History of Ethiopia

1610: 2848:

which Tewodros had made his capital) in exchange for money and weapons. Surely enough, when the British completed their mission and were leaving the country, they rewarded Kassa for his cooperation with artillery, muskets, rifles, and munitions, all in all, worth approximately £500,000. This formidable gift came in handy when in July 1871 the current emperor, Emperor Tekle Giyorgis II, attacked Kassa at his capital in Adwa, for Kassa had refused to be named a ras or pay tribute. Although Kassa's army was outnumbered 12,000 to the emperor's 60,000, Kassa's army was equipped with more modern weapons and better trained. At battle's end, forty per cent of the emperor's men had been captured. The emperor was imprisoned and would die a year later. Six months later on 21 January 1872, Kassa became the new emperor under the name Yohannes IV.

3931: 1673: 3625: 1050: 1081:, where a so-called sabean style temple was built around 700 BC although no evidence of such architecture being found in Yemen. The D'mt kingdom was influenced by the Sabaeans in Yemen, however it is not known to what extent. While it was once believed that D'mt was a Sabaean colony, it is now believed that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappeared after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Aksumite state. Few inscriptions by or about this kingdom survive and very little archaeological work has taken place. As a result, it is not known whether Dʿmt ended as a civilization before 2085: 3710: 3165:

hundreds of young men and women to study abroad and set up the capital's second modern school in 1925. He established schools and several cities, as well as training institutions and technical schools. Missionaries were also active in education. By 1925 French Franciscan sisters were well-established, running an orphanage, a dispensary, a leper colony and 10 schools with 350 girl students. They settled in the cities of Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa, along the Franco-Ethiopian railway which opened in 1917. The schools were highly attractive to upper-class Ethiopians. In 1935, 119 Catholic and Protestant missions were educating 6717 pupils across the nation.

44: 1744: 1479: 674: 2187: 4093:. No official date was set for the next election at that time, but the government promised that once a vaccine was developed for COVID-19 elections would move forward. The Tigrayan ruling party, TPLF, opposed cancelling the elections and, when their request to the federal government to hold elections was rejected, the TPLF proceeded to hold elections anyway on 9 September 2020. They worked with regional opposition parties and included international observers in the election process. It was estimated that 2.7 million people participated in the election. 3962: 3958:, ending the state of conflict between the two countries. For his efforts in ending the 20-year-long war between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Abiy Ahmed was awarded the Nobel prize for peace in 2019. After taking office in April 2018, Abiy released political prisoners, promised fair elections for 2019 and announced sweeping economic reforms. As of 6 June 2019, all the previously censored websites were made accessible again, over 13,000 political prisoners were released and hundreds of administrative staff were fired as part of the reforms. 1399: 3202: 2840:. Tewodros allied with Britain and Ethiopia, but as explained in the next section, he committed suicide after a military defeat by the British. On the death of Tewodros, many Shewans, including Ras Darge, were released, and the young Negus of Shewa began to feel strong enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to undertake offensive operations against the northern princes. However, these projects were of little avail, for Ras Kassai of Tigray had by this time (1872) risen to supreme power in the north. Proclaiming himself 1994: 2871: 2720: 3542:("committee"), seized power from the ageing Emperor Haile Selassie I on September 12, 1974, and installed a government that was socialist in name and military in style. The Derg summarily executed 59 members of the former government, including two former prime ministers and crown councillors, court officials, ministers, and generals. Emperor Haile Selassie died on August 27, 1975. He was allegedly strangled in the basement of his palace or smothered with a wet pillow. 1592:. During this trip, the Ethiopian mission also travelled to France, Spain and Portugal in the hopes of building an alliance against the Muslim states then threatening Ethiopia's existence. Plans were even drawn up for a two-pronged invasion of Egypt with the French King, but nothing ever came of the talks, although this brought Ethiopia back to Europe's attention, leading to the expansion of European influence when the Portuguese explorers reached the Indian Ocean. 2749: 3407: 2628: 9516: 3702: 559: 2596:. Mentewab's attempt to strengthen ties between the monarchy and the Oromo by arranging the marriage of her son to the daughter of an Oromo chieftain backfired in the long run. Iyasu II gave precedence to his mother and allowed her every prerogative as a crowned co-ruler, while his wife Wubit suffered in obscurity. Wubit waited for the accession of her son to make a bid for the power wielded for so long by Mentewab and her relatives from 1601: 7910: 3531: 2411: 1864: 2508: 8554: 3058: 1121: 864: 4108: 2572: 3071:, to incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire'. The people incorporated were the western Oromo (non-Shoan Oromo), Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. He began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today. He did this with the help of 3112: 3546: 1293: 1513:(named after the Agaw people who ruled during this time) and married a female descendant of the Aksumite monarchs ("son-in-law") or previous ruler. Exactly when the new dynasty came to power is unknown, as is the number of kings in the dynasty. The new Zagwe dynasty established its capital at Roha (also called Adefa), where they built a series of 2825:, Haile Melekot's brother, and Ato Bezabih, a Shewan noble, took charge of the young prince, but after a hard fight with Angeda, the Shewans were obliged to capitulate. Sahle Maryam was handed over to Emperor Tewodoros and taken to Gondar. He was trained there in Tewodros's service and then placed in comfortable detention at the fortress of 3326:

military careers. The indigenous population were given a rudimentary primary education focused on producing submissive and obedient servants of the empire. New school buildings were constructed for the Italian colonists. The "Plan for development of Italian Addis Abeba" in 1939 proposed the creation of the first university in Ethiopia, but

1822:, King Dawit had led his troops beyond the northern frontiers of his kingdom, and created much havoc among the Muslim inhabitants of the area who had been within the sphere of influence of Egypt since the thirteenth century." The Emperor had a much friendlier relationship with the Sultan's successor, for according to the medieval historian 3621:. Ethiopian forces were driven back far inside their frontiers but, with the assistance of a massive Soviet airlift of arms and 17,000 Cuban combat forces, they stemmed the attack. The last major Somali regular units left the Ogaden March 15, 1978. Twenty years later, the Somali region of Ethiopia remained underdeveloped and insecure. 1732:, exacted tribute, when he could, from the other provinces. The title of nəgusä nägäst was to a considerable extent based on their alleged direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that in many, if not in most, cases their success was due more to the force of their arms than to the purity of their 1109: 3912:. Ethiopian forces pulled out of Somalia in January 2009, leaving a small African Union force and a smaller Somali Transitional Government force to maintain the peace. Reports immediately emerged of religious fundamentalist forces occupying one of two former Ethiopian bases in Mogadishu shortly after withdrawal. 2032:. In this remote location, the Empress turned to the Portuguese for military assistance against Ottoman guns. João Bermudes, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was sent to Lisbon. Bermudes claimed to be the ordained successor to the 2798:, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa, which remained unsubdued. His relations with his father-in-law and grandmother-in-law deteriorated, however, and he soon took up arms against them and their vassals and was successful. On February 11, 1855, Kassa deposed the last of the Gondarine puppet Emperors and was crowned 3023:

with the Italians, granting them a portion of Northern Ethiopia, the area that would later be Eritrea and part of the province of Tigray in return for the promise of 30,000 rifles, ammunition, and cannons. The Italians notified the European powers that this treaty gave them a protectorate over all of

2642:

The reign of Iyaos' reign becomes a narrative of the struggle between the powerful Ras Mikael Sehul and the Oromo relatives of Iyoas. As Iyoas increasingly favoured Oromo leaders like Fasil, his relations with Mikael Sehul deteriorated. Eventually, Mikael Sehul deposed the Emperor Iyoas (7 May 1769).

