31:
82:
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alternative transportation options are not available. The person may suffer social embarrassment when his acquaintances discover that his lack of skill resulted in loss of his driver's license. In the context of high school exit exams, poorly performing school districts have formally opposed high-stakes testing after low test results, which accurately and publicly exposed the districts' failures, proved to be politically embarrassing, and criticized high-stakes tests for correctly identifying students who lack the required knowledge.
487:, so that a person who faithfully attended class but cannot read or write will still get the social benefits of graduation. This use of tests—to deny a high school diploma, and thereby access to most jobs and higher education for a lifetime—is controversial even when the test itself accurately identifies students that do not have the necessary skills. Criticism is usually framed as over-reliance on a single measurement or in terms of
476:
otherwise pass the test but are not confident enough of themselves might decide to additionally secure the outcome by cheating, get caught and often face even worse consequences than just failing. Additionally, if the test results are used to determine the teachers' pay or continued employment, or to evaluate the school, then school personnel may fraudulently alter student test papers to artificially inflate performance.
554:
at their own discretion, with teachers proctoring their own students or no proctors at all. With state and local education administrators free to direct most aspects of the tests' administration, scoring, and reporting, they could artificially inflate scores and score trends such that the students in all US states were "above the national average."
142:. A medium-stakes test might provide access to a desirable but less necessary benefit, such as an award, or it is only one component of a decision-making process, such as an admissions program that looks at the test results plus other factors. A low-stakes test has no significant consequences to the test taker.
1172:
Evidence of unequal treatment ... the exit exam was deemed unfair because too many students who failed the test had too few credentialed teachers. Well, maybe they did, but granting them a diploma when they lack the required knowledge only compounds the injustice by leaving them with a worthless piece of paper.
534:
There can be a bias to assume that for a high stake test to be valid, test results must be poor. Alternatively, tests on which students generally perform well can often be disregarded as being too easy even if they are well aligned to standards. Additionally, this bias can encourage the creation of
482:
For example, some people may want a high-school diploma to represent the verified acquisition of specific skills or knowledge, and therefore use a high-stakes assessment to deny a diploma to anyone who cannot perform the necessary skills. Others may want a high school diploma to represent primarily a
1067:
One common complaint from failed test-takers is that they weren't taught the tested material in school. Here, inadequate schooling, not the test, is at fault. Blaming the test for one's failure is like blaming the service station for a failed smog check; it ignores the underlying problems within the
475:
on a single critical exam may be easier than either learning the required material or earning credit through attendance, diligence, or many smaller tests, more examinees that do not actually have the necessary knowledge or skills, but who are effective cheaters, may pass. Also, some people who would
553:
Lax security pervades the administration of no-stakes tests—tests that "don't count." Indeed, all but one of the tests involved in the famous "Lake
Wobegon Effect" school testing scandal of the 1980s had no stakes for students, teachers, or schools. In many cases, schools could administer the tests
389:
For example, a test might purport to be a general reading-skills test, but it might actually determine whether or not the examinee has read a specific book. In the context of computer-based high-stakes tests, low-income test takers and others without ready access to computers may be disadvantaged,
322:
Any form of assessment can be used as a high-stakes test. Many times, an inexpensive multiple-choice test is chosen for convenience. A high-stakes assessment may also involve answering open-ended questions or a practical, hands-on section. For example, a typical high-stakes licensing exam for a
1171:
A judge in
California is set to strike down that state's high school exit exam. Why? Because it's working. It's telling students they need to learn more. We call that useful information. To the plaintiffs who are suing to stop the use of the test as a graduation requirement, it's something else:
559:
High-stakes tests are also more likely to be administered externally (by independent persons without a conflict of interest) and securely. Whereas high-stakes testing may create more incentive for cheating, low- or no-stakes testing can create more opportunity for cheating because it is typically
464:
as the single determinant of whether a student should graduate from high school, saying, "Any decision about a student's continued education, such as retention, tracking, or graduation, should not be based on the results of a single test, but should include other relevant and valid information."
