David Carr was an apprentice printer (usually mistakenly referred to as a sailor; Carr had served in the Navy between 1955 and 1957) from
8044:
7863:
7813:
7761:
1867:
5011:
2252:
of Brazil ordered an investigation into Bolsonaro for falsely claiming that COVID vaccines could increase the risk of contracting AIDS.
8157:
5266:
Morris M, Dean L (1994). "Effect of sexual behavior change on long-term human immunodeficiency virus prevalence among homosexual men".
4988:
3874:
1885:
1817:
695:
enunciated the underlying mechanisms in greater detail, and wrote the first review of the injection campaigns made in colonial Africa.
488:
Several of the theories of HIV origin accept the established knowledge of the HIV/SIV phylogenetic relationships, and also accept that
6675:
5343:
2859:
Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (1999).
6099:
1202:
in the early 20th century should be uncircumcised, and these cities were the probable centers of HIV-1 groups M and O, respectively.
7165:
6894:
Levy, J.A., et al., Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS. Science, 1984. 225: pp. 840–42
4906:
Frøland SS, Jenum P, Lindboe CF, Wefring KW, Linnestad PJ, Böhmer T (June 1988). "HIV-1 infection in Norwegian family before 1970".
4583:
4326:
312:
that spread considerably in humans (HIV-2 groups A and B) are the SIVsmm found in the sooty mangabeys of the Tai forest, in western
7971:
7410:
6492:
6449:
6285:
6195:
5821:
5506:
3948:
Drucker E, Alcabes PG, Marx PA (2001). "The injection century: massive unsterile injections and the emergence of human pathogens".
7255:
4839:
Saxinger WC, Levine PH, Dean AG, de Thé G, Lange-Wantzin G, Moghissi J, Laurent F, Hoh M, Sarngadharan MG, Gallo RC (March 1985).
4005:
1266:
modern studies of sexual activity in African cities. The simulations let the parameters (city size, proportion of people married,
8831:
8807:
6152:
5480:
4730:
821:
The molecular dating studies place the initial spread of the epidemic HIV groups before that time (see above). According to Marx
741:
reported experiments of cross-species transfer of SIV in captive monkeys (some of which made by themselves), in which the use of
581:(groups M and O), suggest that these viruses started to spread soon after the main Central African colonial cities were founded.
6618:
1040:
lineage. Each HIV group necessarily crossed to humans between this time and the time when it started to spread (the time of the
9008:
7883:
7713:
7600:
6238:
2156:
6599:
4215:
Cameron DW, Simonsen JN, D'Costa LJ, Ronald AR, Maitha GM, Gakinya MN, Cheang M, Ndinya-Achola JO, Piot P, Brunham RC (1989).
1460:
in the Belgian Congo. However, it is unknown whether this anonymous person ever developed AIDS and died of its complications.
8132:
7672:
6836:
5574:
4782:
4196:
4167:
3741:
2206:
2102:
1890:
1359:
1109:
and the other GUDs were, like injections, absent from the densely forested areas of Central and West Africa before organized
6402:
5696:
4752:
1674:. Because of this, many people had considered Dugas to be responsible for taking HIV to North America. However, HIV reached
8563:
6905:
5190:
3266:
1507:
504:
Genetic studies of the virus suggested in 2008 that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to the
6306:
4520:
8251:
4068:
Gisselquist D (2003). "Emergence of the HIV type 1 epidemic in the twentieth century: comparing hypotheses to evidence".
3921:
2052:
1456:
One of the earliest documented HIV-1 infections was discovered in a preserved blood sample taken in 1959 from a man from
893:
for the period 1921–59, calculating the incidences of the diseases requiring intravenous injections. They concluded that
5757:
1620:
United States. The vast majority of cases of AIDS outside sub-Saharan Africa can be traced back to that single patient.
8688:
7928:
7645:
7363:
5627:
5602:
5541:
5301:
Jin F, Jansson J, Law M, Prestage GP, Zablotska I, Imrie JC, Kippax SC, Kaldor JM, Grulich AE, Wilson DP (March 2010).
2830:
2297:
1057:
The authors reviewed colonial medical articles and archived medical reports of the countries at or near the ranges of
274:
of a specific strain of HIV to determine the initial date of transmission, which is estimated to be around 1915–1931.
111:. HIV-2 is less transmissible and is largely confined to West Africa, along with its closest relative, a virus of the
8111:
8001:
7499:
6744:
6396:
5965:
4809:
4216:
2146:
1858:
1480:
A strain with a large amount of the genetic material present was dated to 1966 from a sample from a 38-year-old man.
429:, which is one of only six countries harbouring the sooty mangabey. It is also unclear why the SIVcpz endemic in the
4731:"The Earliest Known AIDS Patient in the United States was Infected with an HIV-1 Strain Closely Related to IIIB/LAI"
7858:
7686:
7189:"A transitional endogenous lentivirus from the genome of a basal primate and implications for lentivirus evolution"
6673:
NLM Launches “Surviving and Thriving: AIDS, Politics, and Culture" – Traveling Banner Display and Online Exhibition
5085:
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1842:
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1434:
722:
more rapidly, therefore increasing the odds that a better adapted viral variant will appear in the host before the
238:
67:
1209:
frequencies in 12 cities of Central and West Africa, to test if this variable correlated with HIV emergence. This
792:
that permitted HIV to adapt to humans, therefore explaining why it emerged epidemically only in the 20th century.
726:
suppresses the virus. Such better adapted variants could then survive in the human host for longer than the short
9044:
8961:
461:
practice provides the most plausible cause of cross-species transfer to humans. However, some loose ends remain.
6644:, Edited by Michael Shernoff, MSW, New York, London: Routledge (Haworth Press), 1999. See Introduction section.
2641:
Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Neel C, Bailes E, Keele BF, Liu W, Loul S, Butel C, Liegeois F, Bienvenue Y, Ngolle EM,
1801:
The HTLV-III/LAV virus appears to have been introduced among IV drug users in the late 1970s in New York City."
1217:: among 6 West African cities that could have received immigrants infected with SIVsmm, the two cities from the
691:
also suggested that this may have been one of the major risk factors at play in HIV emergence (see above), Marx
497:(thus enhancing its between-humans transmissibility), or to cause an initial burst of transmissions crossing an
8591:
7853:
6653:
3672:
Zhu, Tuofu; Korber, Bette T.; Nahmias, Andre J.; Hooper, Edward; Sharp, Paul M.; Ho, David D. (February 1998).
3108:
1044:), because after the MRCA certainly all lineages were already in humans, and before the split with the closest
323:
groups, each having been found in just one person. They all seem to derive from independent transmissions from
7029:
Coffin J, Haase A, Levy JA, Montagnier L, Oroszlan S, Teich N, Temin H, Toyoshima K, Varmus H, Vogt P (1986).
5795:
3499:
8653:
8167:
8147:
7878:
7766:
2182:
2098:
2019:
1595:
1379:
1254:
1085:). After the mid-1930s, people's movements were more tightly controlled, and mass surveys and treatments (of
1037:
761:
676:
473:
373:
289:
199:
160:
4217:"Female to male transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: risk factors for seroconversion in men"
9039:
8766:
8039:
8027:
7908:
7868:
5907:
S.R. Friedman; W. de Jong; D. Rossi; G. Touzé; R. Rockwell; D.C.D. Jarlais; R. Elovich (28 December 2006).
3833:
1941:
community immunodeficiency syndrome" ("ACIDS"). The same opportunistic infections were also reported among
1930:
1905:
1899:
1895:
1816:
draws attention to anecdotal evidence about junkie pneumonia. Quoting: "Even these statistics are based on
997:
868:
This theory focuses on injection campaigns that peaked in the period 1910–40, that is, around the time the
438:
39:
25:
9049:
8538:
8234:
8162:
8091:
8049:
7793:
7751:
7305:"Life history of the oldest lentivirus: characterization of ELVgv integrations in the dermopteran genome"
6978:
Chang SY, Bowman BH, Weiss JB, Garcia RE, White TJ (June 1993). "The origin of HIV-1 isolate HTLV-IIIB".
1671:
1041:
764:
infecting humans seldom does so: people with SIV antibodies often have very low or even undetectable SIV
262:
7078:
5243:
4379:"Nef-mediated suppression of T cell activation was lost in a lentiviral lineage that gave rise to HIV-1"
624:
risks and the prostitution associated with forced labor camps could have caused serial transmission (or
8228:
8152:
8142:
7873:
7706:
5656:
4188:
4159:
3071:
Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao F, Gupta R, Lapedes A, Hahn BH, Wolinsky S, Bhattacharya T (2000).
1975:
601:. The workers in plantations, construction projects, and other colonial enterprises were supplied with
308:. The resulting phylogenetic analyses show that the viruses most closely related to the two strains of
1849:
suggest that the rates of infection were below 20% for the first 3 or 4 years after its introduction.
616:, and injections, of which many would be made without sterilising the equipment between uses. Chitnis
409:
groups were in Central Africa, where the primate reservoirs of the related SIVcpz and SIVgor viruses (
9018:
8702:
8670:
8658:
8611:
8187:
6176:"Update on Kaposi's sarcoma and opportunistic infections in previously healthy persons—United States"
2606:
2171:
2089:
ruled that both names should be dropped and a new name, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), be used.
2035:
1706:
1586:
in December 1977. Her tissues were examined and tested by her colleagues and found positive in 1987.
1198:
produced massive intermixing between African ethnic groups). About 15–30% of men in Léopoldville and
1122:
956:
in these areas. They suggested that all these parenteral risks caused not only the massive spread of
683:
hunter or handler became SIV-infected) through unsafe or unsterile injections. Although both Chitnis
7109:"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: HIV, HPV researchers honored, but one scientist is left out"
5043:"Grethe Rask reddede liv på congolesisk missionshospital, indtil mødet med ukendt virus blev fatalt"
5042:
640:
19th–early 20th century. In addition, all groups of HIV-1 descend from either SIVcpz or SIVgor from
8981:
8890:
8543:
8393:
8266:
7954:
7913:
4840:
4729:
Haislip AM, Witte MH, Sullivan KA, Wolfe M, Gottlieb AA, Gottlieb MS, Cole WR, Witte CL, Garry RF.
1009:
937:
890:
598:
230:
108:
6326:
Oswald, G. A.; Theodossi, A.; Gazzard, B. G.; Byrom, N. A.; Fisher-Hoch, S. P. (16 October 1982).
5961:"The Impact of New York City's 1975 Fiscal Crisis on the Tuberculosis, HIV, and Homicide Syndemic"
5423:
4550:
Edward Hooper and William D. Hamilton (1996). "1959 Manchester Case of Syndrome Resembling Aids".
3780:
Chitnis A, Rawls D, Moore J (2000). "Origin of HIV Type 1 in Colonial French Equatorial Africa?".
3521:
Chitnis A, Rawls D, Moore J (2000). "Origin Of HIV Type 1 In Colonial French Equatorial Africa?".
3139:
Lemey P, Pybus OG, Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Robertson DL, Roques P, Worobey M, Vandamme AM (2004).
714:
to a new host species if it is rapidly transmitted between hosts, while each host is still in the
8895:
8885:
8761:
8633:
8508:
8426:
8328:
7893:
7888:
7524:
5422:. 2010 The New York Lesbian & Gay Experimental Film Festival, Inc. p. 19. Archived from
5212:
854:
215:
183:
1036:
use molecular dating techniques to estimate the time when each HIV group split from its closest
8473:
8446:
8436:
8358:
8343:
8241:
8061:
7991:
7798:
7788:
6663:, Charity Navigator, GMHC received three out of four stars based on 2016 financial information.