3084:

and the people of the Kaficho kingdom. Slavery was of ancient origins in Ethiopia and continued into the early 20th century. It was widely practised in the new territories, and tolerated by the authorities who often owned slaves themselves. Slaves could be bought and sold (but not to non-Christians)

2579:

Empress Mentewab was crowned co-ruler upon the succession of her son (a first for a woman in Ethiopia) in 1730 and held unprecedented power over government during his reign. Her attempt to continue in this role following the death of her son in 1755 led her into conflict with Wubit (Welete Bersabe),

1214:

for GDRT (interpreted as representing a Ge'ez name such as Gadarat, Gedur, Gadurat or Gedara) around the beginning of the 3rd century CE. A bronze sceptre or wand has been discovered at Atsbi Dera with an inscription mentioning "GDR of Axum". Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under

5829: 2785:

between Lake Tana and the northwestern frontier. Kassa lost his inheritance upon the death of Kinfu while he was still a young boy. After receiving a traditional education in a local monastery, he went off to lead a band of bandits that roved the country in a Robin Hood-like existence. His exploits

2661:

This bitter religious conflict contributed to hostility toward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted into the 20th century and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the mid-19th century, when the first British mission, sent in 1805 to conclude an alliance with Ethiopia and obtain a

2069:

and his forces were totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the Emperor and Bermudes, who had returned to Ethiopia with Gama and now urged the emperor to publicly profess his obedience to Rome. This the Emperor refused to do, and at length, Bermudes was obliged to make his way out of the

1532:

The Zagwe dynasty controlled a smaller area than the Aksumites or the Solomonic dynasty, with its core in the Lasta region. The Zagwe seem to have ruled over a mostly peaceful state with a flourishing urban culture, in contrast to the more warlike Solomonids with their mobile capitals. David Buxton

1011:

trees, sacks of myrrh, elephant tusks, incense, gold, various fragmented wood, and exotic animals. Detailed information about these two nations is sparse, and there are many theories concerning their locations and the ethnic relationships of their peoples. The Egyptians sometimes called the Land of

3231:

claimed that more than 275,000 Ethiopian fighters were killed compared to only 1,537 Italians, while the Italian authorities estimated that 16,000 Ethiopians and 2,700 Italians (including Italian colonial troops) died in battle. Some 78,500 patriots (guerrilla fighters) died during the occupation,

3500:) but was concealed from the outside world, and the growing discontent of urban interest groups, the country was ripe for revolution. The unrest that began in January 1974 became an outburst of general discontent. The Ethiopian military began to both organize and incite a full-fledged revolution. 3464:

By the early 1970s Emperor Haile Selassie's advanced age was becoming apparent. As Paul B. Henze explains: "Most Ethiopians thought in terms of personalities, not ideology, and out of long habit still looked to Haile Selassie as the initiator of change, the source of status and privilege, and the

3317:

The Italians made investments in Ethiopian infrastructure development during their occupation. They created the so-called "imperial road" between Addis Ababa and Massawa. Much of these improvements were part of a plan to bring half a million Italians to colonize the Ethiopian plateaus. In October

3164:

Modernization became a priority for the Haile Selassie regime; it began with expanded education opportunities beyond the small old-fashioned schools run by the Ethiopian church. Menelik founded the first modern school in Addis Ababa in 1908 and sent several students to Europe. Haile Selassie sent

3681:

government relocated numerous Amharas into southern Ethiopia where they served in government administration, courts, and even in school, where Oromo texts were eliminated and replaced by Amharic. The government perceived the various southern minority languages as hindrances to Ethiopian national

3577:

of landlords' property and the church's property. Before the coup, Ethiopian peasants' way of life was thoroughly influenced by the church teachings; 280 days a year were religious feasts or days of rest. Mengistu's years in office were marked by a totalitarian-style government and the country's

2847:

In early 1868, the British force seeking Tewodros’ surrender, after he refused to release imprisoned British subjects, arrived on the coast of Massawa. The British and Dajazmach Kassa came to an agreement in which Kassa would let the British pass through Tigray (the British were going to Magdala

1837:

launched a strong campaign against survivors of pagan worship and "un-Christian practices" within the church. Those who admitted to worshipping pagan gods were publicly decapitated. He also took measures to greatly centralize the administration of the country, bringing regions under much tighter

1762:

created a new order called the Ewostathians who called for reforms in the church, including observance of the Sabbath but was persecuted for his views and eventually forced into exile, eventually dying in Armenia. His zealous followers, also persecuted, formed isolated communities in Tigray. The

2612:, and tended to favour his mother's Yejju relatives over the Qwarans of his grandmothers family. Iyoas further increased the favour given to the Oromo when adults. On the death of the Ras of Amhara, he attempted to promote his uncle Lubo governor of that province, but the outcry led his advisor 3325:

The occupation government closed all schools operated by the Ethiopian church, or by missionaries. They were replaced with two new systems. There was a prestige operation for Italians and a rudimentary one for native Ethiopians. Textbooks featured the glory and power of Mussolini and promoted

3594:

The new regime in Ethiopia met with armed resistance from the large landowners, the royalists and the nobility. The resistance was largely centred in the province of Eritrea. The Derg decided in November 1974 to pursue war in Eritrea rather than seek a negotiated settlement. By mid-1976, the

1444:

Some people believe that the end of the Axumite Kingdom is as mysterious as the beginning of it is. Lacking a detailed history, the kingdom's fall has been attributed to a persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, a plague, a shift in trade routes that reduced the importance of the

1365:, appointing his Christian follower Sumuafa' Ashawa' as his viceroy. This dating is tentative, however, as the basis of the year 525 CE for the invasion is based on the date of the death of the man who was the ruler of Yemen at that time, who very well could have been Kaleb's viceroy. 6613: 7993:

Historiale description de l'Ethiopie, contenant vraye relation des terres, & pais du grand Roy & Empereur Prete-Ian, l'assiette de ses royaumes & provinces, leurs coutumes, loix & religion, avec les pourtraits de leur temples & autres singularitez, cy devant non

2975:, were beaten. But a stray bullet struck the king, and the Ethiopians decided to retire. The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands of the enemy (March 9, 1889). When the news of Yohannes's death reached Sahle Maryam of Shewa, he proclaimed himself emperor 2232:

arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and won over the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works. His successor

1267:, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. Later inscriptions show Ezana's growing attachment to Christianity, and Ezana's coins bear this out, shifting from a design with a disc and crescent to a design with a cross. Expeditions by Ezana into the 2127:

relied on Oromo support to gain power and married an Oromo woman. While initial relations between the Oromo and Amhara were cordial, conflict erupted after the emperor tried to convert the Oromo to Christianity. Many Oromo entered in emperor Susenyos' domain in response.

1854:

after witnessing a miraculous light in the sky, which he interpreted as divine approval for his persecution of pagans. He ordered the construction of a church on the site and established an extensive palace nearby, along with a second church dedicated to Saint Cyriacus.

1449:—or a combination of all of these factors. Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833 CE) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was Jarma. Unless Jarma is a nickname for Axum (hypothetically from Ge'ez 907:

Region; inscriptions and pictorial reliefs also indicate ivory, panther and other animal skins, myrrh-trees and ostrich feathers from the African coastal belt; and in the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty (2789–2767 BC) a Puntite is mentioned to be in the service of the son of

3805:, and hundreds of protesters were subsequently shot and killed by police. The protesters demanded an end to human rights abuses, the release of political prisoners, a fairer redistribution of the wealth generated by over a decade of economic growth, and a return of 3079:

mass atrocities against the Oromo population including mass mutilation, mass killings and large-scale slavery. Some estimates for the number of people killed as a result of the conquest go into the millions. Large-scale atrocities were also committed against the

1386:

and retired to a monastery, where he ended his days. Abraha later made peace with Kaleb's successor and recognized his suzerainty. Despite this reverse, under Ezana and Kaleb the kingdom was at its height, benefiting from a large trade, which extended as far as

3035:. Local chiefs had played a significant role during the war periods by mobilizing their peoples for the battle including Gambella. At this time, patriot Oballa Gnigwo had taken part in the war with the Italians. A provisional treaty of peace was concluded at 2643:

One week later, Mikael Sehul had him killed; although the details of his death are contradictory, the result was clear: for the first time an Emperor had lost his throne by a means other than his natural death, death in battle, or voluntary abdication.