304:
A test may be "high-stakes" based on consequences for others beyond the individual test-taker. For example, an individual medical student who fails a licensing exam cannot practice his or her profession. However, if enough students at the same school fail the exam, the school's reputation and
517:
While failing these people may have many public benefits, the consequences of repeated failure can be very high for the individual. For example, a person who fails a practical driving exam will not be able to drive a car legally, which means they cannot drive to work and may lose their job if
130:
college aptitude exam. However, SAT scores do not directly determine admission to any college or university, and there is no clear line drawn between those who pass and those who fail, so it is not formally considered a high-stakes test. On the other hand, because the SAT-I scores are given
184:
is the quantity of money or other goods that is risked on the outcome of some specific event. A high-stakes game is one in which, in the player's personal opinion, a large quantity of money is being risked. The term is meant to imply that implementing such a system introduces uncertainty and
313:
had no direct negative consequences for failing students, but potentially serious consequences for their schools, including loss of accreditation, funding, teacher pay, teacher employment, or changes to the school's management. The stakes were therefore high for the school, but low for the
168:
The perception of the stakes may vary. For example, college students who wish to skip an introductory-level course are often given exams to see whether they have already mastered the material and can be passed to the next level. Passing the exam can reduce tuition costs and time spent at
114:
for high school graduation are often high-stakes tests: there is a single, defined test (the student must pass this test; no other test can be substituted); some scores are high enough to pass and others are not; and failing has the direct consequence of preventing graduation. Similarly,
173:. A student who is anxious to have these benefits may consider the test to be a high-stakes exam. Another student, who places no importance on the outcome, so long as he is placed in a class that is appropriate to his skill level, may consider the same exam to be a low-stakes test.
1147:
The blame belongs to 'high-stakes tests' like the
Stanford 9 and California's High School Exit Exam. Reliance on such tests, the board grumbles, 'unfairly penalizes students that have not been provided with the academic tools to perform to their highest potential on these
344:(in which all examinees take the same test under reasonably equal conditions), with the expectation that standardization affords all examinees a fair and equal opportunity to pass. Some high-stakes tests are non-standardized, such as a theater audition.
355:. For example, a written driver's license examination typically is criterion-referenced, with an unlimited number of potential drivers able to pass if they correctly answer a certain percentage of questions. On the other hand, essay portions of some
501:
An absence of skill may not be the test taker's fault, but high-stakes test measure only skill proficiency, regardless of whether the test takers had an equal opportunity to learn the material. Additionally, wealthy test takers may use private
510:
programs to improve their scores. Some affluent parents pay thousands of dollars to prepare their children for university admissions tests. Critics see this as being unfair to families who cannot afford to pay for additional educational
729:
Gaston
Caperton, president of the College Board, which publishes the SAT, counters that the SAT I is "not a high-stakes test" but is a useful admissions tool when considered along with other evidence of a student's potential for college
131:
significant weight in the admissions process at some schools, many people believe that it has consequences for doing well or poorly, and it could therefore be considered a high-stakes test under the simpler, common definition.
437:
Critics suggest that since some people perform poorly under the pressure associated with tests, any test is likely to be less representative of their actual standard of achievement than a non-test alternative. This is called
835:
548:
Scores and score trends from high-stakes tests tend to be more reliable than those from low- or no-stakes tests because they are more likely to be administered securely and taken seriously by test-takers.
418:
skills, then driving instructors might stop teaching that skill to a driving student, in favor of focusing instruction time on the material that will be tested, such as determining which vehicle has the
73:, especially in the United States and U.K., where they have become especially popular in recent years, used not only to assess school-age students but in attempts to increase teacher accountability.
382:
High-stakes tests, despite their extensive usage for determination of academic and non-academic proficiency, are subject to criticism for various reasons. Example concerns include the following:
528:, when children may be unable to properly allocate mental resources needed to succeed. If they fail, they may be assigned additional schooling, which can be internalized as a punishment.
839:
1127:
150:
High stakes are not a characteristic of the test itself, but rather of the consequences placed on the outcome. For example, no matter what type of test is used—written essays,
1116:
Johnson, Dale, Bonnie
Johnson, Stephen J. Farenga, & Daniel Ness. (2008). Stop High-Stakes Testing: An Appeal to America's Conscience. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
693:
491:, if the absence of skill is not entirely the test taker's fault, as in the case of a student who cannot read because of unqualified teachers, or a person with advanced
390:
if the test is supposed to measure reading skills but in practice measures the test takers' typing skills or their familiarity with answering questions on a computer.