6516:"HIV/AIDS: Latin America & Caribbean. HAITI: making headway under hellacious circumstances"
1729:
1688:
1583:
648:, either in countries that belonged to the French Equatorial Africa federation of colonies, in
7471:
To support their ideas, some AIDS denialists have also misappropriated a scientific review in
6388:
Encyclopedia of AIDS: A Social, Political, Cultural, and Scientific Record of the HIV Epidemic
4735:
XIth International Congress of Virology, Sydney Convention Center, Australia, 9–13 August 1999
8756:
8710:
8648:
8638:
8548:
8483:
8054:
8022:
7959:
7783:
7699:
5693:
AIDS among IV Drug Users: Epidemiology, Natural History and Therapeutic Community Experiences
5303:"Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART"
3013:
Salemi M, Strimmer K, Hall WW, Duffy M, Delaporte E, Mboup S, Peeters M, Vandamme AM (2000).
2249:
2110:
1524:
1310:
1283:
1267:
1070:
993:
825:, these studies could have overestimated the age of the HIV groups, because they depend on a
266:
104:
4950:
4433:"Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz"
3878:
3489:
9013:
8951:
8725:
8643:
8558:
8533:
8518:
8456:
8408:
8388:
8313:
8308:
8293:
8034:
7966:
7200:
7042:
6987:
6944:
6861:
6781:
6672:
6564:
5302:
5133:
4857:
4616:
4444:
4283:
3630:
3444:
3380:
3220:
3084:
2958:
2872:
2658:
2562:
2261:
2221:
2194:
1142:
536:
156:
6106:
401:
The discovery of the main HIV/SIV phylogenetic relationships permits explaining broad HIV
8:
8880:
8875:
8740:
8715:
8683:
8601:
8573:
8523:
8441:
8431:
8383:
8373:
8363:
8338:
7923:
7157:
6472:
6425:
6266:
pneumonia among homosexual male residents of Los Angeles and Orange Counties, California"
6261:
6218:
6175:
2229:
1926:
1915:
1872:
1759:
1503:
1499:
1414:
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found, the authors propose that it could have had an indirect role, either by increasing
1258:
1250:
727:
715:
633:
563:
544:
7402:
7247:
7204:
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6991:
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6865:
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5730:. ed. L. Harris, Problems of Drug Dependence, National Institute on Drug Abuse: 318–20.
5137:
4861:
4620:
4448:
4287:
3995:
3634:
3448:
3384:
3224:
3088:
2962:
2876:
2662:
2566:
1229:) had much higher frequency of uncircumcised men (60–85%) than the others, and epidemic
261:
occurred is not known. Some molecular dating studies suggest that HIV-1 group M had its
8860:
8855:
8845:
8730:
8720:
8628:
8623:
8596:
8583:
8568:
8553:
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6805:
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1933:
1755:
87:
7187:
Gifford RJ, Katzourakis A, Tristem M, Pybus OG, Winters M, Shafer RW (December 2008).
4919:
4738:
4563:
4342:
4232:
3961:
3403:
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helped to adapt SIV to the new monkey species after passage by three or four animals.
8987:
8911:
8865:
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8498:
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7581:
7517:"Soviet Bloc Intelligence and Its AIDS Disinformation Campaign (Operation INFEKTION)"
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4634:
4605:"An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic"
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3734:
Villes miroirs: migrations et identités urbaines à Kinshasa et Brazzaville, 1930–1970
3693:
3674:"An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic"
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3408:
3344:
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3170:
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3036:
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2890:
2836:
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2724:
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2502:
2481:"Origin and Biology of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus in Wild-Living Western Gorillas"
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2015:
1986:
1834:
1621:
1410:
1349:
1146:
1058:
838:
830:
719:
660:
649:
516:), circa 1910. Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of
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222:
207:
172:
96:
82:
6615:
4935:
4579:
4311:
3977:
3809:
3658:
3550:
3048:
2736:
2688:
1370:
were contaminated with a chimpanzee virus, leading to the Central African outbreak.
1052:
380:—evidence of current or past SIV infection—was 2.3% among the general population of
8941:
8916:
8870:
8735:
8513:
8493:
8488:
8418:
8353:
8096:
7571:
7563:
7444:
7351:
7316:
7218:
7208:
7120:
7050:
7015:
6995:
6952:
6869:
6789:
6701:
6572:
6527:
6473:"Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians in the United States"
6357:
6339:
6071:
6061:
6019:
5982:
5974:
5928:
5920:
5878:
5562:
5398:
5378:
5325:
5317:
5275:
5151:
5141:
4970:
4962:
4915:
4865:
4703:
4646:
4624:
4559:
4460:
4452:
4428:
4390:
4338:
4295:
4291:
4248:
4228:
4137:
4117:
4077:
3957:
3913:
3789:
3685:
3638:
3592:
3584:
3530:
3462:
3452:
3398:
3388:
3334:
3326:
3236:
3228:
3160:
3152:
3092:
3026:
2976:
2966:
2902:
2880:
2818:
2785:
2777:
2716:
2666:
2578:
2570:
2510:
2492:
2450:
2432:
2391:
2383:
2335:
2160:
1919:
1637:
1388:
1233:
groups emerged initially in this country only. This correlation was less clear for
376:
are not rare in Central Africa: the percentage of people showing seroreactivity to
6809:
6666:
6532:
6515:
5685:
4786:
3096:
1615:
HIV-1 is believed to have arrived in Haiti from central Africa, possibly from the
940:(around 40–50%) can be better explained by the unsterile injections used to treat
8799:
8246:
7986:
7756:
7605:
7125:
7108:
6679:
6660:
6641:
6622:
6386:
6313:
5924:
5321:
4760:
3457:
3270:
2971:
2114:
1659:
949:
910:
894:
850:
826:
574:
498:
348:
271:
6705:
5382:
5182:
3263:
3156:
2340:
2323:
2244:
Conspiracy theorists' influence reached a peak in 2021 with Brazilian president
1663:
1653:
1399:
expression; most non-human SIVs, therefore, do not induce immunodeficiency; the
1305:
had little to moderate effect in their simulations, but, given the geographical
1077:
favoured prostitution, which in its turn caused an explosion of GUD (especially
509:
8197:
7981:
4395:
4378:
4081:
2245:
2023:
1982:
1946:
1825:
1725:
1667:
1633:
1629:
1495:
1489:
1126:
1066:
1013:
969:
874:
862:
834:
810:
789:
777:
742:
703:
625:
422:
344:
324:
293:
164:
112:
47:
7552:"Conspiracy Beliefs about the Origin of HIV/AIDS in Four Racial/Ethnic Groups"
6344:
4966:
3822:
Merfield FG (1957) Gorillas were my Neighbours. London: The Company Book Club.
1837:
prior to developing AIDS and were born to mothers known to be IV drug users."
9033:
8931:
8921:
8177:
8086:
7458:
6713:
6353:
6066:
5978:
5753:
5720:
4490:"How scientists discovered false evidence on the world's "first AIDS victim""
4424:
3697:
2766:"The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when?"
2761:
2642:
2546:
2506:
2446:
1967:
1846:
1813:
1767:
1744:
1720:
1675:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1367:
1329:
particularly involving sex workers, GUD, and possibly lack of circumcision."
1279:
989:
885:
Jacques Pépin and Annie-Claude Labbé reviewed the colonial health reports of
857:) in Central Africa were responsible for the emergence of HIV-1. Unlike Marx
723:
664:
629:
559:
555:
525:
505:
242:
124:
59:
7655:
7321:
7304:
7213:
6956:
6873:
6793:
6754:
6576:
6009:
5683:
5146:
5120:
Gilbert MT, Rambaut A, Wlasiuk G, Spira TJ, Pitchenik AE, Worobey M (2007).
4869:
3793:
3642:
3534:
3393:
2574:
865:
was not essential to the emergence of the HIV epidemic in the 20th century.
8212:
7903:
7585:
7466:
7373:
7330:
7232:
7134:
6541:
5996:
5942:
5339:
5165:
4474:
4420:
4404:
4129:
4089:
3969:
3801:
3650:
3606:
3588:
3542:
3476:
3412:
3348:
3330:
3250:
3174:
3104:
3040:
2990:
2840:
2799:
2781:
2728:
2680:
2592:
2524:
2464:
2437:
2405:
2349:
2289:
2126:
2047:
1971:
1963:
1942:
1854:
1820:
1683:
1625:
1624:, as a high-ranking political figure in the islands' regime, was running a
1472:
biopsy sample taken in 1960 from a woman from Léopoldville, Belgian Congo.
1302:
1271:
1206:
1191:
1179:
1163:
1138:
914:
659:
This theory was later dubbed "Heart of Darkness" by Jim Moore, alluding to
645:
521:
402:
332:
301:
283:
234:
132:
7064:
7007:
6964:
6881:
6801:
6737:
Street science : community knowledge and environmental health justice
6584:
6488:
6445:
6371:
6281:
6234:
6191:
6148:
6085:
6031:
5890:
5735:
5566:
5450:"A History of Erasing Black Artists and Bodies from the AIDS Conversation"
5390:
5287:
4984:
4927:
4877:
4715:
4638:
4571:
4303:
4240:
3031:
3014:
2894:
982:
8975:
8969:
8926:
8116:
8017:
7808:
5958:
2497:
1911:
1712:
1700:
1567:
1562:
1396:
1306:
1287:
1275:
better to humans, becoming an HIV capable of further epidemic emergence.
1257:
already infecting a human but incapable of transmission beyond the short
1218:
1210:
1195:
1159:
1110:
1098:
957:
929:
609:
594:
590:
517:
501:
threshold, and therefore increasing the probability of continued spread.
426:
336:
313:
305:
140:
51:
22:
5507:"Why did it take so long for science to debunk the Aids 'Patient Zero'?"
4456:
3673:
3232:
1771:
1970s, and which is now believed to have been caused by HIV infection."
1468:
A second early documented HIV-1 infection was discovered in a preserved
1356:
vaccinations are accepted as plausible by most scientists of the field.
804:
emphasize the massive number of injections administered in Africa after
8936:
8076:
7918:
7746:
7449:
7432:
7403:"HIV/AIDS | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases"
5906:
3917:
2167:
2164:
2031:
2027:
1797:
1733:
1693:
1679:
1469:
1445:
1345:
1337:
1322:
1090:
922:
815:
805:
765:
757:
731:
711:
621:
396:
29:
7601:"Jair Bolsonaro to be investigated for linking Covid vaccines to Aids"
3433:"Dating the Age of the SIV Lineages That Gave Rise to HIV-1 and HIV-2"
2770:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2425:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
849:
David Gisselquist proposed that the mass injection campaigns to treat
8946:
7055:
7030:
6999:
6609:
6605:(Interview). Interviewed by Conrad, Ryan; Kinsman, Gary. Toronto, ON.
5684:
D.C. Des Jarlais; Nancy Jainchill; S.R. Friedman (1 September 1985).
4549:
3490:
Annabel Kanabus & Sarah Allen. Updated by Bonita de Boer (2007).
3367:
Lemey P, Pybus OG, Wang B, Saksena NK, Salemi M, Vandamme AM (2003).
