199:. Different types of defensive style occurred throughout the Iron Age period, some of which may have been a response to Roman siege warfare. There were different combinations in the use of earth, stone or timber. Timber was frequently in-filled with stone or other materials. In continental Europe the timber is often arranged vertically, but in Scotland horizontal timbers were more common. The function of hillforts has been much debated. It was traditionally assumed that they were primarily defensive in nature, but in the late twentieth century this view began to be questioned and social, ritual and religious functions were emphasised.
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181:
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both in the occupied region and further north in the regions beyond Roman control. This might have been because of the threat posed by Roman incursions, which meant that concentrations of military and political force were vulnerable to a planned attack and siege. Archaeological evidence indicates that some were reoccupied after periods of disuse.
265:, the walls of which have been subjected to fire, which may date to this period, but an accurate chronology has proven to be evasive. When first noted in the nineteenth century it was assumed that vitrification had been deliberately undertaken as part of the building process to harden walls, but this hypothesis was rejected by
293:
and for this reason hill forts of this period have been commonly thought of as defensive structures designed to repel attack. Some became the centres of competing kingdoms. These were often smaller "nucleated" constructions compared with those from the Iron Age, sometimes utilising major geographical features, as at
292:
For the period after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century there is evidence of a series of new forts. According to archaeologist Leslie Alcock, warfare was perhaps the "principal social activity in Early
Historic northern Britain", playing a major part in "contemporary prose and poetry",
257:
Iron working reached North
Britain from about 700 BC. There is evidence for about 1,000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland, most located south of the Clyde-Forth line. The majority are circular, with a single palisade around an enclosure. They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period,
46:
are earthworks, sometimes with wooden or stone enclosures, built on higher ground, which usually include a significant settlement, built within the modern boundaries of
Scotland. They were first studied in the eighteenth century and the first serious field research was undertaken in the nineteenth
309:
to the kingdom that dominated the
Strathclyde region in the post-Roman period. The northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain, building materials, and politico-military needs. The first identifiable king of the Picts,
230:
at
Edinburgh and Burnswark in Dumfries and Galloway, also date from this time. Additionally, there were much smaller forts that were domestic in scale and which would have housed only one or two families. The function of these forts have been debated, with some stressing their military role and
160:
in the first or second century AD. This was challenged by Peter Hill on the basis of his excavations at
Broxmouth near Edinburgh, from which he was able to suggest that the chronology of hill fort development was more complex and that stone-build houses pre-dated the arrival of the Romans. The
269:
in the 1940s and subsequent excavations have indicated that, since the debris from such walls fell on the deposits of occupation it could not have been part of the building process. Reconstructions have indicated the difficulty of deliberately firing timbers in this way, particularly in the
213:
Bronze working spread from mainland Europe into northern
Britain by about 2000 BC. As elsewhere in Britain, it was in this period that hillforts of varying size and form were first introduced. Some had timber palisades and others ditches and ramparts. These included the occupation of
143:
The twentieth century saw the expansion in archaeological investigations for many sites, which were used to establish a chronology of the forts that would allow them to be fitted into a "defensive sequence" of invasion and occupation. Particularly important in
Northern Britain was
123:(1807) contained an arbitrary list of forts, but recognised that defences at Burnswark were not just in anticipation of Roman invasion, but to defend against native threats. He also recognised some of the relationships between major and subordinate sites, and the importance of
165:
in the late twentieth century allowed new approaches to be developed in which the defensive sequence was less prominent. The idea of developing enclosure, followed by a period of post-enclosure settlement developed in the Hownam model is still seen as having some validity.
47:
century. In the twentieth century there were large numbers of archaeological investigations of specific sites, with an emphasis on establishing a chronology of the forts. Forts have been classified by type and their military and ritual functions have been debated.
195:, cliff forts and ridge forts. Contour forts, where banks and ditches are moulded to the shape of the hill, are the dominant form in Scotland. Less significant are promontory forts, usually employing coastal features, such as the largest one in Scotland at the
270:
prevailing climatic conditions in
Scotland, and it is more likely that this was done as part of a process of fort destruction, either after conquest or when abandoned by the inhabitants. Extensive studies of such a fort at Finavon Hill near
127:
between sites. In 1851 the Scots-Canadian Daniel Wilson was the first person to use the term "pre-historic" in
English, but he was dismissive of the significance of hillforts. The first serious field research in Scotland was undertaken by
156:, developed into stone univallate defences (with a single rampart), then more complex multivallate walls (with multiple ramparts) and then finally the abandonment of these defences for stone-built roundhouses attributed to the
114:
in 1793. However, Roy recorded only native forts like Burnswark that had a close relationship to Roman constructions (in this case probably Roman practice siege camps), or which he wrongly attributed to be Roman in origin.
278:, suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BC, or the mid-first millennium AD. Excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire indicate a date for its destruction in the period 500–250 BC.
136:
of 1894. This was the first comprehensive survey of hillforts in a region of Britain and Christison wished to stimulate further research in the subject. His work was published in 1898 as
1445:
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in East Lothian, had a 20-acre enclosure, sectioned in two places west of the summit, made up of a coursed, stone wall with a rubble core. The occupation of
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62:, mostly below the Clyde-Forth line, most of which were abandoned during the period of Roman occupation of Britain. There are also large numbers of
482:
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some hillforts were reoccupied and petty kingdoms were often ruled from smaller nucleated forts using defensible natural features, as at
66:, which have been subjected to fire, many of which may date to this period and are found across Scotland. After Roman occupation in the
1590:
1430:
1164:
874:
Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest
501:
Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest
152:(1948). This established the "Hownam model" for Iron Age forts of progressive complexity of enclosure. These began with simple
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947:
Hunter, F., "War in Prehistory and the Impact of Rome" in E. M. Spiers, J. A. Crang and M. Strickland, eds,
521:
F. Hunter, "War in Prehistory and the Impact of Rome" in E. M. Spiers, J. A. Crang and M. Strickland, eds,
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chief fort of Strathclyde from the 6th century to 870 when it was taken by the Vikings.
222:, from around 1000 BCE, which accommodated hundreds of houses on a fortified hilltop.
1027:
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997:
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Alexander, D., "The oblong fort at Finavon, Angus" in B. B. Smith and I. Banks, eds,
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D. Alexander, "The oblong fort at Finavon, Angus" in B. B. Smith and I. Banks, eds,
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75:
71:
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British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History
624:
British Fortifications Through the Reign of Richard III: An Illustrated History
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250:
133:
63:
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829:
Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests: In Northern Britain AD 550–850
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707:
Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests: In Northern Britain AD 550–850
382:
322:
188:
162:
145:
297:, which was probably the main fortification of the Brythonic kingdom of the
1471:
1380:
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36:
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1149:
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The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders
579:
The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, Natives and Invaders
1526:
1476:
1242:
1056:
208:
180:
157:
51:
1317:
326:
86:
1051:
690:"New light on oblong forts: excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire"
1536:
1312:
1292:
1282:
1267:
1262:
547:
Hunter, "War in prehistory and the impact of Rome", pp. 49–50.
306:
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and became the model for subsequent national and regional studies.
103:
59:
55:
1506:
1307:
1302:
1277:
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1154:
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Strongholds of the Picts: The Fortifications of Dark Age Scotland
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Strongholds of the Picts: The Fortifications of Dark Age Scotland
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overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of
32:
334:
271:
231:
others their importance as symbolic centres of local society.
1481:
1297:
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979:
The Archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland, C. AD 400–1200
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The Archaeology of Celtic Britain and Ireland, C. AD 400–1200
330:
184:
Peace Knowe Hillfort, West Lothian, photographed from the air
1272:
378:
376:
374:
372:
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981:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn., 2006),
752:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn., 2006),
831:(Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 2003),
709:(Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 2003),
663:
661:
367:
1024:
Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History
694:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
558:
Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History
54:
from around 1000 BCE. The largest group are from the
1041:(London: Taylor & Francis, 1962) OCLC 560286204.
658:
618:
616:
731:, London: Taylor & Francis, 1962, p. 141,
543:
541:
539:
433:
431:
429:
427:
191:identified four types of hillfort: contour forts,
613:
112:The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain
96:The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain
1582:
797:
776:
536:
424:
405:
403:
951:(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012),
525:(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012),
489:, Mull of Galloway, retrieved 10 February 2013.
