188:. Different types of defensive style occurred throughout the Iron Age period, some of which may have been a response to Roman siege warfare. There were different combinations in the use of earth, stone or timber. Timber was frequently in-filled with stone or other materials. In continental Europe the timber is often arranged vertically, but in Scotland horizontal timbers were more common. The function of hillforts has been much debated. It was traditionally assumed that they were primarily defensive in nature, but in the late twentieth century this view began to be questioned and social, ritual and religious functions were emphasised.
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both in the occupied region and further north in the regions beyond Roman control. This might have been because of the threat posed by Roman incursions, which meant that concentrations of military and political force were vulnerable to a planned attack and siege. Archaeological evidence indicates that some were reoccupied after periods of disuse.
254:, the walls of which have been subjected to fire, which may date to this period, but an accurate chronology has proven to be evasive. When first noted in the nineteenth century it was assumed that vitrification had been deliberately undertaken as part of the building process to harden walls, but this hypothesis was rejected by
282:
and for this reason hill forts of this period have been commonly thought of as defensive structures designed to repel attack. Some became the centres of competing kingdoms. These were often smaller "nucleated" constructions compared with those from the Iron Age, sometimes utilising major geographical features, as at
281:
For the period after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century there is evidence of a series of new forts. According to archaeologist Leslie Alcock, warfare was perhaps the "principal social activity in Early
Historic northern Britain", playing a major part in "contemporary prose and poetry",
246:
Iron working reached North
Britain from about 700 BC. There is evidence for about 1,000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland, most located south of the Clyde-Forth line. The majority are circular, with a single palisade around an enclosure. They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period,
35:
are earthworks, sometimes with wooden or stone enclosures, built on higher ground, which usually include a significant settlement, built within the modern boundaries of
Scotland. They were first studied in the eighteenth century and the first serious field research was undertaken in the nineteenth
298:
to the kingdom that dominated the
Strathclyde region in the post-Roman period. The northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain, building materials, and politico-military needs. The first identifiable king of the Picts,
219:
at
Edinburgh and Burnswark in Dumfries and Galloway, also date from this time. Additionally, there were much smaller forts that were domestic in scale and which would have housed only one or two families. The function of these forts have been debated, with some stressing their military role and
149:
in the first or second century AD. This was challenged by Peter Hill on the basis of his excavations at
Broxmouth near Edinburgh, from which he was able to suggest that the chronology of hill fort development was more complex and that stone-build houses pre-dated the arrival of the Romans. The
258:
in the 1940s and subsequent excavations have indicated that, since the debris from such walls fell on the deposits of occupation it could not have been part of the building process. Reconstructions have indicated the difficulty of deliberately firing timbers in this way, particularly in the
202:
Bronze working spread from mainland Europe into northern
Britain by about 2000 BC. As elsewhere in Britain, it was in this period that hillforts of varying size and form were first introduced. Some had timber palisades and others ditches and ramparts. These included the occupation of
132:
The twentieth century saw the expansion in archaeological investigations for many sites, which were used to establish a chronology of the forts that would allow them to be fitted into a "defensive sequence" of invasion and occupation. Particularly important in
Northern Britain was
112:(1807) contained an arbitrary list of forts, but recognised that defences at Burnswark were not just in anticipation of Roman invasion, but to defend against native threats. He also recognised some of the relationships between major and subordinate sites, and the importance of
154:
in the late twentieth century allowed new approaches to be developed in which the defensive sequence was less prominent. The idea of developing enclosure, followed by a period of post-enclosure settlement developed in the Hownam model is still seen as having some validity.
36:
century. In the twentieth century there were large numbers of archaeological investigations of specific sites, with an emphasis on establishing a chronology of the forts. Forts have been classified by type and their military and ritual functions have been debated.
184:, cliff forts and ridge forts. Contour forts, where banks and ditches are moulded to the shape of the hill, are the dominant form in Scotland. Less significant are promontory forts, usually employing coastal features, such as the largest one in Scotland at the
259:
prevailing climatic conditions in
Scotland, and it is more likely that this was done as part of a process of fort destruction, either after conquest or when abandoned by the inhabitants. Extensive studies of such a fort at Finavon Hill near
116:
between sites. In 1851 the Scots-Canadian Daniel Wilson was the first person to use the term "pre-historic" in
English, but he was dismissive of the significance of hillforts. The first serious field research in Scotland was undertaken by
145:, developed into stone univallate defences (with a single rampart), then more complex multivallate walls (with multiple ramparts) and then finally the abandonment of these defences for stone-built roundhouses attributed to the
103:
in 1793. However, Roy recorded only native forts like Burnswark that had a close relationship to Roman constructions (in this case probably Roman practice siege camps), or which he wrongly attributed to be Roman in origin.
267:, suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BC, or the mid-first millennium AD. Excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire indicate a date for its destruction in the period 500–250 BC.
125:
of 1894. This was the first comprehensive survey of hillforts in a region of Britain and Christison wished to stimulate further research in the subject. His work was published in 1898 as
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in East Lothian, had a 20-acre enclosure, sectioned in two places west of the summit, made up of a coursed, stone wall with a rubble core. The occupation of
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51:, mostly below the Clyde-Forth line, most of which were abandoned during the period of Roman occupation of Britain. There are also large numbers of
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1414:
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1120:
1067:
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some hillforts were reoccupied and petty kingdoms were often ruled from smaller nucleated forts using defensible natural features, as at
55:, which have been subjected to fire, many of which may date to this period and are found across Scotland. After Roman occupation in the
1579:
1419:
1153:
863:
Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest
490:
Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest
141:(1948). This established the "Hownam model" for Iron Age forts of progressive complexity of enclosure. These began with simple
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Hunter, F., "War in Prehistory and the Impact of Rome" in E. M. Spiers, J. A. Crang and M. Strickland, eds,
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F. Hunter, "War in Prehistory and the Impact of Rome" in E. M. Spiers, J. A. Crang and M. Strickland, eds,
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chief fort of Strathclyde from the 6th century to 870 when it was taken by the Vikings.
211:, from around 1000 BCE, which accommodated hundreds of houses on a fortified hilltop.
1016:
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956:
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Alexander, D., "The oblong fort at Finavon, Angus" in B. B. Smith and I. Banks, eds,
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D. Alexander, "The oblong fort at Finavon, Angus" in B. B. Smith and I. Banks, eds,
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64:
60:
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British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History
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British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History
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52:
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Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests: In Northern Britain AD 550–850
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Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests: In Northern Britain AD 550–850
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311:
177:
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286:, which was probably the main fortification of the Brythonic kingdom of the
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25:
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1189:
1138:
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The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders
568:
The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders
1515:
1465:
1231:
1045:
197:
169:
146:
40:
1306:
315:
75:
1040:
679:"New light on oblong forts: excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire"
1525:
1301:
1281:
1271:
1256:
1251:
536:
Hunter, "War in prehistory and the impact of Rome", pp. 49–50.
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and became the model for subsequent national and regional studies.
92:
48:
44:
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Strongholds of the Picts: The Fortifications of Dark Age Scotland
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Strongholds of the Picts: The Fortifications of Dark Age Scotland
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overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of
21:
323:
260:
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others their importance as symbolic centres of local society.
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The Archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland, C. AD 400–1200
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The Archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland, C. AD 400–1200
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173:
Peace Knowe Hillfort, West Lothian, photographed from the air
1261:
367:
365:
363:
361:
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970:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn., 2006),
741:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn., 2006),
820:(Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 2003),
698:(Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 2003),
652:
650:
356:
1013:
Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History
683:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
547:
Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History
43:
from around 1000 BCE. The largest group are from the
1030:(London: Taylor & Francis, 1962) OCLC 560286204.
647:
607:
605:
720:, London: Taylor & Francis, 1962, p. 141,
532:
530:
528:
422:
420:
418:
416:
180:identified four types of hillfort: contour forts,
602:
101:The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain
85:The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain
1571:
786:
765:
525:
413:
394:
392:
940:(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012),
514:(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012),
478:, Mull of Galloway, retrieved 10 February 2013.