2580:

his widow, who believed that it was her turn to preside at the court of her son Iyoas. The conflict between these two queens led to Mentewab summoning her Kwaran relatives and their forces to Gondar to support her. Wubit responded by summoning her own

3259:. The Italians employed the use of asphyxiating chemical weapons in their Ethiopian invasion. On the whole, the Italians dropped about 300 tons of mustard gas as well as thousands of other artillery. Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of 2623:

was summoned to mediate between the two camps. He arrived and shrewdly maneuvered to sideline the two queens and their supporters making a bid for power for himself. Mikael settled soon as the leader of the Amharic-Tigrean (Christian) camp of the

1490:", conspired to murder all the members of the royal family and establish herself as monarch. According to legends, during the execution of the royals, an infant heir of the Axumite monarch was carted off by some faithful adherents and conveyed to 1377:

1.20). Despite several attempted invasions across the Red Sea, Kaleb was unable to dislodge Abreha, and acquiesced in the change; this was the last time Ethiopian armies left Africa until the 20th century CE when several units participated in the

2646:

Mikael Sehul had compromised the power of the Emperor, and from this point forward it lay ever more openly in the hands of the great nobles and military commanders. This point in time has been regarded as the start of the Era of the Princes.

2147:

as their spiritual guide while retaining some of their original culture and socio-political organisation. Scholars believe the Oromo converted to Islam as a means of preserving their identity and a bulwark against assimilation into Ethiopia.

6621: 2910:) on April 13, 1868. When the Emperor heard that the gate had fallen, he fired a pistol into his mouth and killed himself, rather than face defeat. Sir Robert Napier was raised to the peerage, and given the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. 1917:". They tried to explain that nowhere in Zara Yaqob's list of regnal names did that title occur. However, the delegates' admonitions did little to stop Europeans from referring to the monarch as their mythical Christian king, Prester John. 3491:

The government's failure to effect significant economic and political reforms over the previous fourteen years created a climate of unrest. Combined with rising inflation, corruption, a famine that affected several provinces (especially

2951:

In April 1888 the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 men, came in contact with the Ethiopian army, but negotiations took the place of fighting, with the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving some 5,000 troops in

2878:

Ethiopia was never fully colonized by a European power, it was occupied and briefly colonized by Italians in 1936 (see below); however, several colonial powers had interests and designs on Ethiopia in the context of the 19th-century

1160:

as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even who should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although

3767:

election observers cited state support for the EPRDF campaign, as well as irregularities in ballot counting and results publishing. The opposition parties gained more than 200 parliamentary seats, compared with just 12 in the

2523:

This era was, on one hand, a religious conflict between settling Muslims and traditional Christians, between nationalities they represented, and, on the other hand, between feudal lords in power over the central government.

2330:, "almost the whole army perished amidst the mountains; great part from famine, but a greater still from cold, a very remarkable circumstance in these latitudes." Fasilides tried to establish firm relations with Yemeni Imam 1897:

in 1450, Alfonso wrote that he would be happy to send artisans to Ethiopia if their safe arrival could be guaranteed, for on a previous occasion a party of thirteen of his subjects travelling to Ethiopia had all perished.

648:

in the Arabian peninsula, which slowly shifted trade away from the Christian Aksum. It eventually became isolated, its economy slumped and Aksum's commercial domination of the region ended. The Aksumites gave way to the

1494:, where his authority was acknowledged. Concurrently, Gudit reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom and transmitted the crown to her descendants. Though parts of this story were most likely made up by the 3903:

between the ICU and Ethiopian Army. As the Islamist forces were no match against the Ethiopian regular army, they decided to retreat and merge among the civilians, and most of the ICU-held Somalia was quickly taken.

2591:

The treasury of the Empire being allegedly penniless on the death of Iyasu, it suffered further from ethnic conflict between nationalities that had been part of the Empire for hundreds of years—the Amhara, Agaw, and

8156:, Richard Pankhurst, 1999: set of 3 articles published in the Addis Tribune newspaper in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on the relations between Ethiopia and countries on the Indian Ocean in ancient and early medieval times 3155:

The abolition of slavery became a high priority for the Haile Selassie regime. International pressures forced action, and it was required for membership in the League of Nations. Final success was achieved by 1942.

1893:, Viceroy of Sicily to bring a group of artisans to Ethiopia, where he would marry Yeshaq's daughter. It is not clear how or if Alfonso responded to this letter, although in a letter that reached Yeshaq's successor 1740:. There was also great artistic and literary advancement at this time, but also a decline in urbanisation as the Solomonic emperors didn't have any fixed capital, but rather moved around the empire in mobile camps. 8150:, Richard Pankhurst, 1999: set of 2 articles published in the Addis Tribune summarizing a speech by Dr. Pankhurst at the 74’th District Conference and Assembly of Rotary International, in Addis Ababa 7–9 May 1999 5670:

Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, ca. the 1880s–2002 by Mohammed Hassen, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New

3590:

signed a military assistance agreement with the Soviet Union. The following April 1977, Ethiopia abrogated its military assistance agreement with the United States and expelled the American military missions.

3572:

assumed power as head of state and Derg chairman, after having his two predecessors killed, as well as tens of thousands of other suspected opponents. The new government undertook socialist reforms, including

3465:

arbiter of demands for resources and attention among competing groups." The nature of the succession, and the desirability of the Imperial monarchy in general, were in dispute amongst the Ethiopian people.

7258: 7122: 3658:, which affected around 8 million people and left 1 million dead, as well as by insurrections, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. The regime also conducted a brutal campaign of 4115:

Relations between the federal government and the Tigray regional government deteriorated after the election, and on 4 November 2020, Abiy began a military offensive in the Tigray Region in response to

1441:

believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by that time – although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least as late as 702 CE.

1971:

to request his aid against the Muslims. In 1520, the Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the Emperor,

1533:

remarked that the Zagwe achieved 'a degree of stability and technical advancement seldom equalled in Abyssinian history'. The church and state were very closely linked, and they may have had a more

3869:, which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $ 1 million a day, leaving a profoundly negative impact on their economies. Major combat operations ended after signing a 3137:, was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. His full title was "His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, King of Kings of Ethiopia and Elect of God." 1275:

in Sudan may have brought about its demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand. As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman

7402: 6060: 1525:

in his honour; though in truth some of them were built before and after him. The architecture of the Zagwe shows a continuation of earlier Aksumite traditions, as can be seen at Lalibela and at

778:, a 3rd-century inscription belonging to the Aksumite Empire, indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite King 4031:

in the south of the country led to Ethiopia having the largest number of people to flee their homes in the world in 2018, with 1.4 million newly displaced people. Starting in 2019, in the

7848: 1701:

deposed the last of the Zagwe kings and married one of his daughters. According to legends, the new dynasty were male-line descendants of Aksumite monarchs, now recognized as the continuing

2049:

in February 1541. Here he received an ambassador from the Empress beseeching him to send help against the Muslims, and in the July following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command of

2619:

It is believed that the power struggle between the Qwarans led by Empress Mentewab, and the Yejju Oromos led by the Emperor's mother Wubit was about to erupt into an armed conflict. Ras

2666:

conquered Egypt. The success of this mission opened Ethiopia to many more travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the stream of Europeans continued until well into

3243:) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance. Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the 2890:, Queen of the United Kingdom, in 1867 failed to answer a letter Tewodros II of Ethiopia had sent her, he took it as an insult and imprisoned several British residents, including the 4688: 1565:

in 1187, expressly invited the Ethiopian monks to return and even exempted Ethiopian pilgrims from the pilgrim tax. His two edicts provide evidence of Ethiopia's contact with these

8153: 7017: 3677:

Hundreds of thousands were killed due to the Red Terror, forced deportations, or using hunger as a weapon. In 2006, after a long trial, Mengistu was found guilty of genocide. The

573:; the emergence of Ethiopian civilization dates back thousands of years. Abyssinia or rather "Ze Etiyopia" was ruled by the Semitic Abyssinians (Habesha) composed mainly of the 1924:

to Europe (1450), asking for skilled labour. The mission was led by a Sicilian, Pietro Rombulo, who had previously been successful in a mission to India. Rombulo first visited

8147: 2817:, Haile Melekot died of illness, nominating with his last breath his eleven-year-old son as successor (November 1855) under the name Negus Sahle Maryam (the future emperor 2372:

with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Harari city-state. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined and temporarily came to an end in conjunction with Imam

2307:

murals. The diptych painting of the Passion of Christ in Qaha Iyasus exemplifies a desire for visual imagery in Ethiopian art. Gondarine art was also influenced by Western

1661:

to have been built between the 10th and early 12th centuries AD, with perhaps only the last phase carried out during the 13th century AD and reign of Gebre Mesqel Lalibela.