637:
169:
50:They were introduced into Scotland during the
1396:
1072:
771:Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests
400:
1410:
1403:
1389:
1079:
1065:
906:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
861:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
602:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press),
441:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
413:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
389:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012),
132:(1830–1912), in the decade preceding his
1086:
904:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
439:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
411:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
387:Iron Age Hillforts in Britain and Beyond
244:
179:
148:'s investigation at Hownam Rings in the
85:
31:
14:
1583:
726:
1384:
1060:
1026:(London: Thames & Hudson, 2005),
859:The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland
600:The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland
560:(London: Thames & Hudson, 2005),
315:
1009:Oxford Companion to Scottish History
805:Oxford Companion to Scottish History
1039:The Prehistoric Peoples of Scotland
1011:(Oxford: Oxford University Press),
921:(London: Pearson Education, 2004),
807:(Oxford: Oxford University Press),
786:(London: Pearson Education, 2004),
729:The Prehistoric Peoples of Scotland
24:
102:The first major study of Scottish
25:
1612:
1052:Rampart Scotland research project
1045:
305:, who gave its Brythonic name of
288:Scotland in the Early Middle Ages
281:
1591:Hill forts in the United Kingdom
1564:
919:The Celts: Bronze Age to New Age
784:The Celts: Bronze Age to New Age
81:
821:
763:
742:
720:
699:
682:
592:
571:
138:Early Fortification of Scotland
949:A Military History of Scotland
550:
523:A Military History of Scotland
515:
492:
473:
452:
351:List of hill forts in Scotland
321:) had his base at the fort of
119:' (1742–1825) first volume of
13:
1:
891:(New York: Routledge, 2004),
876:(Routledge, 3rd edn., 2012),
696:, 140 (2010), pp. 79–91.
581:(New York: Routledge, 2004),
504:(Routledge, 3rd edn., 2012),
356:
202:
7:
844:In the Shadow of the Brochs
669:In the Shadow of the Brochs
344:
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170:Classification and function
10:
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161:introduction of reliable
1596:Architecture in Scotland
1412:Architecture in Scotland
1365:Scotland in the Iron Age
966:(Botley: Osprey, 2010),
846:(Stroud: Tempus, 2002),
671:(Stroud: Tempus, 2002),
647:(Botley: Osprey, 2010),
361:
337:, now near Kilmartin in
261:There are also numerous
1334:Battle of Mons Graupius
485:1 February 2014 at the
397:, pp. 29 and 35-6.
480:"Archaeological Sites"
254:
185:
99:
40:
27:Earthworks on hilltops
18:Hill forts in Scotland
1446:Industrial Revolution
634:, pp. 25 and 31.
248:
183:
90:Detail from a map in
89:
44:Hillforts in Scotland
35:
1601:Prehistoric Scotland
1088:Prehistoric Scotland
992:Lepage, J-D. G. G.,
936:(Hart-Davis, 1975),
462:(Hart-Davis, 1975),
218:near Melrose in the
176:Hillforts in Britain
1571:Scotland portal
1467:Atlantic roundhouse
1140:Atlantic roundhouse
996:(McFarland, 2012),
626:(McFarland, 2012),
622:J-D. G. G. Lepage,
312:Bridei mac Maelchon
108:General William Roy
92:General William Roy
1340:Siege of Burnswark
1191:Carved stone balls
934:British Hill-forts
460:British Hill-forts
255:
186:
106:was undertaken by
100:
58:, with over 1,000
41:
1578:
1577:
1378:
1377:
1017:978-0-19-923482-0
837:978-0-903903-24-0
815:. pp. 161–2.
813:978-0-19-923482-0
715:978-0-903903-24-0
679:, pp. 45–54.
249:Looking north at
110:and published as
68:early Middle Ages
16:(Redirected from
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220:Scottish Borders
197:Mull of Galloway
193:promontory forts
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912:0-19-969524-5
909:
905:
901:
898:
897:0-415-30150-5
894:
890:
886:
883:
882:1-134-93803-9
879:
875:
871:
868:
867:1-139-46201-6
864:
860:
857:Bradley, R.,
856:
853:
852:0-7524-2517-X
849:
845:
841:
838:
834:
830:
826:
825:
814:
810:
806:
800:
793:
792:0-582-50578-X
789:
785:
779:
772:
766:
759:
758:0-521-54740-7
755:
751:
748:L. R. Laing,
745:
738:
734:
730:
723:
716:
712:
708:
702:
695:
691:
685:
678:
677:0-7524-2517-X
674:
670:
664:
662:
654:
653:1-84603-686-0
650:
646:
640:
633:
632:0-7864-5918-2
629:
625:
619:
617:
609:
608:1-139-46201-6
605:
601:
595:
588:
587:0-415-30150-5
584:
580:
574:
567:
566:0-500-28795-3
563:
559:
553:
544:
542:
540:
532:
531:0-7486-3335-9
528:
524:
518:
511:
510:1-134-93803-9
507:
503:
502:
498:B. Cunliffe,
495:
488:
484:
481:
476:
469:
468:0-246-10835-5
465:
461:
455:
448:
447:0-19-969524-5
444:
440:
434:
432:
430:
428:
420:
419:0-19-969524-5
416:
412:
406:
404:
396:
395:0-19-969524-5
392:
388:
384:
383:D. W. Harding
379:
377:
375:
373:
371:
366:
352:
349:
348:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
323:Craig Phadrig
319: 550-84
313:
308:
304:
300:
296:
289:
279:
277:
273:
268:
264:
259:
252:
247:
242:
232:
229:
225:
221:
217:
210:
200:
198:
194:
190:
189:A. H. A. Hogg
182:
177:
167:
164:
163:carbon dating
159:
155:
151:
147:
146:C. M. Piggott
141:
139:
135:
131:
126:
122:
118:
113:
109:
105:
97:
93:
88:
82:Early studies
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
45:
38:
34:
30:
19:
1562:
1516:
1512:Estate house
1472:Bastle house
1441:Early modern
1196:Grooved ware
1159:
1132:Architecture
1038:
1023:
1022:Moffat, A.,
1008:
993:
978:
963:
948:
933:
918:
903:
888:
873:
858:
843:
828:
827:Alcock, L.,
822:Bibliography
804:
799:
783:
782:J. Haywood,
778:
770:
765:
749:
744:
728:
727:S. Piggott,
722:
706:
701:
693:
684:
668:
644:
643:A. Konstam,
639:
623:
599:
598:R. Bradley,
594:
578:
573:
557:
552:
522:
517:
500:
494:
475:
459:
454:
438:
437:D. Harding,
410:
409:D. Harding,
386:
325:near modern
291:
260:
256:
224:Traprain Law
212:
187:
142:
137:
120:
111:
101:
95:
49:
43:
42:
37:Traprain Law
29:
1542:Tower house
1502:Court cairn
1426:Prehistoric
1233:Caledonians
1217:Agriculture
1201:Unstan ware
1150:Court cairn
1095:By location
705:L. Alcock,
556:A. Moffat,
228:Castle Rock
216:Eildon hill
1585:Categories
1552:Wheelhouse
1527:Peel tower
1477:Blackhouse
1243:Carnonacae
1170:Wheelhouse
688:M. Cooke,
357:References
286:See also:
239:See also:
209:Bronze Age
207:See also:
203:Bronze Age
174:See also:
158:Pax Romana
52:Bronze Age
1348:(367–368)
1318:Venicones
1179:Artefacts
1165:Roman era
1160:Hillforts
794:, p. 116.
773:, p. 190.
737:560286204
717:, p. 205.
610:, p. 222.
589:, p. 190.
568:, p. 182.
512:, p. 363.
327:Inverness
295:Edinburgh
154:palisades
121:Caledonia
104:hillforts
76:Dunbarton
72:Edinburgh
60:hillforts
1537:Shieling
1517:Hillfort
1436:Medieval
1357:Timeline
1313:Vacomagi
1293:Selgovae
1283:Novantae
1268:Decantae
1263:Damnonii
1253:Cornovii
1122:Shetland
769:Alcock,
760:, p. 34.
655:, p. 12.
533:, p. 50.
483:Archived
421:, p. 29.
345:See also
307:Alt Clut
299:Gododdin
241:Iron Age
235:Iron Age
150:Cheviots
56:Iron Age
1522:Housing
1507:Crannog
1336:(83 AD)
1327:Warfare
1308:Taexali
1303:Smertae
1278:Maeatae
1258:Creones
1238:Caereni
1210:Economy
1155:Crannog
1497:Church
1487:Castle
1451:Modern
1226:Tribes
1117:Orkney
1030:
1015:
1000:
985:
970:
955:
940:
925:
910:
895:
880:
865:
850:
835:
811:
790:
756:
735:
713:
675:
651:
630:
606:
585:
564:
529:
508:
466:
445:
417:
393:
335:Dunadd
331:Gaelic
329:. The
301:, and
272:Forfar
98:(1793)
1482:Broch
1460:Forms
1431:Roman
1342:(140)
1298:Scoti
1288:Picts
362:Notes
316:r. c.
276:Angus
1419:Eras
1273:Lugi
1028:ISBN
1013:ISBN
998:ISBN
983:ISBN
968:ISBN
953:ISBN
938:ISBN
923:ISBN
908:ISBN
893:ISBN
878:ISBN
863:ISBN
848:ISBN
833:ISBN
809:ISBN
788:ISBN
754:ISBN
733:OCLC
711:ISBN
673:ISBN
649:ISBN
628:ISBN
604:ISBN
583:ISBN
562:ISBN
527:ISBN
506:ISBN
464:ISBN
443:ISBN
415:ISBN
391:ISBN
74:and
1248:Cat
1186:Art
274:in
94:'s
1587::
692:,
660:^
615:^
538:^
426:^
402:^
385:,
369:^
341:.
78:.
1404:e
1397:t
1390:v
1080:e
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1004:.
989:.
974:.
959:.
944:.
929:.
914:.
899:.
884:.
869:.
854:.
839:.
470:.
314:(
20:)
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