626:
158:
39:They were introduced into Scotland during the
1385:
1061:
760:Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests
389:
1399:
1392:
1378:
1068:
1054:
895:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
850:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
591:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
430:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
402:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
378:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
121:(1830–1912), in the decade preceding his
1075:
893:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
428:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
400:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
376:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
233:
168:
137:'s investigation at Hownam Rings in the
74:
20:
1572:
715:
1373:
1049:
1015:(London: Thames & Hudson, 2005),
848:The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland
589:The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland
549:(London: Thames & Hudson, 2005),
304:
998:Oxford Companion to Scottish History
794:Oxford Companion to Scottish History
1028:The Prehistoric Peoples of Scotland
1000:(Oxford: Oxford University Press),
910:(London: Pearson Education, 2004),
796:(Oxford: Oxford University Press),
775:(London: Pearson Education, 2004),
718:The Prehistoric Peoples of Scotland
13:
91:The first major study of Scottish
14:
1601:
1041:Rampart Scotland research project
1034:
294:, who gave its Brythonic name of
277:Scotland in the Early Middle Ages
270:
1580:Hill forts in the United Kingdom
1553:
908:The Celts: Bronze Age to New Age
773:The Celts: Bronze Age to New Age
70:
810:
752:
731:
709:
688:
671:
581:
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127:Early Fortification of Scotland
938:A Military History of Scotland
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512:A Military History of Scotland
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481:
462:
441:
340:List of hill forts in Scotland
310:) had his base at the fort of
108:' (1742–1825) first volume of
1:
880:(New York: Routledge, 2004),
865:(Routledge, 3rd edn., 2012),
685:, 140 (2010), pp. 79–91.
570:(New York: Routledge, 2004),
493:(Routledge, 3rd edn., 2012),
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7:
833:In the Shadow of the Brochs
658:In the Shadow of the Brochs
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159:Classification and function
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150:introduction of reliable
1585:Architecture in Scotland
1401:Architecture in Scotland
1354:Scotland in the Iron Age
955:(Botley: Osprey, 2010),
835:(Stroud: Tempus, 2002),
660:(Stroud: Tempus, 2002),
636:(Botley: Osprey, 2010),
350:
326:, now near Kilmartin in
250:There are also numerous
1323:Battle of Mons Graupius
474:1 February 2014 at the
386:, pp. 29 and 35-6.
469:"Archaeological Sites"
243:
174:
88:
29:
16:Earthworks on hilltops
1435:Industrial Revolution
623:, pp. 25 and 31.
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172:
79:Detail from a map in
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33:Hillforts in Scotland
24:
1590:Prehistoric Scotland
1077:Prehistoric Scotland
981:Lepage, J-D. G. G.,
925:(Hart-Davis, 1975),
451:(Hart-Davis, 1975),
207:near Melrose in the
165:Hillforts in Britain
1560:Scotland portal
1456:Atlantic roundhouse
1129:Atlantic roundhouse
985:(McFarland, 2012),
615:(McFarland, 2012),
611:J-D. G. G. Lepage,
301:Bridei mac Maelchon
97:General William Roy
81:General William Roy
1329:Siege of Burnswark
1180:Carved stone balls
923:British Hill-forts
449:British Hill-forts
244:
175:
95:was undertaken by
89:
47:, with over 1,000
30:
1567:
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1006:978-0-19-923482-0
826:978-0-903903-24-0
804:. pp. 161–2.
802:978-0-19-923482-0
704:978-0-903903-24-0
668:, pp. 45–54.
238:Looking north at
99:and published as
57:early Middle Ages
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209:Scottish Borders
186:Mull of Galloway
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871:1-134-93803-9
868:
864:
860:
857:
856:1-139-46201-6
853:
849:
846:Bradley, R.,
845:
842:
841:0-7524-2517-X
838:
834:
830:
827:
823:
819:
815:
814:
803:
799:
795:
789:
782:
781:0-582-50578-X
778:
774:
768:
761:
755:
748:
747:0-521-54740-7
744:
740:
737:L. R. Laing,
734:
727:
723:
719:
712:
705:
701:
697:
691:
684:
680:
674:
667:
666:0-7524-2517-X
663:
659:
653:
651:
643:
642:1-84603-686-0
639:
635:
629:
622:
621:0-7864-5918-2
618:
614:
608:
606:
598:
597:1-139-46201-6
594:
590:
584:
577:
576:0-415-30150-5
573:
569:
563:
556:
555:0-500-28795-3
552:
548:
542:
533:
531:
529:
521:
520:0-7486-3335-9
517:
513:
507:
500:
499:1-134-93803-9
496:
492:
491:
487:B. Cunliffe,
484:
477:
473:
470:
465:
458:
457:0-246-10835-5
454:
450:
444:
437:
436:0-19-969524-5
433:
429:
423:
421:
419:
417:
409:
408:0-19-969524-5
405:
401:
395:
393:
385:
384:0-19-969524-5
381:
377:
373:
372:D. W. Harding
368:
366:
364:
362:
360:
355:
341:
338:
337:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
312:Craig Phadrig
308: 550-84
302:
297:
293:
289:
285:
278:
268:
266:
262:
257:
253:
248:
241:
236:
231:
221:
218:
214:
210:
206:
199:
189:
187:
183:
179:
178:A. H. A. Hogg
171:
166:
156:
153:
152:carbon dating
148:
144:
140:
136:
135:C. M. Piggott
130:
128:
124:
120:
115:
111:
107:
102:
98:
94:
86:
82:
77:
71:Early studies
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
37:
34:
27:
23:
19:
1551:
1505:
1501:Estate house
1461:Bastle house
1430:Early modern
1185:Grooved ware
1148:
1121:Architecture
1027:
1012:
1011:Moffat, A.,
997:
982:
967:
952:
937:
922:
907:
892:
877:
862:
847:
832:
817:
816:Alcock, L.,
811:Bibliography
793:
788:
772:
771:J. Haywood,
767:
759:
754:
738:
733:
717:
716:S. Piggott,
711:
695:
690:
682:
673:
657:
633:
632:A. Konstam,
628:
612:
588:
587:R. Bradley,
583:
567:
562:
546:
541:
511:
506:
489:
483:
464:
448:
443:
427:
426:D. Harding,
399:
398:D. Harding,
375:
314:near modern
280:
249:
245:
213:Traprain Law
201:
176:
131:
126:
109:
100:
90:
84:
38:
32:
31:
26:Traprain Law
18:
1531:Tower house
1491:Court cairn
1415:Prehistoric
1222:Caledonians
1206:Agriculture
1190:Unstan ware
1139:Court cairn
1084:By location
694:L. Alcock,
545:A. Moffat,
217:Castle Rock
205:Eildon hill
1574:Categories
1541:Wheelhouse
1516:Peel tower
1466:Blackhouse
1232:Carnonacae
1159:Wheelhouse
677:M. Cooke,
346:References
275:See also:
228:See also:
198:Bronze Age
196:See also:
192:Bronze Age
163:See also:
147:Pax Romana
41:Bronze Age
1337:(367–368)
1307:Venicones
1168:Artefacts
1154:Roman era
1149:Hillforts
783:, p. 116.
762:, p. 190.
726:560286204
706:, p. 205.
599:, p. 222.
578:, p. 190.
557:, p. 182.
501:, p. 363.
316:Inverness
284:Edinburgh
143:palisades
110:Caledonia
93:hillforts
65:Dunbarton
61:Edinburgh
49:hillforts
1526:Shieling
1506:Hillfort
1425:Medieval
1346:Timeline
1302:Vacomagi
1282:Selgovae
1272:Novantae
1257:Decantae
1252:Damnonii
1242:Cornovii
1111:Shetland
758:Alcock,
749:, p. 34.
644:, p. 12.
522:, p. 50.
472:Archived
410:, p. 29.
334:See also
296:Alt Clut
288:Gododdin
230:Iron Age
224:Iron Age
139:Cheviots
45:Iron Age
1511:Housing
1496:Crannog
1325:(83 AD)
1316:Warfare
1297:Taexali
1292:Smertae
1267:Maeatae
1247:Creones
1227:Caereni
1199:Economy
1144:Crannog
1486:Church
1476:Castle
1440:Modern
1215:Tribes
1106:Orkney
1019:
1004:
989:
974:
959:
944:
929:
914:
899:
884:
869:
854:
839:
824:
800:
779:
745:
724:
702:
664:
640:
619:
595:
574:
553:
518:
497:
455:
434:
406:
382:
324:Dunadd
320:Gaelic
318:. The
290:, and
261:Forfar
87:(1793)
1471:Broch
1449:Forms
1420:Roman
1331:(140)
1287:Scoti
1277:Picts
351:Notes
305:r. c.
265:Angus
1408:Eras
1262:Lugi
1017:ISBN
1002:ISBN
987:ISBN
972:ISBN
957:ISBN
942:ISBN
927:ISBN
912:ISBN
897:ISBN
882:ISBN
867:ISBN
852:ISBN
837:ISBN
822:ISBN
798:ISBN
777:ISBN
743:ISBN
722:OCLC
700:ISBN
662:ISBN
638:ISBN
617:ISBN
593:ISBN
572:ISBN
551:ISBN
516:ISBN
495:ISBN
453:ISBN
432:ISBN
404:ISBN
380:ISBN
63:and
1237:Cat
1175:Art
263:in
83:'s
1576::
681:,
649:^
604:^
527:^
415:^
391:^
374:,
358:^
330:.
67:.
1393:e
1386:t
1379:v
1069:e
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1008:.
993:.
978:.
963:.
948:.
933:.
918:.
903:.
888:.
873:.
858:.
843:.
828:.
459:.
303:(
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