297:
examinations, the purpose of the test is to protect the general public from incompetent practitioners. The individual stakes of the medical student and the
720:
366:: for example, test takers correctly answering 75% or more of the questions pass the test; test takers correctly answering 74% or fewer fail, or don't "
1160:
211:
997:
374:
may be employed to determine the ideal cut score or to keep the test results consistent between groups taking the test at different times.
801:
359:
are often norm-referenced, with the worst essays failed and the best essays passed, without regard for the overall quality of the essays.
585:
535:
assessments in which the metric for how good the assessment is becomes the failure rate of students rather than alignment to standards.
363:
427:. The result is that the student will be able to pass the test, but may be unable to park a car safely in some places. According to
1135:
697:
971:
185:
potential losses for test takers, who must pass the exam to "win," instead of being able to obtain the goal through other means.
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determines whether the nurse can insert an I.V. line by watching the nurse actually do this task. These assessments are called
1199:
565:
Adding stakes to a test has a generally positive impact on student achievement, suggesting greater motivation and effort.
400:
has acquired fundamental knowledge of the legal system, but the critic might want these would-be lawyers to be tested on
1270:
Finn B. (2015). Measuring motivation in low-stakes assessments (Research Report RR-15-19). Educational
Testing Service.
457:
1281:
Hawthorne, K.A.; Bol, L.; Pribesh, S.; Suh, Y. (2015). "Test-taking motivation and mathematics performance in TIMSS".
658:
1490:
1370:
1038:
515:
High-stakes tests reveal that some examinees do not know the required material, or do not have the necessary skills.
301:
are, hopefully, balanced against the social stakes of possibly allowing an incompetent doctor to practice medicine.
611:
17:
950:
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1058:
257:
93:
In common usage, a high-stakes test is any test that has major consequences or is the basis of a major decision.
774:
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162:
58:, or a license to practice a profession. Failing has important disadvantages, such as being forced to take
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30:
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Since the stakes are related to consequences, not method, however, short tests can also be high-stakes.
290:
89:
is a high-stakes test. If the dancers don't pass the test, they won't get a part in the upcoming show.
1440:
Phelps, R. P. (2019). "Test
Frequency, Stakes, and Feedback in Student Achievement: A Meta-Analysis".
431:, the higher the stakes are (for the test taker or for the school), the more likely this is to happen.
1521:
1085:
484:
348:
306:
205:
47:
414:" can result in a narrow curriculum and lower skills. For example, if a driving exam does not test
499:
Tests can penalize test takers that do not have the necessary skills through no fault of their own.
310:
1300:
Wise, SL; DeMars, CE (2010). "Examinee noneffort and the validity of program assessment results".
821:
Mehrens, W.A. (1995). Legal and
Professional Bases for Licensure Testing.' In Impara, J.C. (Ed.)
1232:
746:
34:
A driving test is a high-stakes test: Without passing the test, the test taker cannot obtain a
1335:
636:
610:
Rosemary Sutton; Kelvin
Seifert (2009). "Chapter 1: The Changing Teaching Profession and You".
560:
administered internally (e.g., in students' schools by their own teachers) with less security.
371:
694:"The nature of assessment: A guide to standardized testing — Center for Public Education"
589:
1219:
1080:
637:"High-Stakes Testing: Educational Barometer for Success, or False Prognosticator for Failure"
453:
151:
1487:"High-Stakes Testing Policy in Texas: Describing the Attitudes of Young College Graduates."
411:
352:
329:
267:
243:
201:
50:
with important consequences for the test taker. Passing has important benefits, such as a
1191:
1185:
8:
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443:
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The "clear line" between passing and failing on an exam may be achieved through use of a
51:
35:
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1407:
1317:
1252:
854:
59:
289:
A high-stakes system may be intended to benefit people other than the test-taker. For
62:
until the test can be passed, not being allowed to drive a car, or difficulty finding
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367:
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158:
111:
1388:"A Meta-Analysis of Test Scores in Proctored and Unproctored Ability Assessments"
219:
165:, or anything else—a medical licensing test must be passed to practice medicine.
154:
1403:
855:"Testing High Stakes Tests: Can We Believe the Results of Accountability Tests?"
1023:
488:
408:
High-stakes testing may encourage teachers to omit material that is not tested.
298:
260:
written tests, and medical exams) and the license or certification being sought
223:
1313:
1248:
126:. An American high school student might feel pressure to perform well on the
81:
1500:
1453:
1094:
1089:. Vol. 90, no. 175. Associated Press. August 4, 1998. pp. B3.