3209:"Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960"
2764:, Bailes E, Chaudhuri RR, Rodenburg CM, Santiago MO, Hahn BH (2001).
2225:
1550:
1546:
1536:
1318:
1262:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1005:
540:
7550:
Ross, Michael W.; Essien, E. James; Torres, Isabel (21 March 2006).
5695:. World Federation of Therapeutic Communities, Inc. pp. 69–72.
5620:
Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism
3072:
2720:
2671:
2646:
1776:
Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism
1226:
18:
8182:
8081:
7778:
7726:
7390:... the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive.
5783:
3491:
2120:
1937:
1457:
1422:
1418:
1353:
1314:
1175:
1106:
1094:
1078:
1027:
1001:
961:
945:
933:
918:
906:
886:
707:
680:
667:, the main focus of which is colonial abuses in equatorial Africa.
653:
613:
602:
529:
513:
494:
489:
458:
450:
381:
258:
246:
226:
92:
63:
55:
35:
7691:
6470:
6423:
6259:
6216:
6173:
6130:
4629:
4604:
3689:
3573:"Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus"
2885:
2860:
1884:
The AIDS epidemic officially began on June 5, 1981, when the U.S.
1794:
The Proceedings of the World Conference of Therapeutic Communities
1582:
in 1977, with her colleagues baffled by her symptoms. She died of
347:, and each of them is most closely related to SIVsmm strains from
194:
Scientists generally accept that the known strains (or groups) of
8106:
7355:
7345:
5012:"After hard working days she rested by the beautiful Ebola River"
1692:(and the 1993 movie based on it), Dugas is referred to as AIDS's
1579:
1571:
1222:
1132:
1062:
1053:
Strong genital ulcer disease incidence in nascent colonial cities
953:
898:
567:
414:
377:
328:
136:
120:
43:
6770:
6555:
Marx JL (August 1982). "New disease baffles medical community".
6219:"Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males"
5367:
4603:
Zhu T, Korber BT, Nahmias AJ, Hooper E, Sharp PM, Ho DD (1998).
4214:
2706:
2647:"Human immunodeficiency viruses: SIV infection in wild gorillas"
1758:
suggests that so-called junkie pneumonia first began to afflict
844:
351:
living in the same country where the human infection was found.
189:
8222:
7683:
After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion.
7638:
And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic
6328:"Attempted immune stimulation in the "gay compromise syndrome""
2861:"Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes"
2175:
1749:
1716:
1640:
allowed it to spread explosively enough to finally be noticed.
1542:
1520:
1295:
1199:
1171:
1045:
1017:
748:
In agreement with this model is also the fact that, while both
734:), which would grant it more possibilities of epidemic spread.
446:
442:
385:
368:
335:, and groups G and H have been detected in two people from the
151:
128:
7687:
After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion
7186:
5959:
N. Freudenberg; M. Fahs; S. Galea; A. Greenberg (March 2006).
5595:
EnGendering AIDS : deconstructing sex, text, and epidemic
2232:, is held by a disproportionately high number of Africans and
1925:
In June 1982, a report of a group of cases amongst gay men in
1519:
From 1972 to 1973, researchers drew blood from 75 children in
1261:
period) could spread in colonial cities. The simulations used
186:, comparing viral genomic sequences to determine relatedness.
91:, which live in the forests of the Central African nations of
8138:
European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership
7665:
Infectious Ideas: U.S. Political Responses to the AIDS Crisis
4693:
3495:
2760:
2186:
2125:
Since June 5, 1981, many definitions have been developed for
1575:
1400:
1373:
1234:
1230:
1214:
1150:
965:
869:
773:
769:
753:
749:
578:
469:
465:
418:
406:
340:
327:
to humans. Groups C and D have been found in two people from
320:
309:
253:
195:
176:
168:
100:
78:
74:
6851:
6822:
3619:
3206:
2135:
1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition
8256:
8217:
6635:
AIDS and Mental Health Practice: Clinical and Policy Issues
6325:
4810:"Boy's 1969 death suggests AIDS invaded U.S. Several times"
3570:
2944:
2544:
2105:
for their "discovery of human immunodeficiency virus", and
1178:, focusing on the period 1880–1960, and on most of the 318
1021:
941:
928:
The authors suggested that the very high prevalence of the
902:
795:
7277:
5119:
4905:
3834:"The Upper-Sangha in the Time of the Concession Companies"
2640:
2071:
706:(or serial transmission): an adventitious virus (or other
7741:
7722:
7028:
6682:, NIH, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Sept. 16, 2013.
5417:"ACT UP Oral History Project Interview of Betty Williams"
4841:"Evidence for exposure to HTLV-III in Uganda before 1973"
4032:"പശ്ചിമഘട്ടത്തിൽ പുതിയ ഔഷധച്ചെടി; 'ഹിഡിയോട്ടിസ് ഇന്ദിരെ'"
3498:(an international HIV and AIDS charity based in the UK).
3138:
2817:. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 56. pp. 1–25.
2551:"Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic and Nonpandemic HIV-1"
2477:
2293:
1953:
1392:
1291:
1167:
641:
364:
331:, groups E and F have been discovered in two people from
203:
146:
7821:
WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease
4838:
2200:
1918:
and persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy), common in
1764:
EnGendering AIDS: Deconstructing Sex, Text, and Epidemic
1240:
5244:"Impoverished Haitians Sell Plasma for Use in the U.S."
5086:"H.I.V. Arrived in the U.S. Long Before 'Patient Zero'"
3070:
3012:
2101:. Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier were awarded the 2008
983:
Genital ulcer diseases and evolution of sexual activity
277:
8789:
List of HIV/AIDS cases and deaths registered by region
6977:
6935:
Marx JL (March 1985). "A virus by any other name . ".
5534:
Altered Conditions: Disease, Medicine and Storytelling
5122:"The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond"
4602:
4375:
3671:
3369:"Tracing the origin and history of the HIV-2 epidemic"
2858:
1741:
Altered Conditions: Disease, Medicine and Storytelling
1701:
Homeless people and intravenous drug users in New York
1101:, where HIV-1 group O and HIV-2 respectively evolved.
829:
assumption, may not have accounted for the effects of
300:) (SIVsmm) populations of the West African nations of
5300:
4728:
3366:
2077:
by Montagnier—and was the etiological agent of AIDS.
7248:"Precursor to H.I.V. Was in Monkeys for Millenniums"
5655:. Agenda Publications. pp. 1, 4. Archived from
5080:
4662:"A Tissue Sample From 1966 Held Traces of Early HIV"
4417:
3990:
3831:
3141:"The Molecular Population Genetics of HIV-1 Group O"
2945:
de Sousa JD, Müller V, Lemey P, Vandamme AM (2010).
2419:
Sharp, Paul M.; Hahn, Beatrice H. (27 August 2010).
2369:
2248:
claiming that COVID vaccines can lead to AIDS. The
944:, because this disease was much more prevalent than
397:
Unresolved questions about HIV origins and emergence
214:(SIVcpz) or closely related to the SIV that infects
8784:
List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate
8173:
President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)
8158:
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
7667:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
4019:
sexual contacts and leading to red-light districts.
3073:"Timing the Ancestor of the HIV-1 Pandemic Strains"
2645:, Shaw GM, Delaporte E, Hahn BH, Peeters M (2006).
2491:(4). American Society for Microbiology: 1635–1648.
1647:
1600:HIV-1 strains were once thought to have arrived in
1589:
8829:
6824:
4518:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4057:
3996:"Precursor to H.I.V. Was in Monkeys for Millennia"
3947:
3492:"The Origins of HIV & the First Cases of AIDS"
3431:Wertheim JO, Worobey M (2009). Drummond AJ (ed.).
3312:
2607:"HIV's ancestry traced to wild chimps in Cameroon"
909:were responsible for most intravenous injections.
880:
550:
535:In 2014, a study conducted by scientists from the
464:It is not yet explained why only four HIV groups (
7158:"Three Europeans Win the 2008 Nobel for Medicine"
7102:
7100:
6897:
6378:
6253:
5822:"AIDS Deaths in New York Are Showing New Pattern"
4951:"Sailors and star-bursts, and the arrival of HIV"
3779:
3755:
3753:
3520:
1362:include several iatrogenic theories, such as the
1141:may reduce the probability of HIV acquisition by
9031:
7549:
7079:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008"
6471:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (July 1982).
6424:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (July 1982).
6260:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (June 1982).
6174:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (June 1982).
6131:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (June 1981).
5954:
5952:
2190:SIV and not suffer any harm from the infection.
2121:Case definition for epidemiological surveillance
1332:
1028:Probable time interval of cross-species transfer
780:could have been the process responsible for it.
718:period. This process favors the accumulation of
483:
7772:National Addiction and HIV Data Archive Program
7556:Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes
6734:
6217:Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (May 1982).
5871:The Journal of the American Medical Association
5819:
5647:
4753:"Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the United States"
4054:
3430:
3373:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2812:
2421:"The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS"
2290:"Aids: Origin of pandemic 'was 1920s Kinshasa'"
2174:when the lentivirus was widespread among other
2153:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1879:
421:groups had their centres in West Africa, where
7149:
7097:
5414:
5213:"Study Says AIDS in U.S. Earlier than Thought"
5115:
5113:
5111:
3943:
3941:
3939:
3875:"About this paper and comments on 'The River'"
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3750:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2087:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
2004:
1678:around 1971 while Dugas did not start work at
1133:Male circumcision distribution and HIV origins
837:process alone would be associated with strong
8991:
8815:
7707:
7106:
6906:"Was Robert Gallo robbed of the Nobel prize?"
6692:Herek, Gregory M. (1999). "AIDS and Stigma".
6507:
6307:Clue Found on Homosexuals' Precancer Syndrome
5949:
5902:
5900:
5815:
5813:
5781:
5751:
5747:
5745:
5679:
5677:
5592:
5531:
5504:
5500:
5498:
5410:
5408:
5177:
5175:
4274:Linke, Uli (January 1986). "AIDS in Africa".
4182:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2109:also shared the prize for his discovery that
845:Injection campaigns against sleeping sickness
632:of workers, therefore prolonging the primary
190:HIV-1 from chimpanzees and gorillas to humans
7270:
7239:
6043:
6041:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5851:
5849:
5559:Viral Voyages: Tracing AIDS in Latin America
4487:
4103:
4101:
4099:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3308:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2147:Simian immunodeficiency virus § History
1992:How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach
1116:
7864:Diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome
7071:
6012:Journal of the American Medical Association
5643:
5641:
5639:
5588:
5586:
5108:
4067:
3936:
3762:
3725:
3716:
3613:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3181:
2356:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
1868:Journal of the American Medical Association
1829:infected with the virus that causes AIDS".
1378:In most non-human primate species, natural
1253:to test if an 'ill-adapted SIV' (meaning a
1024:co-receptor, the main cell targets of HIV.