3076: 3014: 1705:(the kingdom being thus restored to the biblical royal house). This legend was created to legitimize the Solomonic dynasty and was written down in the 14th century in the 1279:. The degree of Ezana's control over Yemen is uncertain. Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes 2538:

Nobles came to abuse their positions by making emperors, and encroached upon the succession of the dynasty, by candidates among the nobility itself: e.g. on the death of

1736:. Under the early Solomonic dynasty Ethiopia engaged in military reforms and imperial expansion which left it dominating the Horn of Africa, especially under the rule of 2786:

became widely known, and his band of followers grew steadily until he led a formidable army. He came to the notice of the ruling Regent, Ras Ali, and his mother Empress

3360:

forces (including Ethiopian forces). On May 5, 1941, Emperor Haile Selassie re-entered Addis Ababa and returned to the throne. The Italians, after their final stand at

8162:, Richard Pankhurst, 1997: set of 20 articles published in the Addis Tribune summarizing the history of Ethiopia from the beginning of the 20th century until the 1960s 3422:

After World War II, Emperor Haile Selassie made numerous efforts to promote the modernization of his nation. The country's first important school of higher education,

8167: 8159: 7541: 5735:

Whyte, Christine (2014). "'Everyone Knows that Laws Bring the Greatest Benefits to Mankind': The Global and Local Origins of Anti-Slavery in Abyssinia, 1880–1942".

4754:

Phillipson (2009). "The First Millennium BC in the Highlands of Northern Ethiopia and South–Central Eritrea: A Reassessment of Cultural and Political Development".

3736:

also left the government. In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and a judicial system. The

7339: 7474: 6508: 8091: 4179: 4167: 2921:, an Italian company. The company continued acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880 and was eventually bought out by the Italian government on July 5, 1882. Count 1529:. The building of rock-hewn churches, which first appeared in the late Aksumite era and continued into the Solomonic dynasty, reached its peak under the Zagwe. 840:

In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of the ancient

7132: 2964: 1414:

Details about the history of the Axumite Kingdom, never abundant, became scarcer after this point. The last king of Axum who is known to have minted coins was

3647:

was submitted to a popular referendum. It was officially endorsed by 81% of voters, and in accordance with this new constitution, the country was renamed the

1584:

dispatched a thirty-man mission to Europe, where they travelled to Rome to meet the Pope and then, since the Medieval Papacy was in schism, they travelled to

7392: 3821:

October 2016, which was lifted in August 2017. On 16 February 2018, the government of Ethiopia declared another nationwide state of emergency following the

7277: 3667: 1814:, to send a deputation to Dawit to persuade him to retire back to his kingdom. "There seems to be little or no doubt that, on the eve of the advent of the 3457:'s dissolution of the federation and shutting down the Eritrean parliament. The Emperor declared Eritrea the fourteenth province of Ethiopia in 1962. The 7892: 7697: 7397: 2373: 6171: 10008: 10003: 9993: 9973: 9963: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9832: 9827: 9822: 9817: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9602: 9597: 9592: 6068: 3733: 3728:

composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In June 1992, the

3369: 3343: 2922: 1771:

a compromise was made between the new Egyptian bishops and the Ewostathians at the Council of Mitmaq in 1450, restoring unity to the Ethiopian church.

1144:

beginning around the 1st century BCE. They established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The

3126:, succeeded to the throne but soon lost support because of his Muslim ties. He was deposed in 1916 by the Christian nobility, and Menelik's daughter, 1951:, who arrived in Ethiopia in 1490, and, believing that he had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the nəgusä nägäst of the country ( 8652: 4119:

stationed there, causing thousands of refugees to flee to neighbouring Sudan and triggering the Tigray War. More than 600 civilians were killed in a

3244: 1307:

are believed to have established themselves in the country. They fueled the spread of Christianity in Ethiopia by establishing many churches such as

3306:) with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia, with its capital Addis Ababa. In 1937 Mussolini boasted that, with his conquest of Ethiopia, "finally 6231:

Addis abeba «italiana»: il Piano regolatore e la serie delle sue Varianti (1936-1939)."Mai-Ministero dell’Africa italiana (in Italian); pag. 63-126

2802:

of Ethiopia under the name of Tewodros II. He soon after advanced against Shewa with a large army. Chief of the notables opposing him was its king

7156: 6927: 4403: 4023:

between the Oromo, who make up the largest ethnic group in the country, and the ethnic Somalis, leading to up to 400,000 being displaced in 2017.

3247:

were reported. By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, including during the 1937

1959:, addressed to Prester John. Covilhã would establish positive relations between the two states and go on to remain there for many years. In 1509, 10414: 10184: 7830: 7505: 7450: 1649:(r. 1185–1225 AD), in which St George instructed him to do so. The city of Lalibela was reestablished as a symbolic new holy site, following the 1136:

The first verifiable kingdom of great power to rise in Ethiopia was that of Axum in the 1st century CE. It was one of many successor kingdoms to

4162: 661:

in the 13th century. During the early Solomonic period, Ethiopia underwent military reforms and imperial expansion, allowing it to dominate the

7218: 5987: 4132: 7794: 6230: 8863: 8453: 5880: 5792: 4805:, Joseph W. Michels, editor; Lorraine T. Kapitanoff, translator, (University Park, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp.54–59. 3696: 774:(designated as Ethiopia) only dates as far back as the first half of the 4th century AD. Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, the 545: 369: 7758: 7646: 6901: 6788: 1549:

Unlike the Aksumites, the Zagwe were very isolated from the other Christian nations, although they did maintain a degree of contact through

903:

records indicate this possession of myrrh as early as the First and Second dynasties (3100–2888 BC), which was also a prized product of the

8991: 3251:

massacre in Addis Ababa, in which as many as 30,000 civilians were killed. This massacre was a reprisal for the attempted assassination of

2972: 2613: 1027:. Though not much is known, Punt likely fell due to ethnic tensions between Somali and Ethiopians, splitting to form 2 different kingdoms, 7922: 7624: 6870: 4427: 3438:, Haile Selassie also sought to improve the nation's relationship with other African nations. To do this, in 1963, he helped to found the 10106: 9504: 9482: 8890: 6486: 3966: 3925: 3648: 2053:, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior at first were successful against the enemy; but subsequently defeated at the 1767:, after first trying to crush the movement, legalized their observance of the Sabbath and proselytization of their faith. Finally, under 1553:

and Cairo. Like many other nations and denominations, the Ethiopian Church maintained a series of small chapels and even an annex at the

879:

was a kingdom in the Horn of Africa, based on archaeological findings of Egyptian mummified baboons in modern-day Ethiopia, and caves in

438: 7931: 7196: 7025: 3220:, invaded Ethiopian territory on October 2, 1935. They occupied the capital Addis Ababa on May 5. Emperor Haile Selassie pleaded to the 1794:

who he thought were being oppressed under Muslim rule and he felt he had the duty to protect them as he saw himself as the protector of

1728:(southern). The seat of government, or rather of overlordship, had usually been in Amhara or Shewa, the ruler of which, calling himself 10523: 8245:

Sbacchi, Alberto (1978). Marcus, H. G. (ed.). "The Price of Empire: Towards an Enumeration of Italian Casualties in Ethiopia 1935–40".