836:"NCLB has nothing to do with the high-stakes nature of the test for students"
424:
230:
544:
In addition to the criticisms, high-stakes testing retains some advantages:
1461:
1426:
1003:(Report). Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning. Archived from
852:
662:
439:
401:
116:
70:
1362:
921:
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525:
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that can no longer pass a driving exam due to loss of cognitive function.
397:
387:
The test does not correctly measure the individual's knowledge or skills.
55:
1280:
588:. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Archived from
1045:
Why blame the tests for exposing unequal experiences and opportunities?
170:
63:
1486:
106:
has direct consequences for passing or failing (something "at stake").
96:
Under a more precise definition, a high-stakes test is any test that:
1424:
972:"Figure 1-10: Employee/faculty support for high stakes testing: 2000"
778:
294:
234:
103:
has a clear line drawn between those who pass and those who fail, and
1427:
K-12 Education: States' Test
Security Policies and Procedures Varied
944:
69:
The use and misuse of high-stakes tests is a controversial topic in
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492:
472:
356:
277:
273:
253:
252:
Professional licensing and certification examinations (such as the
177:
86:
1385:
119:
are often high-stakes, as they also meet the same three criteria.
853:
Greene, Jay P.; Marcus A. Winters; Greg Forster (February 2003).
922:"Appropriate Use of High-Stakes Testing in Our Nation's Schools"
894:
Zuriff GE (1997). "Accommodations for test anxiety under ADA?".
1105:
Some parents spend thousands of dollars for private sessions...
723:. Duke University Talent Identification Program. Archived from
480:
Sometimes a high-stakes test is tied to a controversial reward.
370:". In large-scale high-stakes testing, rigorous and expensive
1387:
1233:"Test-taking motivation and mathematics performance in TIMSS"
609:
324:
127:
1128:"Blame the test: LAUSD denies responsibility for low scores"
1355:
Cheating on Tests: How To Do It, Detect It, and Prevent It
1220:
https://www.alfiekohn.org/article/confusing-harder-better/
193:
Examples of high-stakes tests and their "stakes" include:
309:
may be jeopardized. Similarly, testing under the U.S.'s
532:
Low test scores can often be synonymous with good tests.
522:
Sometimes high-stakes testing is used on young children.
469:
High-stakes testing creates more incentive for cheating.
450:
High-stakes tests are often given as a single long exam.
394:
The test may not measure what the critic wants measured.
396:
For example, a test might accurately measure whether a
270:
in work, school-placement and visa-application contexts
874:"Computer and Internet Use in the United States: 2013"
823:
Licensure testing: Purposes, procedures, and practices
721:"The Debate about Using the SAT in College Admissions"
240:
High school exit examinations and high-school diplomas
580:
578:
197:
Driver's license tests and the legal ability to drive
176:
The phrase "high stakes" is derived directly from a
27:
Test with important consequences for the test taker
1299:
1022:
718:
575:
1014:
775:"High-stakes Testing: Perils & Opportunities"
1498:
802:"Admissions Officials Shrug at SAT Writing Test"
1386:Steger, D.; Schroeders, U.; Gnambs, T. (2018).
1125:
1425:U.S. Government Accountability Office (2013).
347:As with other tests, high-stakes tests may be
1439:
1336:"The Lake Wobegon Effect: Twenty Years Later"
772:
643:. No. Fall 2004. Harbor House Law Press.
456:instead of one larger test. For example, the
1392:European Journal of Psychological Assessment
1230:
1020:
799:
249:Ph.D. oral exams and receiving the doctorate
208:, and admission to a high-quality university
134:A high-stakes test can be contrasted with a
1352:
995:
887:
872:File, Thom; Ryan, Camille (November 2014).
122:High-stakes testing is not synonymous with
1081:"Tackling the SAT? Test-prep help abounds"
1056:
861:. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research.
825:, pp. 33-58. Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute.
656:
634:
940:
938:
893:
652:
650:
871:
80:
29:
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626:
14:
1499:
1190:. New York: Crown Publishers. p.
1029:. New York: Worth Publishers. p.
998:High-stakes testing: Trends and issues
935:
744:
659:"EDEX 790 Glossary of Education Terms"
647:
435:Testing causes stress for some people.