119:), an Old World monkey inhabiting southern
8822:
8808:
8097:People With AIDS Self-Empowerment Movement
7714:
7700:
7508:
7492:The Virtual Weapon and International Order
6430:pneumonia among persons with hemophilia A"
6092:
6047:
6003:
5897:
5810:
5777:
5775:
5742:
5674:
5556:
5495:
5405:
5265:
5172:
4689:
4687:
4210:
4208:
4107:
3825:
3557:
2806:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2321:
1886:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1494:In May 1969, 16-year-old African-American
1374:Pathogenicity of SIV in non-human primates
1121:Uli Linke has argued that the practice of
288:Similar research has been undertaken with
28:of HIV-1, in green, budding from cultured
7575:
7448:
7320:
7278:"HIV precursor in monkeys ancient: study"
7245:
7222:
7212:
7124:
7054:
6766:
6764:
6531:
6361:
6343:
6075:
6065:
6038:
5986:
5932:
5846:
5617:
5550:
5525:
5361:
5329:
5294:
5155:
5145:
4974:
4942:
4628:
4521:"Earliest AIDS Case Is Called Into Doubt"
4464:
4411:
4394:
4096:
3893:
3866:
3596:
3466:
3456:
3402:
3392:
3355:
3338:
3257:
3240:
3164:
3123:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3030:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2980:
2970:
2909:
2884:
2815:HIV-1: Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis
2789:
2743:
2670:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2582:
2514:
2496:
2454:
2436:
2418:
2395:
2339:
2287:
2239:
2080:
1810:AIDS: Cultural Analysis/Cultural Activism
1514:
702:argument is the concept of adaptation by
182:Research in this area is conducted using
7514:
7343:
6845:
5913:The International Journal on Drug Policy
5784:"How to Have Promiscuity in an Epidemic"
5714:
5636:
5611:
5583:
5474:
5447:
4324:
3816:
3419:
3285:
2317:
2315:
2274:
2155:in 2008, a team led by Robert Shafer at
1894:newsletter reported unusual clusters of
1463:
1000:that cause genital ulcers; examples are
796:Massive injections of the antibiotic era
608:The colonial authorities also gave many
584:
524:, and the concomitant high frequency of
150:
17:
7302:
7246:McNeil Jr, Donald (17 September 2010).
7107:Cohen J, Enserink M (10 October 2008).
6903:
6823:Kingman, Sharon; Connor, Steve (1989).
6597:
5772:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5068:
4684:
4205:
4149:
4147:
3984:
3899:
3872:
3731:
3313:Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E (2001).
2695:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2072:January 1985: both found to be the same
1904:(now recognized as a distinct species,
1604:from Haiti around 1971. It spread from
1483:
670:
9032:
9009:Discovery of disease-causing pathogens
7635:
7598:
7494:. Yale University Press. p. 215.
7483:
7155:
6916:from the original on 17 September 2017
6761:
6495:from the original on 20 September 2011
6133:"Pneumocystis pneumonia – Los Angeles"
5468:
5441:
5241:
4948:
4807:
4598:
4596:
4327:"Cold water downstream from The River"
4318:
3854:from the original on 28 September 2020
3055:
2997:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2629:
2549:, Shaw GM, Peeters M, Hahn BH (2006).
2431:(1552). The Royal Society: 2487–2494.
2157:Stanford University School of Medicine
2151:According to a study published in the
2026:reported that they had isolated a new
2014:In May 1983, a team of doctors at the
1954:Activism by AIDS patients and families
1475:
1451:
245:), more probably in its capital city,
147:Transmission from non-humans to humans
8803:
8133:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
7695:
7662:
7489:
6691:
6513:
6384:
6288:from the original on 24 February 2008
6124:
5760:from the original on 23 November 2018
5702:from the original on 16 February 2017
5483:from the original on 4 September 2018
4820:from the original on 11 February 2009
4783:"Case Shakes Theories of AIDS Origin"
4273:
4176:
4153:
3483:
2324:"Human immunodeficiency virus type 2"
2312:
2207:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
2201:Debunked HIV/AIDS conspiracy theories
2103:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
2041:
1891:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
1421:found that, contrary to the previous
1383:elucidated. Non-human SIVs contain a
1360:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
1348:risks, such as unsterile injections,
1241:Computer simulations of HIV emergence
42:(HIV), which originated in non-human
7613:from the original on 26 January 2022
6934:
6554:
6405:from the original on 12 January 2023
6385:Smith, Raymond A. (27 August 1998).
6300:
6241:from the original on 18 October 2011
5754:"After All That's Unsaid and Undone"
5650:"Acting Up Against Junkie Pneumonia"
5065:
4672:from the original on 3 December 2021
4659:
4531:from the original on 19 October 2021
4357:from the original on 7 November 2014
4144:
3782:AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses
3704:from the original on 18 January 2024
3523:AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses
2531:
2193:A 2016 Czech study of the genome of
1732:), and were told that they just had
1556:
1523:to serve as controls for a study of
1508:Tulane University School of Medicine
1428:
1344:The theories centred on the role of
760:in the human organism, adventitious
357:
292:strains collected from several wild
278:HIV-2 from sooty mangabeys to humans
8252:The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert
7721:
7156:Altman, Lawrence (6 October 2008).
7085:from the original on 9 October 2008
6316:. The New York Times, June 18, 1982
6262:"A cluster of Kaposi's sarcoma and
5834:from the original on 15 August 2018
5820:Ronald Sullivan (22 October 1987).
5513:from the original on 11 August 2018
5509:. Guardian News and Media Limited.
5477:"AIDS 1969: HIV, History, and Race"
5456:from the original on 11 August 2018
5242:Severo, Richard (28 January 1972).
5096:from the original on 31 August 2019
5040:
5009:
4593:
4519:Lawrence K. Altman (4 April 1995).
4500:from the original on 1 October 2013
3502:from the original on 12 August 2006
3111:from the original on 8 January 2022
2847:
2288:Gallagher, James (2 October 2014).
2181:In 2010, researchers reported that
2058:
1439:
1409:In addition, a long-term survey of
1129:is conducive to exchange of blood.
13:
7629:
7568:10.1097/01.qai.0000209897.59384.52
7515:Boghardt, Thomas (December 2009).
6452:from the original on 5 August 2012
6155:from the original on 22 April 2009
6105:. 1987. p. 37. Archived from
5280:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117241
5235:
5223:from the original on 27 April 2015
5183:"Key HIV strain 'came from Haiti'"
3319:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2388:10.1128/JVI.79.19.12515-12527.2005
2140:
1774:Melinda Cooper writes in her book
1530:
1413:naturally infected with SIVcpz in
14:
9061:
7838:Countries by AIDS prevalence rate
7599:Mishra, Stuti (4 December 2021).
7380:from the original on 29 July 2022
7284:from the original on 29 July 2022
6198:from the original on 21 June 2022
5966:American Journal of Public Health
5798:from the original on 15 July 2021
5561:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8.
5505:S.W. Thrasher (1 November 2016).
5415:Sarah Schulman (23 August 2008).
5053:from the original on 15 July 2021
5022:from the original on 15 July 2021
4991:from the original on 10 June 2006
4255:from the original on 3 March 2014
3736:(in French). Paris: L'Harmattan.
2211:
1859:American Journal of Public Health
1762:in New York in 1977. In her book
1739:Julia Epstein writes in her book
8299:Democratic Republic of the Congo
7859:AIDS-defining clinical condition
7640:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
7592:
7543:
7425:
7413:from the original on 1 July 2022
7395:
7337:
7296:
7258:from the original on 11 May 2011
7180:
7168:from the original on 3 July 2022
7022:
6971:
6928:
6904:Coghlan, Andy (7 October 2008).
6888:
6816:
6728:
6685:
6647:
6628:
6625:, Gay Men's Health Crisis, 2018.
6591:
6548:
6024:10.1001/jama.1986.03380030064029
5883:10.1001/jama.1989.03420070058030
5349:from the original on 4 July 2021
5268:American Journal of Epidemiology
5193:from the original on 21 May 2012
4887:from the original on 4 July 2021
4808:Kolata, Gina (28 October 1987).
4708:10.1001/jama.1988.03410140097031
4122:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2008.02060.x
4042:from the original on 17 May 2022
4008:from the original on 11 May 2011
3732:Gondola, Charles Didier (1996).
3273:. BBC News. Retrieved 20-1-2009.
3264:Colonial clue to the rise of HIV
2617:from the original on 4 June 2011
2300:from the original on 6 June 2022
2009:
1719:who worked with the homeless in
1648:Canadian flight attendant theory
1617:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1590:Spread to the Western Hemisphere
1435:Timeline of early HIV/AIDS cases
1162:literature for patterns of male
975:According to Pépin's 2011 book,
972:as the mechanism of adaptation.
239:Democratic Republic of the Congo
198:are most closely related to the
68:Democratic Republic of the Congo
7344:Medicine, Institute of (1969).
7309:Molecular Biology and Evolution
7280:. CBC News. 17 September 2010.
6600:"AIDS Activist History Project"
6598:Tanguay, Nicole (19 May 2018).
6464:
6417:
6319:
6210:
6167:
5259:
5205:
5034:
5010:Maj, Helle (10 November 2020).
5003:
4899:
4832:
4801:
4775:
4745:
4722:
4653:
4543:
4512:
4481:
4369:
4267:
4024:
3665:
3514:
3276:
2328:The Journal of General Virology
2228:, an idea invented by a Soviet
1962:In New York City, Nathan Fain,
881:Other early injection campaigns
652:(then a Spanish colony), or in
551:Social changes and urbanization
319:There are six additional known
200:simian immunodeficiency viruses
7031:"What to call the AIDS virus?"
5782:Douglas Crimp (October 1987).
5648:Pattrice Maurer (April 1992).
4488:Steve Connor (24 March 1995).
4296:10.1126/science.231.4735.203-b
3902:"The Puzzling Origins of AIDS"
2599:
2471:
2412:
1976:Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC)
730:period, in high numbers (high
710:) can increase its biological
532:) in nascent colonial cities.
435:Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
1:
8168:Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS
8148:International AIDS Conference
8102:HIV/AIDS in the porn industry
8045:Discrimination against people
7347:Confronting AIDS: Update 1988
7303:Elleder; et al. (2016).
6694:American Behavioral Scientist
6533:10.1126/science.313.5786.470b
6048:K. Goldman (29 August 1987).
5448:Ted Kerr (31 December 2015).
4920:10.1016/S0140-6736(88)92164-2
4564:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07063-8
4343:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04536-0
4233:10.1016/S0140-6736(89)90589-8
3962:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06967-7
3832:Coquery-Vidrovitch C (1998).
3097:10.1126/science.288.5472.1789
2823:10.1016/S1054-3589(07)56001-1
2267:
1596:HIV/AIDS in the United States
1333:Iatrogenic and other theories
1255:simian immunodeficiency virus
998:sexually transmitted diseases
960:but also the spread of other
484:Origin and epidemic emergence
8028:Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS
7909:HIV Drug Resistance Database
7193:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
7126:10.1126/science.322.5899.174
6477:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
6434:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
6270:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
6223:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
6180:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
6137:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
5925:10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.006
5322:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283372d90
3458:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000377
2972:10.1371/journal.pone.0009936
1910:) in five homosexual men in
1896:Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
1880:1981–1982: From GRID to AIDS
1545:sailor, with the alias name
1366:which argues that the early
441:, Central African Republic,
439:Democratic Republic of Congo
391:
73:There are two types of HIV:
40:human immunodeficiency virus
26:scanning electron micrograph
7:
8329:Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
8163:Media portrayal of HIV/AIDS
8092:List of HIV-positive people
6831:. Harmondsworth : Penguin.
6706:10.1177/0002764299042007004
5622:. Zone Books. p. 206.
5452:. Hyperallergic Media Inc.
5383:10.7326/0003-4819-103-2-210
5371:Annals of Internal Medicine
4660:Yong, Ed (16 August 2019).
3157:10.1534/genetics.104.026666
2341:10.1099/0022-1317-83-6-1253
2322:Reeves JD, Doms RW (2002).
2255:
2005:Identification of the virus
1974:officially established the
1966:, Larry Mass, Paul Popham,
1808:In an article published in
1728:... who had PCP pneumonia (
1672:Centers for Disease Control
917:, and vaccinations against
873:increasing the odds of SIV
776:are adapted to humans, and
455:Pan troglodytes troglodytes
405:: the early centres of the
263:most recent common ancestor
220:Pan troglodytes troglodytes
212:Pan troglodytes troglodytes
88:Pan troglodytes troglodytes
10:
9066:
8229:Reports from the Holocaust
8153:International AIDS Society
8143:Elton John AIDS Foundation
6391:. Routledge. p. 347.
5041:Maj, Helle (9 June 2020).
4396:10.1016/j.cell.2006.04.033
4189:Cambridge University Press
4160:Cambridge University Press
4082:10.1089/088922203771881158
3437:PLOS Computational Biology
2204:
2144:
2046:In May 1984 a team led by
1997:relations with other men.
1857:(TB). Quoting from a 2006
1785:Steven Thrasher writes in
1704:
1651:
1593:
1560:
1534:
1487:
1432:
1205:The authors studied early
768:. This suggests that both
661:the book of the same title
644:living to the west of the
593:practices associated with
281:
9019:Social history of viruses
9001:
8960:
8904:
8838:
8779:
8749:
8701:
8669:
8619:
8610:
8582:
8417:
8274:
8265:
8188:Treatment Action Campaign
8125:
8010:
7942:
7904:Tuberculosis co-infection
7846:
7767:disease progression rates
7734:
7685:Oxford University Press.
6678:11 September 2018 at the
6345:10.1136/bmj.285.6348.1082
5536:. Routledge. p. 18.
4967:10.1136/bmj.315.7123.1689
4070:AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses
2129:surveillance such as the
2036:National Cancer Institute
1865:A study published in the
1715:called Betty Williams, a
1707:HIV/AIDS in New York City
1506:. In 1987 researchers at
1387:gene that down-regulates
1313:itself (it is known that
1278:The main result was that
1123:female genital mutilation
1117:Female genital mutilation
620:proposed that both these
476:infections being common.
249:(formerly Léopoldville).
7914:Innate resistance to HIV
7884:Neurocognitive disorders
7443:(4): 369. 1 April 2006.
6827:The search for the virus
6735:Corburn, Jason. (2005).
6312:22 February 2020 at the
6067:10.1136/bmj.295.6597.511
5979:10.2105/AJPH.2005.063511
2185:had infected monkeys in
2099:considerable controversy
2092:
2020:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
1697:intercourse with Dugas.
1574:surgeon who traveled to
1364:polio vaccine hypothesis
1010:lymphogranuloma venereum
938:French Equatorial Africa
891:French Equatorial Africa
833:in the viruses, and the
599:French Equatorial Africa
417:) exist; similarly, the
216:western lowland gorillas
109:Central African Republic
8235:AIDS–Holocaust metaphor
8218:Gay Men's Health Crisis
7894:Opportunistic infection
7663:Brier, Jennier (2011).
7525:Studies in Intelligence
7214:10.1073/pnas.0807873105
6957:10.1126/science.2983427
6874:10.1126/science.6200935
6794:10.1126/science.6189183
6654:Gay Men's Health Crisis
6621:17 October 2020 at the
6577:10.1126/science.7089584
6054:British Medical Journal
6050:"AIDS and tuberculosis"
5756:. Remedy Health Media.
5724:NIDA Research Monograph
5147:10.1073/pnas.0705329104
4870:10.1126/science.2983417
4154:Pépin, Jacques (2011).
3794:10.1089/088922200309548
3643:10.1126/science.1193550
3535:10.1089/088922200309548
3394:10.1073/pnas.0936469100
2575:10.1126/science.1126531
1325:to the human organism.
964:, and the emergence of
202:(SIVs) endemic in wild
184:molecular phylogenetics
9045:AIDS origin hypotheses
8062:HIV-affected community
8002:HIV and homosexual men
7681:Petro, Anthony (2015)
7636:Shilts, Randy (1987).
6616:GMHC/HIV/AIDS Timeline
6483:(26): 353–54, 360–61.
6332:Br Med J (Clin Res Ed)
5752:Anna Thompson (1993).
5593:Tamsin Wilton (1997).
5532:Julia Epstein (1995).
5126:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
4183:Jacques Pépin (2011).
3841:Yale F&ES Bulletin
3589:10.3201/eid1112.050394
3331:10.1098/rstb.2001.0867
2782:10.1098/rstb.2001.0863
2438:10.1098/rstb.2010.0031
2240:Influence on Bolsonaro
2081:May 1986: the name HIV
1907:Pneumocystis jirovecii
1843:perinatal transmission
1730:Pneumocystis pneumonia
1689:And the Band Played On
1584:pneumocystis pneumonia
1515:1973: Ugandan children
1071:genital ulcer diseases
996:(GUD). GUD are simply
994:genital ulcer diseases
936:and forested areas of
225:populations living in
179:
32:
8242:Silence=Death Project
8040:Criminal transmission
7960:Multiple sex partners
7490:Kello, Lucas (2017).
7322:10.1093/molbev/msw149
6640:21 April 2023 at the
5597:. Sage. p. 125.
5567:10.1057/9781137394996
4423:, Sharp PM, Shaw GM,
3994:(16 September 2010).
3032:10.1096/fj.00-0449fje
2250:Supreme Federal Court
2195:Malayan flying lemurs
2145:Further information:
2111:human papilloma virus
1705:Further information:
1594:Further information:
1464:1960: Congolese woman
1311:genital ulcer disease
585:Colonialism in Africa
343:strains are probably
267:Genetic recombination
154:
105:Republic of the Congo
21:
9014:Smallpox eradication
8952:Israel Jacob Kligler
8564:United Arab Emirates
8035:Circumcision and HIV
7992:City of Hope Patient
7752:structure and genome
7081:. Nobel Foundation.
6659:14 July 2021 at the
6428:Pneumocystis carinii
6264:Pneumocystis carinii
6100:"NCGSTDS Newsletter"
5082:Donald G. McNeil Jr.
3992:Donald G. McNeil Jr.
2498:10.1128/jvi.02311-08
2262:Timeline of HIV/AIDS
2230:propaganda operation
2222:scientific consensus
2159:discovered that the
2018:in France including
1931:sexually transmitted
1901:Pneumocystis carinii
1898:caused by a form of
1726:injection-drug users
1541:In 1975 and 1976, a
1484:1969: Robert Rayford
1251:computer simulations
698:Central to the Marx
671:Unsterile injections
541:University of Leuven
537:University of Oxford
468:groups M and O, and
298:Cercocebus atys atys
157:African green monkey
117:Cercocebus atys atys
9040:History of HIV/AIDS
8839:Individual diseases
8832:infectious diseases
8112:AIDS Memorial Quilt
7924:HIV-positive people
7532:(4). Archived from
7205:2008PNAS..10520362G
7047:1986Natur.321...10.
6992:1993Natur.363..466C
6949:1985Sci...227.1449M
6866:1984Sci...224..497P
6786:1983Sci...220..868B
6569:1982Sci...217..618M
6186:(22): 294, 300–01.
5557:L. Meruane (2014).
5219:. 30 October 2007.
5189:. 30 October 2007.
5138:2007PNAS..10418566G
5084:(26 October 2016).
4862:1985Sci...227.1036S
4621:1998Natur.391..594Z
4457:10.1038/nature08200
4449:2009Natur.460..515K
4288:1986Sci...231..203L
4185:The Origins of AIDS
4156:The Origins of AIDS
4110:Trop Med Int Health
3635:2010Sci...329.1487W
3449:2009PLSCB...5E0377W
3385:2003PNAS..100.6588L
3269:6 June 2022 at the
3233:10.1038/nature07390
3225:2008Natur.455..661W
3089:2000Sci...288.1789K
2963:2010PLoSO...5.9936S
2877:1999Natur.397..436G
2663:2006Natur.444..164V
2567:2006Sci...313..523K
2485:Journal of Virology
2376:Journal of Virology
1927:Southern California
1502:City Hospital from
1476:1966: Congolese man
1452:1959: Congolese man
1415:Gombe National Park
1368:oral polio vaccines
1237:in Central Africa.
977:The Origins of AIDS
756:attain substantial
564:Scramble for Africa
545:African AIDS crisis
345:dead-end infections
155:Left to right: the
9050:HIV/AIDS in Africa
8689:Dominican Republic
8072:HIV/AIDS denialism
7997:Women and HIV/AIDS
7987:The London Patient
7854:Signs and symptoms
7762:CDC classification
7450:10.1038/nm0406-369
7252:The New York Times
7162:The New York Times
5827:The New York Times
5618:M. Cooper (2017).
5479:. Drain Magazine.
5252:The New York Times
5090:The New York Times
5047:Kristeligt Dagblad
5016:globalhealth.ku.dk
4814:The New York Times
4789:on 15 October 2008
4763:on 26 October 2008
4525:The New York Times
4001:The New York Times
3924:on 30 October 2016
3918:10.1511/2004.6.540
3906:American Scientist
2042:May 1984: HTLV-III
2032:lymphoid ganglions
1756:Anecdotal evidence
1525:Burkitt's lymphoma
1147:blood transfusions
932:virus in southern
921:represented lower
720:adaptive mutations
597:, particularly in
528:diseases (such as
180:
85:of the subspecies
33:
9027:
9026:
8988:COVID-19 pandemic
8982:HIV/AIDS pandemic
8912:Alexander Fleming
8797:
8796:
8775:
8774:
8697:
8696:
8178:The SING Campaign
8067:HIV/AIDS activism
8055:Cost of treatment
7977:Timothy Ray Brown
7972:World AIDS Museum
7674:978-0-8078-7211-6
7539:on 24 March 2010.
7433:"Denying science"
6943:(4693): 1449–51.
6910:The New Scientist
6860:(4648): 497–500.
6838:978-0-14-011397-6
5576:978-1-349-48409-6
5475:Ted Kerr (2018).
4961:(7123): 1689–91.
4949:Hooper E (1997).
4914:(8598): 1344–45.
4856:(4690): 1036–38.
4558:(9038): 1363–65.
4325:Ramsay S (2001).
4198:978-0-521-18637-7
4169:978-0-521-18637-7
3956:(9297): 1989–92.
3743:978-2-7384-4868-2
3684:(6667): 594–597.
3083:(5472): 1789–96.
3019:The FASEB Journal
2334:(Pt 6): 1253–65.
2234:African-Americans
2131:Bangui definition
2107:Harald zur Hausen
2085:In May 1986, the
2059:August 1984: ARV
2016:Pasteur Institute
1987:Richard Berkowitz
1947:intravenous drugs
1929:suggested that a
1622:Luckner Cambronne
1557:1977: Grethe Rask
1429:History of spread
1069:, and found that
855:sleeping sickness
839:natural selection
831:natural selection
650:Equatorial Guinea
388:of a human host.