8024:

Ma captivité en Abyssinie sous l'empereur Théodoros – avec des détails sur l'Empereur Theodros, sa vie, ses mœurs, son peuple, son pays

7671: 4174: 3909: 3896: 3659: 1609: 7563: 6984: 9213: 8697: 7812: 7577: 7107: 4483:

Reilly, W. (1908). Cush. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved April 19, 2012, from New Advent:

3829:. Hailemariam was the first ruler in modern Ethiopian history to step down; previous leaders have died in office or been overthrown. 7599: 5386: 5209: 2794:). To bind him to them, the Empress arranged for Kassa to marry Ali's daughter. He turned his attention to conquering the remaining 9436: 3930: 3777: 3224:

for aid in resisting the Italians. Nevertheless, the country was formally annexed on May 9, 1936, and the Emperor went into exile.

2782: 2380: 398: 10329: 8316: 3989:, its Oromo counterpart, played a crucial role in the bringing about the political and administrative changes associated with the 3446: 2475: 10169: 9373: 9077: 4233: 3373: 2774: 1672: 482: 7531: 2447: 8873: 3862: 3842: 3085:

and had limited legal rights. They did have the right to worship, and the right not to have their families broken up by sales.

3024:

Ethiopia. Menelik protested, showing that the Amharic version of the treaty said no such thing, but his protests were ignored.

2253:, or Royal Enclosure. Fasilides also constructed several churches in Gondar, many bridges across the country, and expanded the 1890: 388: 7776: 3624: 2065:

to enact several defeats on the Adal over late 1542 and early 1543. On February 21, 1543, Al-Ghazi was shot and killed in the

1049: 9094: 8420: 8382: 8305: 8175: 6703: 6444: 6099: 6043: 5963: 5521: 5045: 4851: 4582: 4177: 3858: 3848: 3663: 206: 7877: 7100:"Agreement between the Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" 6082:

Sbacchi, A (2005), "Poison Gas and Atrocities in the Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936)", in Ben-Ghiat, R.; Fuller, M. (eds.),

5623:

International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2.

5347: 1947:

Towards the close of the 15th century, the Portuguese missions into Ethiopia began. Among others engaged in this search was

1330:

came to power in Yemen and after he announced that he would kill all of the Christians, he attacked an Aksumite garrison at

10189: 8833: 8806: 7047: 5018: 4176: 4165: 3970: 3635:

From 1977 through early 1978, thousands of suspected enemies of the Derg were tortured and/or killed in a purge called the

3538:

After a period of civil unrest that began in February 1974, a provisional administrative council of soldiers, known as the

3353: 3339: 2865: 2454: 2428: 301: 5943: 4495:

Rodney Steven Sadler, Can a Cushite Change His Skin?: An Examination of Race, Ethnicity, And Othering in the Hebrew Bible.

4328: 4144: 4116: 4086: 3998: 3954:

became the 4th president of Ethiopia, the first woman to hold the office. Early in his term, Prime Minister Abiy made an

3892: 3822: 3725: 2084: 2042: 8072: 7991: 7343: 4173: 3098: 2918: 2568:. Mentewab had herself crowned as co-ruler, becoming the first woman to be crowned in this manner in Ethiopian history. 2237:

was less tactful and excited the feelings of the people against him and his fellow Europeans. Upon the death of Emperor

9462: 8710: 6502: 5863: 3791:

Meles died on 20 August 2012 in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified illness. Deputy Prime Minister

3397: 3381: 3264: 2906:

against the British force which was larger and better armed. The British stormed the fortress of Magdala (now known as

2535:("Era of the Princes"), a time of disorder when the power of the monarchy was eclipsed by the power of local warlords. 1881:

made the earliest known contact from post-Axumite Ethiopia to a European ruler. He sent a letter by two dignitaries to

321: 261: 8600:

Vestal, Theodor M. (2007). "Consequences of the British occupation of Ethiopia during World War II", B. J. Ward (ed),

4197: 9536: 8907: 8619: 8570: 8505: 8486: 8463: 8442: 8399: 8354: 7433: 6336: 6010: 5915: 5890: 5689:

A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000

5278: 5249: 5196: 5133: 4163: 3773: 3365: 3278:

Italy in 1936 requested the League of Nations to recognize the annexation of Ethiopia. All member nations (including

2494: 2461: 883:

dating back to around the time of Punt. Egyptian traders from about 3000 BC refer to lands south of Nubia or Kush as

747:, where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India. In 538: 499: 311: 43: 7077: 3377: 2542:, the chief nobles of Ethiopia feared that the cycle of vengeance that had characterized the reigns of Tewoflos and 2131:

In the 17th and 18th centuries, much of the Oromo people gradually underwent conversion to Islam, especially around

9127: 8878: 8609: 4318: 4127:

confirmed its troops are fighting in Ethiopia. As of March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had died as a result of

4016: 3955: 3814: 3796: 3769: 3737: 2546:

would continue if a member of the Solomonic dynasty were picked for the throne, so they selected one of their own,

1619: 8843: 8209:

Mauri, Arnaldo (2009), "The re-establishment of the national monetary and banking system in Ethiopia, 1941–1963",

4696:: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated 3188: 2836:

In 1865, Sahle Maryam escaped from Magdala, abandoning his wife, and arrived in Shewa, and was there acclaimed as

10099: 9497: 9084: 8958: 6769: 4313: 4202: 3756: 3618: 3094: 2899: 2857: 2709: 2254: 1236: 6676: 2833:, against the resistance of his governors. Sahle Maryam of Shewa was married to Tewodros II's daughter Alitash. 2443: 9233: 9089: 9065: 8885: 8544: 5680:

Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia by Mekuria Bulcha, African Sociological Review

4693: 4238: 4175: 3900: 3882: 3740:

took place in May 1995, which was won by the EPRDF. The president of the transitional government, EPRDF leader

3655: 2887: 2432: 1518: 1419: 1171: 562:

Medieval map of Ethiopia, including the ancient lost city of Barara, which is located in modern-day Addis Ababa

281: 6970: 10440: 9343: 9324: 9198: 9104: 9043: 8953: 8938: 8690: 8237: 6178: 4076: 3873:

in December 2000; however, skirmishes and proxy conflicts between the two nations would continue until 2018.

3644: 3640: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3148:

was formally absorbed into Ethiopia. During the reorganization of the provinces in 1942, Jimma vanished into

3028: 2655: 2057:(28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. The 120 surviving Portuguese soldiers fled with 251: 1073:

Aside from the Land of Punt, the first kingdom that is known to have existed in Ethiopia was the kingdom of

10518: 10204: 9262: 9147: 9142: 8756: 4289: 4221: 4136: 4128: 3802: 3450: 3401: 3385: 3322:

numbered 35,441, of whom 30,232 male (85.3%) and 5,209 female (14.7%), most of them living in urban areas.

2895: 2543: 1811: 1554: 1486:

About 1000 (presumably c. 960, though the date is uncertain), a Jewish princess, Yodit (Judith) nicknamed "

1012:

Punt, "God's-Land", due to the "large quantities of gold, ivory, and myrrh that could be easily obtained".

896: 644:

was declared the state religion and not long after, The Aksumite empire fell into decline with the rise of

531: 492: 487: 472: 428: 408: 331: 127: 23: 9512: 6750: 6547:"The Politics of Linguistic Homogenization in Ethiopia and the Conflict over the Status of "Afaan Oromoo"" 6221:

Pankhurst, "Education in Ethiopia during the Italian fascist occupation (1936-1941)." (1972) pp. 361-396.

5241:

A Story in Stones: Portugal's Influence on Culture and Architecture in the Highlands of Ethiopia 1493-1634

5165: 3709: 10487: 10483: 9368: 9353: 9319: 8597:. Hollywood, CA: Tsehai Publishers & Distributors, second printing with new preface and new foreword. 8007:

Thirty Years of Italian History: From Antifascism to the Resistance (1915–1945) Lessons with Testimonials

6434: 4623: 4465:

David M. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, p. 18.