1183:
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
924:. American Psychological Association
740:
738:
623:
246:tests and school funding and ratings
204:in some countries, such as Brazil's
1418:
1283:Research and Practice in Assessment
1153:
914:
766:
317:
24:
1479:
1059:"Reform education, not exit exams"
719:Pfeiffer, Steven I (Winter 2009).
677:
458:American Psychological Association
25:
1533:
1491:Texas State University-San Marcos
735:
524:Testing often starts as early as
1237:International Journal of Testing
1218: Retrieved on 1/26/21 from
745:Phelps, Richard P. (June 2010).
100:is a single, defined assessment,
1485:Featherston, Mark Davis, 2011.
1433:
1379:
1346:
1328:
1293:
1274:
1263:
1224:
1208:
1177:
1119:
1110:
1073:
1050:
989:
865:
846:
815:
773:Mari Pearlman (April 4, 2001).
460:(APA) opposes using a one-time
284:
800:Eddy RamĂrez (30 April 2008).
793:
712:
603:
340:Some high-stakes tests may be
76:
13:
1:
1216:Confusing Harder with Better.
569:
539:
377:
145:
1340:Nonpartisan Education Review
1057:Dang, Nick (18 March 2003).
754:Nonpartisan Education Review
462:high school exit examination
7:
1489:Applied Research Projects,
896:J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law
619:(2nd ed.). p. 14.
404:instead of legal knowledge.
188:
10:
1538:
996:Lewis, Anne (April 2000).
291:professional certification
1404:10.1027/1015-5759/a000494
1314:10.1080/10627191003673216
1249:10.1080/15305050701438074
1166:Investor's Business Daily
1086:Christian Science Monitor
485:certificate of attendance
280:exam for nursing students
206:National High School Exam
1454:10.1177/0193841X19865628
1184:Kozol, Jonathan (2005).
1126:Weinkopf, Chris (2002).
747:"Source of Lake Wobegon"
372:standard-setting studies
314:individual test-takers.
311:No Child Left Behind Act
1187:The Shame of the Nation
1507:Educational psychology
1302:Educational Assessment
613:Educational Psychology
180:term. In gambling, a
90:
39:
1512:Psychological testing
1363:10.4324/9781410601520
1231:Eklöf, Hanna (2007).
1021:Myers, David (2001).
586:"Lexicon of Learning"
454:continuous assessment
330:authentic assessments
202:entrance examinations
124:high-pressure testing
84:
33:
1353:Cizek, G.J. (1999).
1068:'schooling vehicle.'
945:Jacob, Brian A. and
452:Some critics prefer
412:Teaching to the test
349:criterion-referenced
268:language proficiency
244:No Child Left Behind
665:on January 11, 2009
444:performance anxiety
52:high school diploma
1517:Standardized tests
1161:"Blaming The Test"
951:"To Catch a Cheat"
342:standardized tests
136:medium-stakes test
91:
40:
1442:Evaluation Review
1201:978-1-4000-5245-5
335:performance tests
264:Standardised test
112:exit examinations
16:(Redirected from
1529:
1522:Education reform
1474:
1473:
1448:(3–4): 111–151.
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1431:
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1422:
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1214:Kohn, A. (1999)
1212:
1206:
1205:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1134:. Archived from
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1117:
1114:
1108:
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1101:
1077:
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1054:
1048:
1047:
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1018:
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1002:
993:
987:
986:
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974:. Archived from
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947:Steven D. Levitt
942:
933:
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929:
918:
912:
911:
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878:
869:
863:
862:
850:
844:
843:
838:. Archived from
832:
826:
819:
813:
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810:
808:
797:
791:
790:
788:
786:
777:. Archived from
770:
764:
763:
761:
760:
751:
742:
733:
732:
716:
710:
709:
707:
705:
700:on July 25, 2011
696:. Archived from
690:
675:
674:
672:
670:
661:. Archived from
657:Torin D. Togut.
654:
645:
644:
635:Togut, Torin D.
632:
621:
620:
618:
607:
601:
600:
598:
597:
582:
508:test preparation
416:parallel parking
318:Assessments used
216:Citizenship test
163:performance test
159:oral examination
71:public education
60:remedial classes
44:high-stakes test
36:driver's license
21:
18:High-stakes test
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1480:Further reading
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1169:. 11 May 2006.
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949:(Winter 2004).
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727:on 2009-10-14.
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353:norm-referenced
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540:Advantages
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