358:Bushmeat practice
97:Equatorial Guinea
9057:
8993:
8942:Ignaz Semmelweis
8917:Maurice Hilleman
8824:
8817:
8810:
8801:
8800:
8767:Papua New Guinea
8617:
8616:
8272:
8271:
7716:
7709:
7702:
7693:
7692:
7678:
7659:
7623:
7622:
7620:
7618:
7596:
7590:
7589:
7579:
7547:
7541:
7540:
7538:
7521:
7512:
7506:
7505:
7487:
7481:
7480:
7478:
7452:
7429:
7423:
7422:
7420:
7418:
7399:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7385:
7341:
7335:
7334:
7324:
7300:
7294:
7293:
7291:
7289:
7274:
7268:
7267:
7265:
7263:
7243:
7237:
7236:
7226:
7216:
7199:(51): 20362–67.
7184:
7178:
7177:
7175:
7173:
7153:
7147:
7146:
7128:
7119:(5899): 149–75.
7104:
7095:
7094:
7092:
7090:
7075:
7069:
7068:
7058:
7056:10.1038/321010a0
7026:
7020:
7019:
7000:10.1038/363466a0
6986:(6428): 466–69.
6975:
6969:
6968:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6921:
6901:
6895:
6892:
6886:
6885:
6849:
6843:
6842:
6830:
6820:
6814:
6813:
6780:(4599): 868–71.
6768:
6759:
6758:
6732:
6726:
6725:
6700:(7): 1106–1116.
6689:
6683:
6670:
6664:
6651:
6645:
6632:
6626:
6613:
6607:
6606:
6604:
6595:
6589:
6588:
6563:(4560): 618–21.
6552:
6546:
6545:
6535:
6526:(5786): 470–73.
6514:Cohen J (2006).
6511:
6505:
6504:
6502:
6500:
6468:
6462:
6461:
6459:
6457:
6421:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6382:
6376:
6375:
6365:
6347:
6323:
6317:
6304:
6298:
6297:
6295:
6293:
6257:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6214:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6203:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6128:
6122:
6121:
6119:
6117:
6111:
6104:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6079:
6069:
6060:(6597): 511–12.
6045:
6036:
6035:
6007:
6001:
6000:
5990:
5956:
5947:
5946:
5936:
5904:
5895:
5894:
5865:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5817:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5779:
5770:
5769:
5767:
5765:
5749:
5740:
5739:
5718:
5712:
5711:
5709:
5707:
5701:
5690:
5681:
5672:
5671:
5669:
5667:
5661:
5654:
5645:
5634:
5633:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5590:
5581:
5580:
5554:
5548:
5547:
5529:
5523:
5522:
5520:
5518:
5502:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5488:
5472:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5461:
5445:
5439:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5428:
5421:
5412:
5403:
5402:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5354:
5348:
5333:
5307:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5248:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5230:
5228:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5200:
5198:
5179:
5170:
5169:
5159:
5149:
5132:(47): 18566–70.
5117:
5106:
5105:
5103:
5101:
5078:
5063:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5029:
5027:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4998:
4996:
4978:
4946:
4940:
4939:
4903:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4892:
4886:
4845:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4785:. Archived from
4779:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4759:. Archived from
4749:
4743:
4742:
4737:. Archived from
4726:
4720:
4719:
4691:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4677:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4632:
4615:(6667): 594–97.
4600:
4591:
4590:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4516:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4485:
4479:
4478:
4468:
4443:(7254): 515–19.
4415:
4409:
4408:
4398:
4373:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4227:(8660): 403–07.
4212:
4203:
4202:
4180:
4174:
4173:
4151:
4142:
4141:
4105:
4094:
4093:
4065:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4038:(in Malayalam).
4028:
4022:
4021:
4015:
4013:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3945:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3920:. Archived from
3900:Moore J (2004).
3897:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3877:. Archived from
3873:Moore J (2001).
3870:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3853:
3838:
3829:
3823:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3777:
3760:
3757:
3748:
3747:
3729:
3723:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3600:
3577:Emerg Infect Dis
3568:
3555:
3554:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3470:
3460:
3428:
3417:
3416:
3406:
3396:
3364:
3353:
3352:
3342:
3325:(1410): 911–20.
3310:
3283:
3280:
3274:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3244:
3219:(7213): 661–64.
3204:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3136:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3068:
3053:
3052:
3034:
3010:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2974:
2942:
2907:
2906:
2888:
2871:(6718): 436–41.
2856:
2845:
2844:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2776:(1410): 867–76.
2758:
2741:
2740:
2704:
2693:
2692:
2674:
2638:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2561:(5786): 523–26.
2542:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2500:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2440:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2399:
2382:(19): 12515–27.
2367:
2354:
2353:
2343:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2285:
2161:gray mouse lemur
1934:infectious agent
1920:immunosuppressed
1916:Kaposi's sarcoma
1638:anal intercourse
1504:Kaposi's sarcoma
1440:1959: David Carr
1270:frequency, male
1145:. Leaving aside
437:(inhabiting the
70:) in the 1920s.
9065:
9064:
9060:
9059:
9058:
9056:
9055:
9054:
9030:
9029:
9028:
9023:
8997:
8962:Major epidemics
8956:
8900:
8834:
8828:
8798:
8793:
8771:
8745:
8693:
8665:
8606:
8578:
8524:Myanmar (Burma)
8413:
8261:
8247:Day Without Art
8193:The Global Fund
8121:
8050:Economic impact
8006:
7938:
7842:
7794:pathophysiology
7730:
7720:
7675:
7648:
7632:
7630:Further reading
7627:
7626:
7616:
7614:
7606:The Independent
7597:
7593:
7548:
7544:
7536:
7519:
7513:
7509:
7502:
7488:
7484:
7476:
7473:Nature Medicine
7437:Nature Medicine
7431:
7430:
7426:
7416:
7414:
7401:
7400:
7396:
7383:
7381:
7366:
7342:
7338:
7315:(10): 2659–69.
7301:
7297:
7287:
7285:
7276:
7275:
7271:
7261:
7259:
7244:
7240:
7185:
7181:
7171:
7169:
7154:
7150:
7105:
7098:
7088:
7086:
7077:
7076:
7072:
7027:
7023:
6976:
6972:
6933:
6929:
6919:
6917:
6902:
6898:
6893:
6889:
6850:
6846:
6839:
6821:
6817:
6769:
6762:
6747:
6733:
6729:
6690:
6686:
6680:Wayback Machine
6671:
6667:
6661:Wayback Machine
6652:
6648:
6642:Wayback Machine
6633:
6629:
6623:Wayback Machine
6614:
6610:
6602:
6596:
6592:
6553:
6549:
6512:
6508:
6498:
6496:
6469:
6465:
6455:
6453:
6422:
6418:
6408:
6406:
6399:
6383:
6379:
6324:
6320:
6314:Wayback Machine
6305:
6301:
6291:
6289:
6258:
6254:
6244:
6242:
6215:
6211:
6201:
6199:
6172:
6168:
6158:
6156:
6129:
6125:
6115:
6113:
6109:
6102:
6098:
6097:
6093:
6046:
6039:
6008:
6004:
5957:
5950:
5905:
5898:
5866:
5847:
5837:
5835:
5818:
5811:
5801:
5799:
5780:
5773:
5763:
5761:
5750:
5743:
5719:
5715:
5705:
5703:
5699:
5688:
5682:
5675:
5665:
5663:
5659:
5652:
5646:
5637:
5630:
5616:
5612:
5605:
5591:
5584:
5577:
5555:
5551:
5544:
5530:
5526:
5516:
5514:
5503:
5496:
5486:
5484:
5473:
5469:
5459:
5457:
5446:
5442:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5419:
5413:
5406:
5366:
5362:
5352:
5350:
5346:
5305:
5299:
5295:
5264:
5260:
5246:
5240:
5236:
5226:
5224:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5196:
5194:
5181:
5180:
5173:
5118:
5109:
5099:
5097:
5079:
5066:
5056:
5054:
5039:
5035:
5025:
5023:
5008:
5004:
4994:
4992:
4947:
4943:
4904:
4900:
4890:
4888:
4884:
4843:
4837:
4833:
4823:
4821:
4806:
4802:
4792:
4790:
4781:
4780:
4776:
4766:
4764:
4751:
4750:
4746:
4727:
4723:
4702:(14): 2085–87.
4692:
4685:
4675:
4673:
4658:
4654:
4601:
4594:
4548:
4544:
4534:
4532:
4517:
4513:
4503:
4501:
4494:The Independent
4486:
4482:
4416:
4412:
4374:
4370:
4360:
4358:
4323:
4319:
4272:
4268:
4258:
4256:
4213:
4206:
4199:
4191:. p. 311.
4181:
4177:
4170:
4152:
4145:
4106:
4097:
4076:(12): 1071–78.
4066:
4055:
4045:
4043:
4030:
4029:
4025:
4011:
4009:
3989:
3985:
3946:
3937:
3927:
3925:
3898:
3894:
3884:
3882:
3881:on 1 April 2012
3871:
3867:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3836:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3817:
3778:
3763:
3758:
3751:
3744:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3705:
3670:
3666:
3618:
3614:
3583:(12): 1928–30.
3569:
3558:
3519:
3515:
3505:
3503:
3488:
3484:
3443:(5): e1000377.
3429:
3420:
3379:(11): 6588–92.
3365:
3356:
3311:
3286:
3281:
3277:
3271:Wayback Machine
3262:
3258:
3205:
3182:
3137:
3124:
3114:
3112:
3069:
3056:
3011:
2998:
2943:
2910:
2857:
2848:
2833:
2811:
2807:
2759:
2744:
2721:10.1038/nm.2016
2709:Nature Medicine
2705:
2696:
2672:10.1038/444164a
2639:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2613:. 25 May 2006.