3213: 1462: 756: 720: 88: 5856:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015, 4th ed

10092: 9587: 9582: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9490: 9279: 9072: 9008: 8963: 8943: 8868: 8816: 7966: 4709:

The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to The End of the 18th century

4662:

The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to The End of the 18th century

4171: 4032: 3866: 3838: 3745: 3714: 3174: 2861: 2304: 2245:

in 1633, the Jesuits were expelled and the native religion restored to official status. Fasilides made

2017: 378: 174: 8003:

Trent'anni di storia italiana: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza (1915–1945) lezioni con testimonianze

7492: 5770: 10496: 9294: 9223: 9185: 9048: 8998: 8948: 8811: 8532: 7295: 4684: 4228: 3990: 3639:("Red Terror"). Communism was officially adopted during the late 1970s and early 1980s; in 1984, the 3347: 3102: 3000: 2334:

between 1642 and 1647 to discuss a trade route through Ottoman-held Massawa, which was unsuccessful.

2151:

The Oromo also formed political coalitions with previously subdued people of Ethiopia, including the

1650: 1276: 7493:"Beyond law enforcement – Human rights violations by Ethiopian security forces in Amhara and Oromia" 6146: 5720: 4698:(1912). New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., pages 50 (for attribution) and 57 (for quote). 2844:

under the name of Yohannes IV (or John IV), he forced Sahle Maryam to acknowledge his overlordship.

2028:, encroached upon much of the Ethiopian plateau, forcing the Emperor to take refuge in the mountain 920:

posited that this early trade relationship could have been realized through overland trade down the

10244: 9331: 9284: 9274: 9243: 8978: 8902: 8761: 8683: 8363:

Dunn, John. "'For God, Emperor, and Country!' The Evolution of Ethiopia's Nineteenth-Century Army"

8188:

Article published in the Addis Tribune showing how Eritrea has historically been a part of Ethiopia

5824:

Pierre Guidi, "‘For good, God, and the Empire’: French Franciscan sisters in Ethiopia 1896−1937."

4729: 4520: 4308: 4284: 4247: 4156: 4040: 4020: 3870: 3670:(EPRDF). In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa. Mengistu fled the country to asylum in 3149: 2830: 2795: 2791: 2331: 2265: 2220:

who had accompanied or followed the Gama expedition into Ethiopia, and fixed their headquarters at

1713: 1658: 1630: 1526: 1289:" or "Habashite", indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area. 1253: 1228: 1176: 1175:, should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by 899:

interprets to indicate trade between the two countries was extant from Ancient Egypt's beginnings.

641: 418: 8469: 6242: 4474:

Noah Webster, The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments, in the Common Version, p. xiv

4456:

Richard Lobban, Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia, Scarecrow Press, 2004. p.1–1i

3763:

approved the pre-election conditions, it expressed its dissatisfaction with post-election events.

3232:

17,800 civilians were killed by aerial bombardment and 35,000 people died in concentration camps.

3130:, was made empress. Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was made regent and successor to the throne. 3067:

Under the reign of Menelik, beginning in the 1880s, Ethiopia set off from the central province of

2813:. Dissensions broke out among the Shewans, and after a desperate and futile attack on Tewodros at 10479: 10354: 10344: 10149: 9336: 9218: 9208: 9180: 9132: 9109: 8823: 8798: 5789: 5701:

Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia by Alemayehu Kumsa, Charles University in Prague

4647: 4333: 4264: 4024: 3368:, that lasted until summer 1943. After the defeat of Italy, Ethiopia underwent a short period of 3106: 3008: 2683: 2667: 2651: 2468: 2421: 2284: 2140: 1807: 1498:

to legitimize its rule, it is known that a female ruler did conquer the country about this time.

1085:'s early stages, evolved into the Aksumite state, or was one of the smaller states united in the 271: 8233: 8218: 8200: 4001:(TPLF). Fano units have been accused of participating in ethnic massacres, including that of 58 2228:), were oppressed and neglected, but not expelled. At the beginning of the 17th century, Father 10359: 10249: 10179: 9314: 9055: 8783: 6878: 6595: 5808:

Richard Pankhurst, "Education in Ethiopia during the Italian fascist occupation (1936-1941)."

4140: 3785: 3729: 3423: 3357: 3046:(French Somaliland) to the interior, to a French company in 1894. The railway was completed to 2976: 2770:

Kassa in Qwara, in 1818. His father was a small local chief, and his relative (possibly uncle)

2687: 2050: 1988: 1743: 1733: 1403: 1240: 677:

Leaping Ibex, found in northern Ethiopia, probably created around the first century BC in D'mt.

241: 152: 8074:

Les estranges evenemens du voyage de Son Altesse, le serenissime prince Zaga-Christ d'Ethiopie

5784:

Amare Asgedom, "Higher education in pre-revolution Ethiopia: Relevance and academic freedom."

3468:

Perceptions of this war as imperialist were among the primary causes of the growing Ethiopian

2531:, and the resultant decline in the prestige of the dynasty, as the beginning of the Ethiopian 1318:

Once again, the Axumite Kingdom is recorded as controlling part – if not all – of

1283:(all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, "King of the 10419: 10339: 10304: 10289: 10274: 10229: 10164: 9348: 9289: 9248: 9099: 9060: 9003: 8917: 7831:"Tigray war has seen up to half a million dead from violence and starvation, say researchers" 7500: 5283:

The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 1

5188: 5034:

Sobania, Neal W. (2012), "Lalibela", in Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (eds.),

4944: 4680: 4572: 4164: 3781: 3569: 3554: 2242: 1646: 1634: 1580:

Later, as the Crusades were dying out in the early fourteenth century, the Ethiopian Emperor

1570: 1126: 999:

probably around 1495 BC, as the expedition was recorded in detailed reliefs on the temple of

913: 775: 10470: 5511: 5239: 3908:

accused Ethiopia of various abuses including indiscriminate killing of civilians during the

2690:(1889–1913), the empire began to emerge from its isolation. Under Emperor Tewodros II, the " 1478: 10294: 9426: 9411: 9363: 9228: 9119: 9031: 8968: 8838: 8726: 8635:

Crummey, Donald. "Society, State and Nationality in the Recent Historiography of Ethiopia"

6635: 4548: 4298: 4279: 4274: 3888: 3826: 3792: 3759:

on 15 May 2005 was highly disputed, with many opposition groups claiming fraud. Though the

3319: 2822: 2539: 2261: 2249:

his capital and built a castle there which would grow into the castle complex known as the

2238: 2066: 1972: 1948: 1910: 1676: 1501:

At one point during the next century, the last of Yodit's successors were overthrown by an

1453:, "remarkable, revered"), the capital had moved from Axum to a new site, yet undiscovered. 1350: 1180: 60: 7099: 6724: 4172: 3772:. While most of the opposition representatives joined the parliament, some leaders of the 2186: 1976: 1260:, who left several inscriptions detailing his reign both before and after his conversion. 8: 10394: 10369: 10214: 10194: 10159: 10144: 9455: 9388: 9299: 9238: 9168: 9137: 8986: 8930: 8853: 8828: 8751: 8662: 8104:

Original letters from Ethiopian emperors, website of the national archives of Addis Abeba

8056: 8039: 6562: 5633:

Edward C. Keefer (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire".