2605:
2604:
2600:
2543:
2532:
2476:
2472:
2417:
2413:
2368:
2357:
2320:
2313:
2303:
2301:
2286:
2275:
2270:
2258:
2242:
2217:AIDS denialists
2214:
2209:
2203:
2172:survived an era
2149:
2143:
2141:Genetic studies
2127:epidemiological
2123:
2115:cervical cancer
2095:
2083:
2074:
2061:
2044:
2012:
2007:
1956:
1882:
1709:
1703:
1682:until 1974. In
1660:airline steward
1656:
1650:
1598:
1592:
1565:
1559:
1539:
1533:
1531:1976: Arvid Noe
1517:
1492:
1486:
1478:
1466:
1454:
1442:
1437:
1431:
1376:
1335:
1259:acute infection
1243:
1213:was strong for
1166:and hunting of
1135:
1119:
1067:sooty mangabeys
1055:
1030:
1020:expressing the
985:
950:trypanosomiasis
911:Schistosomiasis
895:trypanosomiasis
883:
851:trypanosomiasis
847:
827:molecular clock
798:
728:acute infection
716:acute infection
673:
634:acute infection
587:
575:Michael Worobey
553:
499:epidemiological
486:
423:sooty mangabeys
399:
394:
360:
349:sooty mangabeys
325:sooty mangabeys
304:, Liberia, and
286:
280:
272:molecular clock
192:
149:
38:is caused by a
12:
11:
5:
9063:
9053:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9025:
9024:
9022:
9021:
9016:
9011:
9005:
9003:
8999:
8998:
8996:
8995:
8985:
8984:(1981–present)
8979:
8973:
8966:
8964:
8958:
8957:
8955:
8954:
8949:
8944:
8939:
8934:
8929:
8924:
8919:
8914:
8908:
8906:
8902:
8901:
8899:
8898:
8893:
8888:
8883:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8858:
8853:
8848:
8842:
8840:
8836:
8835:
8827:
8826:
8819:
8812:
8804:
8795:
8794:
8792:
8791:
8786:
8780:
8777:
8776:
8773:
8772:
8770:
8769:
8764:
8759:
8753:
8751:
8747:
8746:
8744:
8743:
8738:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8713:
8707:
8705:
8699:
8698:
8695:
8694:
8692:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8675:
8673:
8667:
8666:
8664:
8663:
8662:
8661:
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8631:
8626:
8620:
8614:
8608:
8607:
8605:
8604:
8599:
8594:
8592:United Kingdom
8588:
8586:
8580:
8579:
8577:
8576:
8571:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8501:
8496:
8491:
8486:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8470:
8469:
8459:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8439:
8434:
8429:
8423:
8421:
8415:
8414:
8412:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8286:
8280:
8278:
8269:
8263:
8262:
8260:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8238:
8237:
8232:
8225:
8220:
8210:
8205:
8203:YAA/Youthforce
8200:
8198:World AIDS Day
8195:
8190:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8170:
8165:
8160:
8155:
8150:
8145:
8140:
8135:
8129:
8127:
8123:
8122:
8120:
8119:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8099:
8094:
8089:
8084:
8079:
8074:
8069:
8064:
8059:
8058:
8057:
8047:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8031:
8030:
8020:
8014:
8012:
8008:
8007:
8005:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7982:Berlin Patient
7979:
7974:
7969:
7964:
7963:
7962:
7952:
7946:
7944:
7940:
7939:
7937:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7916:
7911:
7906:
7901:
7899:Superinfection
7896:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7879:Cardiomyopathy
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7850:
7848:
7844:
7843:
7841:
7840:
7835:
7834:
7833:
7831:Teens / Adults
7828:
7818:
7817:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7776:
7775:
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7738:
7736:
7732:
7731:
7719:
7718:
7711:
7704:
7696:
7690:
7689:
7679:
7673:
7660:
7647:978-0312009946
7646:
7631:
7628:
7625:
7624:
7591:
7562:(3): 342–344.
7542:
7507:
7500:
7482:
7424:
7394:
7365:978-0309038799
7364:
7336:
7295:
7269:
7238:
7179:
7148:
7096:
7070:
7021:
6970:
6927:
6896:
6887:
6844:
6837:
6815:
6760:
6745:
6727:
6684:
6665:
6646:
6627:
6608:
6590:
6547:
6506:
6463:
6440:(27): 365–67.
6416:
6397:
6377:
6338:(6348): 1082.
6318:
6299:
6276:(23): 305–07.
6252:
6229:(19): 249–51.
6209:
6166:
6143:(21): 250–52.
6123:
6112:on 4 July 2021
6091:
6037:
6002:
5948:
5896:
5877:(7): 1008–12.
5845:
5809:
5771:
5741:
5713:
5673:
5662:on 4 July 2021
5635:
5629:978-1935408840
5628:
5610:
5604:978-0761953821
5603:
5582:
5575:
5549:
5543:978-0415907170
5542:
5524:
5494:
5467:
5440:
5429:on 4 July 2021
5404:
5360:
5293:
5258:
5234:
5204:
5171:
5107:
5064:
5033:
5002:
4941:
4898:
4831:
4800:
4774:
4744:
4741:on 3 May 2007.
4721:
4683:
4652:
4592:
4542:
4511:
4480:
4410:
4389:(6): 1055–67.
4368:
4337:(9265): 1343.
4317:
4266:
4204:
4197:
4175:
4168:
4143:
4095:
4053:
4036:ManoramaOnline
4023:
3983:
3935:
3892:
3865:
3824:
3815:
3761:
3749:
3742:
3724:
3715:
3664:
3629:(5998): 1487.
3612:
3556:
3513:
3482:
3418:
3354:
3284:
3275:
3256:
3180:
3151:(3): 1059–68.
3122:
3054:
2996:
2908:
2846:
2832:978-0123736017
2831:
2805:
2742:
2694:
2628:
2598:
2530:
2470:
2411:
2355:
2311:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2246:Jair Bolsonaro
2241:
2238:
2213:
2212:AIDS denialism
2210:
2205:Main article:
2202:
2199:
2142:
2139:
2122:
2119:
2094:
2091:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2060:
2057:
2043:
2040:
2024:Luc Montagnier
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
1983:Michael Callen
1981:Also in 1982,
1955:
1952:
1881:
1878:
1826:New York Times
1760:heroin addicts
1745:immune systems
1702:
1699:
1668:William Darrow
1652:Main article:
1649:
1646:
1634:Robert Rayford
1630:Port-au-Prince
1591:
1588:
1561:Main article:
1558:
1555:
1535:Main article:
1532:
1529:
1516:
1513:
1496:Robert Rayford
1490:Robert Rayford
1488:Main article:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1465:
1462:
1453:
1450:
1441:
1438:
1433:Main article:
1430:
1427:
1375:
1372:
1334:
1331:
1242:
1239:
1149:, the highest
1134:
1131:
1127:clitoridectomy
1118:
1115:
1054:
1051:
1029:
1026:
1014:genital herpes
990:genital ulcers
984:
981:
970:serial passage
882:
879:
875:serial passage
863:serial passage
846:
843:
835:serial passage
811:serial passage
797:
794:
790:serial passage
778:serial passage
743:serial passage
704:serial passage
672:
669:
626:serial passage
586:
583:
552:
549:
485:
482:
398:
395:
393:
390:
359:
356:
294:sooty mangabey
279:
276:
191:
188:
165:sooty mangabey
148:
145:
139:, and western
113:sooty mangabey
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9062:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9037:
9035:
9020:
9017:
9015:
9012:
9010:
9007:
9006:
9004:
9000:
8990:(2019–present
8989:
8986:
8983:
8980:
8977:
8974:
8971:
8968:
8967:
8965:
8963:
8959:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8945:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8933:
8932:Louis Pasteur
8930:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8922:Edward Jenner
8920:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8909:
8907:
8903:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8891:Typhoid fever
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8843:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8825:
8820:
8818:
8813:
8811:
8806:
8805:
8802:
8790:
8787:
8785:
8782:
8781:
8778:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8758:
8755:
8754:
8752:
8748:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8708:
8706:
8704:
8703:South America
8700:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8676:
8674:
8672:
8668:
8660:
8659:New York City
8657:
8656:
8655:
8654:United States
8652:
8650:
8647:
8645:
8642:
8640:
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8625:
8622:
8621:
8618:
8615:
8613:
8612:North America
8609:
8603:
8600:
8598:
8595:
8593:
8590:
8589:
8587:
8585:
8581:
8575:
8572:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8487:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8468:
8465:
8464:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8438:
8435:
8433:
8430:
8428:
8425:
8424:
8422:
8420:
8416:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8352:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8281:
8279:
8277:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8264:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8230:
8226:
8224:
8221:
8219:
8216:
8215:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8204:
8201:
8199:
8196:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8151:
8149:
8146:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8130:
8128:
8124:
8118:
8115:
8113:
8110:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8087:Sex education
8085:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8075:
8073:
8070:
8068:
8065:
8063:
8060:
8056:
8053:
8052:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8029:
8026:
8025:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8015:
8013:
8009:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7961:
7958:
7957:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7947:
7945:
7941:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7869:Lipodystrophy
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7851:
7849:
7845:
7839:
7836:
7832:
7829:
7827:
7824:
7823:
7822:
7819:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7781:
7780:
7777:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7744:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7737:
7733:
7728:
7724:
7717:
7712:
7710:
7705:
7703:
7698:
7697:
7694:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7670:
7666:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7649:
7643:
7639:
7634:
7633:
7612:
7608:
7607:
7602:
7595:
7587:
7583:
7578:
7573:
7569:
7565:
7561:
7557:
7553:
7546:
7535:
7531:
7527:
7526:
7518:
7511:
7503:
7501:9780300226294
7497:
7493:
7486:
7479:
7474:
7468:
7464:
7460:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7442:
7438:
7434:
7428:
7412:
7408:
7407:niaid.nih.gov
7404:
7398:
7391:
7379:
7375:
7371:
7367:
7361:
7357:
7353:
7350:. p. 2.
7349:
7348:
7340:
7332:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7299:
7283:
7279:
7273:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7242:
7234:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7183:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7144:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7127:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7103:
7101:
7084:
7080:
7074:
7066:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7036:
7032:
7025:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6974:
6966:
6962:
6958:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6931:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6900:
6891:
6883:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6848:
6840:
6834:
6829:
6828:
6819:
6811:
6807:
6803:
6799:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6767:
6765:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6746:0-262-03333-X
6742:
6739:. MIT Press.
6738:
6731:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6688:
6681:
6677:
6674:
6669:
6662:
6658:
6655:
6650:
6643:
6639:
6636:
6631:
6624:
6620:
6617:
6612:
6601:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6551:
6543:
6539:
6534:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6510:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6467:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6429:
6420:
6404:
6400:
6398:9781135457549
6394:
6390:
6389:
6381:
6373:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6322:
6315:
6311:
6308:
6303:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6265:
6256:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6213:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6170:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6127:
6108:
6101:
6095:
6087:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6068:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6044:
6042:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6018:(3): 362–66.
6017:
6013:
6006:
5998:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5973:(3): 424–34.
5972:
5968:
5967:
5962:
5955:
5953:
5944:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5919:(2): 107–17.
5918:
5914:
5910:
5903:
5901:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5864:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5854:
5852:
5850:
5833:
5829:
5828:
5823:
5816:
5814:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5778:
5776:
5759:
5755:
5748:
5746:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5717:
5698:
5694:
5687:
5680:
5678:
5658:
5651:
5644:
5642:
5640:
5631:
5625:
5621:
5614:
5606:
5600:
5596:
5589:
5587:
5578:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5553:
5545:
5539:
5535:
5528:
5512:
5508:
5501:
5499:
5482:
5478:
5471:
5455:
5451:
5444:
5425:
5418:
5411:
5409:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5377:(2): 210–14.
5376:
5372:
5364:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5316:(6): 907–13.
5315:
5311:
5304:
5297:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5274:(3): 217–32.
5273:
5269:
5262:
5254:
5253:
5245:
5238:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5208:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5178:
5176:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5071:
5069:
5052:
5049:(in Danish).
5048:
5044:
5037:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5006:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4945:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4902:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4850:
4842:
4835:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4804:
4788:
4784:
4778:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4748:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4690:
4688:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4631:
4630:10.1038/35400
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4599:
4597:
4588:
4586:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4546:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4515:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4476:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4414:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4372:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4282:(4735): 203.
4281:
4277:
4270:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4211:
4209:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4171:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4150:
4148:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4116:(6): 744–53.
4115:
4111:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4027:
4020:
4007:
4003:
4002:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3942:
3940:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3912:(6): 540–47.
3911:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3880:
3876:
3869:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3835:
3828:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3756:
3754:
3745:
3739:
3735:
3728:
3719:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3690:10.1038/35400
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3668:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3517:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3279:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3025:(2): 276–78.
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2886:10.1038/17130
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2715:(8): 871–72.
2714:
2710:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:(7116): 164.
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2316:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2088:
2078:
2069:
2067:
2056:
2054:
2049:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:May 1983: LAV
2002:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1968:Paul Rapoport
1965:
1960:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1936:might be the
1935:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1848:
1847:liver disease
1844:
1838:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1814:Douglas Crimp
1811:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1798:serum samples
1795:
1792:A chapter in
1790:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1772:
1769:
1768:Tamsin Wilton
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1713:social worker
1708:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1676:New York City
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1645:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1612:around 1976.
1611:
1610:San Francisco
1607:
1606:New York City
1603:
1602:New York City
1597:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1491:
1481:
1473:
1471:
1461:
1459:
1449:
1447:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1381:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1339:
1330:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1280:genital ulcer
1276:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:ethnic groups
1189:
1184:
1181:
1180:ethnic groups
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
980:
978:
973:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
878:
876:
871:
866:
864:
860:
856:
852:
842:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
817:
812:
807:
803:
793:
791:
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
735:
733:
729:
725:
724:immune system
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
668:
666:
665:Joseph Conrad
662:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
637:
635:
631:
630:immune system
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
582:
580:
576:
572:
569:
565:
561:
560:Paul M. Sharp
557:
556:Beatrice Hahn
548:
546:
542:
538:
533:
531:
527:
526:genital ulcer
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
506:Belgian Congo
502:
500:
496:
491:
481:
477:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
389:
387:
383:
379:
375:
370:
366:
355:
352:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
285:
275:
273:
268:
264:
260:
255:
250:
248:
244:
243:Belgian Congo
240:
236:
232:
231:East Province
228:
224:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
187:
185:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
125:Guinea-Bissau
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
60:Belgian Congo
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
31:
27:
24:
20:
16:
8896:Yellow fever
8886:Tuberculosis
8850:
8554:Taiwan (ROC)
8544:Saudi Arabia
8394:South Africa
8227:
8213:Larry Kramer
7955:Epidemiology
7949:
7682:
7664:
7637:
7615:. Retrieved
7604:
7594:
7559:
7555:
7545:
7534:the original
7529:
7523:
7510:
7491:
7485:
7472:
7470:
7440:
7436:
7427:
7415:. Retrieved
7406:
7397:
7389:
7382:. Retrieved
7356:10.17226/771
7346:
7339:
7312:
7308:
7298:
7286:. Retrieved
7272:
7262:17 September
7260:. Retrieved
7251:
7241:
7196:
7192:
7182:
7170:. Retrieved
7161:
7151:
7116:
7112:
7087:. Retrieved
7073:
7041:(6065): 10.
7038:
7034:
7024:
6983:
6979:
6973:
6940:
6936:
6930:
6920:16 September
6918:. Retrieved
6909:
6899:
6890:
6857:
6853:
6847:
6826:
6818:
6777:
6773:
6736:
6730:
6697:
6693:
6687:
6668:
6649:
6630:
6611:
6593:
6560:
6556:
6550:
6523:
6519:
6509:
6497:. Retrieved
6480:
6476:
6466:
6454:. Retrieved
6437:
6433:
6427:
6419:
6407:. Retrieved
6387:
6380:
6335:
6331:
6321:
6302:
6290:. Retrieved
6273:
6269:
6263:
6255:
6243:. Retrieved
6226:
6222:
6212:
6200:. Retrieved
6183:
6179:
6169:
6157:. Retrieved
6140:
6136:
6126:
6114:. Retrieved
6107:the original
6094:
6057:
6053:
6015:
6011:
6005:
5970:
5964:
5916:
5912:
5874:
5870:
5836:. Retrieved
5825:
5800:. Retrieved
5791:
5787:
5762:. Retrieved
5727:
5723:
5716:
5704:. Retrieved
5692:
5664:. Retrieved
5657:the original
5619:
5613:
5594:
5558:
5552:
5533:
5527:
5515:. Retrieved
5485:. Retrieved
5470:
5458:. Retrieved
5443:
5431:. Retrieved
5424:the original
5374:
5370:
5363:
5351:. Retrieved
5313:
5309:
5296:
5271:
5267:
5261:
5255:. p. 2.
5250:
5237:
5225:. Retrieved
5216:
5207:
5195:. Retrieved
5186:
5129:
5125:
5098:. Retrieved
5089:
5055:. Retrieved
5046:
5036:
5024:. Retrieved
5015:
5005:
4993:. Retrieved
4958:
4954:
4944:
4911:
4907:
4901:
4889:. Retrieved
4853:
4847:
4834:
4822:. Retrieved
4813:
4803:
4791:. Retrieved
4787:the original
4777:
4765:. Retrieved
4761:the original
4756:
4747:
4739:the original
4734:
4724:
4699:
4695:
4674:. Retrieved
4666:The Atlantic
4665:
4655:
4612:
4608:
4584:
4555:
4551:
4545:
4533:. Retrieved
4524:
4514:
4502:. Retrieved
4493:
4483:
4440:
4436:
4413:
4386:
4382:
4371:
4359:. Retrieved
4334:
4330:
4320:
4279:
4275:
4269:
4257:. Retrieved
4224:
4220:
4184:
4178:
4155:
4113:
4109:
4073:
4069:
4044:. Retrieved
4035:
4026:
4017:
4012:17 September
4010:. Retrieved
3999:
3986:
3953:
3949:
3926:. Retrieved
3922:the original
3909:
3905:
3895:
3883:. Retrieved
3879:the original
3868:
3856:. Retrieved
3844:
3840:
3827:
3818:
3785:
3781:
3733:
3727:
3718:
3706:. Retrieved
3681:
3677:
3667:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3580:
3576:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3504:. Retrieved
3485:
3440:
3436:
3376:
3372:
3322:
3318:
3278:
3259:
3216:
3212:
3148:
3144:
3113:. Retrieved
3080:
3076:
3022:
3018:
2957:(4): e9936.
2954:
2950:
2868:
2864:
2814:
2808:
2773:
2769:
2712:
2708:
2654:
2650:
2619:. Retrieved
2610:
2601:
2558:
2554:
2488:
2484:
2473:
2428:
2424:
2414:
2379:
2375:
2331:
2327:
2302:. Retrieved
2243:
2215:
2192:
2180:
2150:
2124:
2096:
2084:
2075:
2062:
2048:Robert Gallo
2045:
2013:
1999:
1990:
1980:
1972:Edmund White
1964:Larry Kramer
1961:
1957:
1943:hemophiliacs
1924:
1906:
1900:
1889:
1883:
1866:
1864:
1855:Tuberculosis
1851:
1839:
1835:transfusions
1831:
1821:epidemiology
1809:
1807:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1787:The Guardian
1786:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1763:
1754:
1740:
1738:
1711:A volunteer
1710:
1694:Patient Zero
1687:
1686:' 1987 book
1684:Randy Shilts
1664:Gaëtan Dugas
1657:
1654:Gaëtan Dugas
1642:
1626:blood plasma
1614:
1599:
1566:
1540:
1518:
1498:died at the
1493:
1479:
1467:
1458:Léopoldville
1455:
1443:
1408:
1403:
1384:
1377:
1358:
1350:transfusions
1343:
1336:
1327:
1303:circumcision
1300:
1277:
1272:circumcision
1246:
1244:
1207:circumcision
1204:
1187:
1185:
1164:circumcision
1160:ethnographic
1155:
1139:circumcision
1136:
1120:
1103:
1056:
1033:
1031:
992:, caused by
986:
976:
974:
927:
915:tuberculosis
884:
867:
858:
848:
822:
820:
801:
799:
784:
782:
747:
738:
736:
699:
697:
692:
688:
684:
674:
658:
646:Ubangi River
638:
617:
610:vaccinations
607:
588:
573:
554:
534:
522:prostitution
510:Léopoldville
503:
487:
478:
463:
454:
434:
403:biogeography
400:
361:
353:
333:Sierra Leone
318:
302:Sierra Leone
297:
287:
284:HIV subtypes
251:
235:Sangha River
219:
211:
193:
181:
175:, source of
167:, source of
159:, source of
133:Sierra Leone
116:
86:
72:
56:Léopoldville
34:
15:
8978:(1918–1920)
8976:Spanish flu
8972:(1346–1353)
8970:Black Death
8927:Robert Koch
8830:History of
8762:New Zealand
8634:El Salvador
8539:Philippines
8509:North Korea
8462:China (PRC)
8427:Afghanistan
8117:Product Red
8018:AIDS orphan
7874:Nephropathy
7809:vaccination
7417:19 February
7384:25 February
7288:4 September
6499:9 September
6456:9 September
6292:9 September
6245:9 September
6202:9 September
6159:9 September
6116:4 September
5764:22 November
5487:4 September
5227:13 February
5100:25 February
4891:27 December
4824:25 February
4793:27 December
4767:13 February
4535:25 February
4504:13 February
3928:28 November
3858:28 November
3506:28 February
1945:, users of
1938:etiological
1912:Los Angeles
1658:A Canadian
1568:Grethe Rask
1563:Grethe Rask
1411:chimpanzees
1397:MHC class I
1307:correlation
1288:colonialism
1249:then built
1219:Ivory Coast
1211:correlation
1196:colonialism
1111:colonialism
1099:Ivory Coast
1091:antibiotics
1059:chimpanzees
958:Hepatitis C
930:Hepatitis C
806:antibiotics
758:viral loads
663:written by
595:colonialism
591:vaccination
518:colonialism
445:, Burundi,
433:subspecies
427:Ivory Coast
411:chimpanzees
337:Ivory Coast
314:Ivory Coast
306:Ivory Coast
233:) near the
210:subspecies
141:Ivory Coast
83:chimpanzees
52:West Africa
23:False-color
9034:Categories
8937:Jonas Salk
8474:East Timor
8447:Bangladesh
8437:Azerbaijan
8359:Mozambique
8344:Madagascar
8077:Red ribbon
7919:Serostatus
7847:Conditions
7799:prevention
7789:management
7747:Lentivirus
7617:20 January
7089:28 October
6409:2 February
4552:The Lancet
4361:15 October
4331:The Lancet
4259:5 December
3885:23 January
3788:(1): 5–8.
3529:(1): 5–8.
2268:References
2168:lentivirus
2165:endogenous
2028:retrovirus
1989:published
1922:patients.
1873:predictive
1734:bronchitis
1680:Air Canada
1628:center in
1470:lymph node
1446:Manchester
1346:parenteral
1338:Iatrogenic
1323:adaptation
1263:parameters
1087:arsenicals
923:parenteral
816:antibiotic
766:viral load
732:viral load
712:adaptation
687:and Sharp
622:parenteral
431:chimpanzee
282:See also:
241:(then the
223:chimpanzee
208:chimpanzee
173:chimpanzee
171:; and the
107:, and the
30:lymphocyte
8947:John Snow
8757:Australia
8711:Argentina
8671:Caribbean
8649:Nicaragua
8639:Guatemala
8549:Sri Lanka
8484:Indonesia
8267:Locations
8208:"Free Me"
7934:Pregnancy
7929:Nutrition
7784:diagnosis
7459:1078-8956
7172:6 October
7143:206582472
6722:143610161
6714:0002-7642
6354:0007-1447
5838:15 August
5802:15 August
5706:15 August
5666:16 August
5517:11 August
5460:11 August
5433:11 August
5353:5 October
4582:. (link:
4421:Goodall J
4351:140208985
3847:: 72–84.
3698:1476-4687
2611:USA Today
2507:0022-538X
2447:0962-8436
2226:bioweapon
2113:leads to
2068:in 1984.
1978:in 1982.
1812:, author
1551:gonorrhea
1547:Arvid Noe
1543:Norwegian
1537:Arvid Noe
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