5217: 4528: 4269: 4252: 4216: 3629: 3513: 3311: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3256: 3182: 3133:

Upon the death of Empress Zewditu in 1930, Ras Tafari Makonnen, adopting the throne name

3115: 2880: 2754: 2565: 2528: 2323: 1929: 1902: 1882: 1872: 1729: 1681: 1506: 1162: 1141: 1024: 516: 477: 341: 291: 8031: 7313: 6003:

The origins of the Second World War reconsidered : A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians

4047:

people against Amharas and Agaws. In March 2020, the leader of an Amhara militia called

2272:

lived. Zera Yaqob is known for his treatise on religion, morality, and reason, known as

10466: 10457: 10448: 10379: 10349: 10334: 10319: 10309: 10299: 10264: 10259: 10209: 10154: 10129: 9309: 9203: 8741: 8669: 8168:"History of Northern Ethiopia – and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea" 8136: 8080: 6796: 6566: 6065:

Revue Africaine des Livres – Centre de Recherche en Anthropologie Sociale et Culturelle

5981: 5940:

Between bombs and good intentions: the Red Cross and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936

5752: 5650: 5606: 5546: 4771: 4559: 4323: 4211: 4147:; as Eritrea was not a party to the agreement, however, their status remained unclear. 4120: 3905: 3240: 3206: 2968: 2945: 2547: 2353: 2343: 2326:

to Lasta and successfully suppressed it, which was described by the Scottish traveller

1698: 1537:

than the Aksumites or Solomonids, with three Zagwe kings being canonized as saints and

1184: 794:(Ḥabashat), and denotes for the first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This new 764: 504: 8553: 8330: 8315:

Bernand, Étienne; Drewes, Abraham Johannes; Schneider, Roger; Anfray, Francis (1991).

7366:"Reflections on the Rule of Law and Ethiopia's Transition to Democratic Rule (Part I)" 6843: 6086:, Italian and Italian American Studies, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 47–56, 5322:

Marco Demichelis. "THE OROMO AND THE HISTORICAL PROCESS OF ISLAMISATION IN ETHIOPIA".

4574:

Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa

3997:, Fano supported federal and regional security forces against rebels aligned with the 3961: 3434:

which expanded the powers of the Parliament. While improving diplomatic ties with the

3075:'s Shewan Oromo militia. During the conquest of the Oromo, the Ethiopian Army carried 3015:

Genocides in history (before World War I) § Ethiopia under Menelik II (1889–1913)

699:, "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek words 673: 10389: 10384: 10324: 10279: 10239: 10134: 10115: 9471: 9431: 9421: 9416: 9401: 9378: 9013: 8768: 8615: 8566: 8540: 8525: 8501: 8482: 8459: 8438: 8416: 8395: 8378: 8350: 8322: 8301: 8290: 8254: 8229: 8214: 8196: 8140: 8010: 7429: 6992: 6440: 6332: 6326: 6210: 6095: 6039: 6016: 6006: 5969: 5959: 5921: 5911: 5886: 5859: 5756: 5517: 5245: 5192: 5180: 5129: 5122: 5041: 5014: 4847: 4775: 4578: 3939: 3268: 3221: 3144:

of Jimma, Emperor Haile Selassie seized the opportunity to annex Jimma. In 1932, the

3020: 2996: 2903: 2891: 2829:. Tewodoros afterwards devoted himself to modernizing and centralizing the legal and 2826: 2787: 2105: 1964: 1960: 1787: 1702: 1686: 1538: 1514: 1495: 658: 509: 117: 8240: 8204: 7451:"Exclusive: As the formation of Prosperity Party gains momentum here is its program" 3861:. While relations between the two countries were initially friendly, by May 1998, a 3799:, and remained so afterwards with his party in control of every parliamentary seat. 3776:

party who refused to take up their parliamentary seats were accused of inciting the

3461:

suffered criticism due to the expenses involved in fighting the Nationalist forces.

1975:, and remained in Ethiopia for about six years. One of these ambassadors was Father 10444: 10364: 10314: 10269: 10254: 10234: 10224: 10199: 10139: 10073: 10068: 10063: 10058: 10053: 10048: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10018: 10013: 9998: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9968: 9958: 9812: 9742: 9304: 8788: 8778: 8746: 8736: 8128: 6558: 6087: 5744: 5642: 5598: 5498: 4839: 4763: 4303: 4082: 3951: 3921: 3614: 3595:

resistance had gained control of most of the towns and the countryside of Eritrea.

3525: 3521: 3454: 3260: 3252: 3217: 3178: 3145: 2941: 2929:

to improve the prospects of the colony by forging treaties with the King of Shewa,

2609: 2600:. When Iyoas assumed the throne upon his father's sudden death, the aristocrats of 2357: 2280: 2217: 2181: 2164: 2021: 2005: 1956: 1803: 1748: 1438: 1392: 1308: 1263:

One inscription which was found at Axum states that he conquered the nation of the

1098: 1086: 1066: 803: 771: 186: 162: 97: 7393:"Preaching unity but flying solo, Abiy's ambition may stall Ethiopia's transition" 6331:(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 5073: 3201: 2112:. The migrations concluded in around 1710 when the Oromo conquered the kingdom of 2029: 1398: 10374: 10284: 10174: 8793: 8520: 8408: 8389: 8063: 7867: 7740: 7722: 7240: 6952: 6902:"Ethiopia declares 6 months state of emergency over Oromia protests | Africanews" 6817: 5796: 5748: 5351: 5035: 5004: 4724:

Laurent Bavay, Thierry de Putter, Barbara Adams, Jacques Novez, Luc André, 2000.

4712: 4665: 4598: 4431: 4356: 4260: 3574: 3497: 3481: 3272: 2953: 2696: 2691: 2532: 2400: 2384: 2347: 2312: 2093: 2079: 2054: 1941: 1925: 1868: 1847: 1721: 1717: 1566: 1268: 1145: 959: 955: 760: 748: 196: 7170: 7039: 6529: 6460: 6091: 4830: 3887:

In 2006, an Islamic organisation seen by many as having ties with al-Qaeda, the

9405: 9190: 9152: 8611:

Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975–1991

8516: 8224:

Mauri, Arnaldo (2010), "Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia",

8099: 7955: 7151: 7069: 5010: 4843: 4051:, Solomon Atanaw, stated that they would not disarm until Metekel Zone and the 4048: 3982: 3764: 3749: 3410: 3307: 3299: 3279: 3236: 3134: 3068: 3032: 3004: 2605: 2597: 2388: 2303:. Diptych painting by the author Walda Mariam also contributed to the Egyptian 2109: 2013: 2001: 1839: 1623: 1207: 1149: 995:. The most famous expedition to Punt, however, comes during the reign of Queen 933: 917: 904: 682: 662: 608:

One of the first kingdoms to rise to power in the territory was the kingdom of

8148:

A Brief History of Trade and Business in Ethiopia from Ancient to Modern Times

8132: 7960: 7340:"Ethiopia prison administration fires 103 individuals – New Business Ethiopia" 4767: 4019:

and political unrest rose throughout the 2010s and into the 2020s. There were

3235:

War crimes were committed by both sides in this conflict. Italian troops used

1993: 1913:. They were confused when council prelates insisted on calling their monarch " 1433:

offered asylum to a group of Muslims who were fleeing from persecution during

10512: 9396: 8773: 8368: 8258: 8053:

The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543 as narrated by Castanhoso

8030:

Bruce, James, Jean-Henri Castéra, Charles-Joseph Panckoucke, Pierre Plassan,

8014: 7926: 7916: 6996: 6020: 5973: 5513:

The Victorians at War, 1815–1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military History

4676: 4484: 4143:

in the intervening years, Ethiopia and the Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to a

4064: 4052: 4002: 3977:

zone, and the redeployment of federal troops from the southeast to the north.

3810: 3760: 3435: 3141: 2803: 2361: 2315:

paintings through prints brought by the Jesuits in the 16th or 17th century.

2234: 2160: 2152: 2136: 1997: 1815: 1693:

Around 1270, a new dynasty was established in the Abyssinian highlands under

1642: 1510: 1473: 1354: 1323: 1257: 1004: 1000: 967: 947: 943: 779: 743:(habitable world). The earliest mention of the term is found in the works of 650: 637: 617: 602: 598: 590: 574: 107: 8318:

Recueil des inscriptions de l'Ethiopie des périodes pré-axoumite et axoumite

5925: 2870: 2229: 2024:. Entering, from the low arid country to the south-east on the pretext of a 1758:

Under the early Solomonic dynasty monasticism grew strongly. The abbot Abba

1334:, burning the city's churches. He then attacked the Christian stronghold of 1315:

has been a power among the people, and not without its influence on events.

636:

and its surrounding areas. In the early fourth century, during the reign of

616:. In the first century AD, the Aksumite Kingdom rose to power in the modern 8297: 8033:

Voyage en Nubie et en Abyssinie entrepris pour découvrir les sources du Nil

7536: 6971:"Ethiopians protesting state of emergency shut down capital, Oromia region" 5602: 4044: 4036: 4028: 3741: 3717: 3666:(TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the 3579: 3562: 3558: 3477: 3287: 3275:

and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.

3212:

Emperor Haile Selassie's reign was interrupted in 1935 when Italian forces

2930: 2814: 2719: 2635: 2620: 2581: 2269: 2250: 2190: 2097: 2058: 1914: 1851: 1795: 1752: 1737: 1706: 1694: 1627: 1331: 1245: 1153: 1058: 985: 892: 884: 876: 868: 858: 830: 819: 786:

version of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalized

629: 8657: 7935:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–95. 7741:"Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Rights commission to investigate 'mass killings'" 4505: 7982: 7947: 7868:"Ethiopia civil war: Hyenas scavenge on corpses as Tigray forces retreat" 6172:"1940 Article on the special road Addis Ababa-Assab and map (in Italian)" 4192: 3720:

was one of the key founders of modern-day Ethiopia, under the FDRE system

3690: 3607: 3196: 3081: 3036: 3031:, was resolved by the complete defeat of the Italian armed forces at the 2984: 2907: 2810: 2807: 2757: 2726: 2679: 2327: 2308: 2117: 2041:

In response to Bermudes message, a Portuguese fleet under the command of

1791: 1759: 1312: 1304: 1232: 1062: 1054: 951: 594: 589:

of the Ethiopian highlands and more so the lowlands were the home of the

582: 8065:

Voyage en Abyssinie dans les provinces du Tigré, du Samen et de l'Amhara

8022: 7365: 6871:"At least 33 protesters killed in Ethiopia's Oromiya region: opposition" 5550: 4945:"The Zagwe period re-interpreted: post-Aksumite Ethiopian urban culture" 4831:"F. M. Est. Pereira. — Vida De Takla Haymanot Pelo P. Manuel De Almeida" 4625:

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean

3724:

In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the

1187:

argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to

9358: 8895: 8858: 8326: 8191:

Mauri, Arnaldo (2003), "The early development of banking in Ethiopia",

8086:

Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century

5610: 4102: 4060: 3994: 3974: 3947: 3935: 3636: 3517: 3473: 3406: 3248: 3072: 3061: 2818: 2748: 2735: 2124: 2062: 1937: 1894: 1834: 1823: 1768: 1581: 1379: 1249: 1108: 996: 963: 940: 880: 586: 448: 351: 8640: 8043: 8009:]. Reprints Einaudi (in Italian). Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore. 7777:"Both sides in Ethiopian conflict are killing civilians, refugees say" 6570: 6546: 5813: 5654: 3534:

Population in 1976 Ethiopia, when Eritrea was the fourteenth province.

3039:

on October 26, 1896, which acknowledged the independence of Ethiopia.

2627: 2213:

in 1636. It was the most important centre of commerce for the Empire.

1569:

during this period. It was during this period that the Ethiopian king

751:, the name Ethiopia was primarily used about the modern-day nation of 7532:"'I saw people dying on the road': Tigray's traumatised war refugees" 3915: 3469: 3192: 3123: 3047: 2739: 2593: 2210: 2096:

were a series of encroachments in the 16th and 17th centuries by the

1933: 1921: 1858: 1562: 1550: 1534: 1366: 1362: 1327: 936: 925: 900: 732: 686: 578: 10084: 8675: 7578:"Ethiopia tops global list of highest internal displacement in 2018" 4726:

The Origin of Obsidian in Predynastic and Early Dynastic Upper Egypt

3530: 3088: 2511:

Gondarine nobility battle with regional overlords then feed them to

2410: 2104:

to more northern regions. The migrations had a severe impact on the

1885:, which reached the king in 1428, proposing an alliance against the 1863: 1482:

Baptism of Iyasu Christos, Yemrehana Kresos made in the Zagwe period

1303:

Toward the end of the 5th century CE, a group of monks known as the

1191:, and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated. 9521: 8706: 8116: 7872: 7698:"Ethiopia's Tigray region holds vote, defying Abiy's federal gov't" 7647:"Ethiopian parliament allows PM Abiy to stay in office beyond term" 5646: 4090: 3701: 3671: 3485: 3043: 2980: 2561: 2557: 2300: 1968: 1952: 1906: 1878: 1638: 1600: 1589: 1574: 1522: 1434: 1346: 1166: 1028: 1020: 825: 654: 566: 558: 7915:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

7723:"Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Rockets hit outskirts of Eritrea capital" 4089:

cancel elections for 2020 due to health and safety concerns about

2650:

An aged and infirm imperial uncle prince was enthroned as Emperor

2507: 1979:, who wrote one of the earliest European accounts of the country. 1846:. However, the Emperor successfully repelled this invasion in the 783: 735:

used the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of the

8375:

The First Human : The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor

7795:"Ethiopia: 1,900 people killed in massacres in Tigray identified" 7672:"Ethiopia's Tigray region defies PM Abiy with 'illegal' election" 7127: 4139:

as high as 700,000–800,000 by the end of 2022. After a number of

4124: 4056: 4006: 3986: 3854: 3806: 3628:

A tank in Addis Ababa after rebels seized the capital during the

3599: 3380:

remained under British control for more years. Eritrea became an

3127: 3057: 2960: 2778: 2631: 2296: 2221: 2156: 2113: 2046: 1886: 1775: 1764: 1654: 1585: 1558: 1446: 1407: 1339: 1285: 1216: 1077:, which rose to power around the year 980 BC. Its capital was at 1032: 989: 974: 795: 740: 625: 609: 8731: 7475:"Journalists, general, militiamen arrested in Ethiopia's Amhara" 7296:"Abiy's Ethiopia pardons 13,000 accused of treason or terrorism" 5537:

CAULK, RICHARD (1971). "The Occupation of Harar: January 1887".

3042:

Menelik granted the first railway concession, from the coast at

2703: 2264:

flourished, and it was during this period that the philosophers

1573:

ordered the construction of the legendary rock-hewn churches of

1210:

and of Axum." Other dated inscriptions were used to determine a

1137: 1074: 1044: 70: 8536: 7813:"Eritrea confirms its troops are fighting in Ethiopia's Tigray" 7564:"Ethnic violence displaces hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians" 6324: 4381: 4010: 3603: 3587: 3361: 3283: 2663: 2601: 2369: 2273: 2246: 2194: 1843: 1827: 1819: 1430: 1370: 1335: 1297: 1195: 1188: 1120: 1016: 992: 929: 909: 863: 811: 736: 570: 7426:

Popular Protest, Political Opportunities, and Change in Africa

6928:"10 killed as Ethiopia forces clash with protesters in Oromia" 4170: 4161: 4111:

A mass grave of civilians killed as a result of the Tigray War

4107: 3899:

opposing the Islamists. Finally, on December 20, 2006, active

2564:

played a major role in Iyasu's reign, as well as her grandson

1932:, who responded favourably. Two letters for Ethiopians in the 1641:, Ethiopia that were allegedly sculpted after a vision by the 7849:"The World's Deadliest War Isn't in Ukraine, But in Ethiopia" 3458: 3228: 3111: 3051: 3027:

On March 1, 1896, Ethiopia's conflict with the Italians, the

2937: 2926: 2914: 2837: 2731: 2585: 2571: 2512: 2365: 2319: 2288: 2144: 2132: 2101: 2034: 2025: 1799: 1783: 1779: 1725: 1667: 1491: 1487: 1427: 1423: 1415: 1388: 1383: 1358: 1319: 1272: 1264: 1157: 1082: 1008: 978: 888: 752: 744: 706: 700: 690: 645: 633: 621: 593:/Harla that founded Sultanates such as Ifat and Adal and the 8670:"The history of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia" 8117:"Closing the Transition: the May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia" 7626:

Fano Will Not Lay Down Arms If Demands Are Not Met: Chairman

6421: