565:
480:) – to a flask and stimulated them with electricity that resembled lightning present on early Earth. The experiment resulted in the discovery that early Earth conditions were supportive of the production of amino acids, with recent re-analyses of the data recognizing that over 40 different amino acids were produced, including several not currently used by life. This experiment heralded the beginning of the field of synthetic prebiotic chemistry, and is now known as the
31:
725:, the process of converting organic compounds to inorganic forms. When the organic nutrient source taken in by the heterotroph contains essential elements such as N, S, P in addition to C, H, and O, they are often removed first to proceed with the oxidation of organic nutrient and production of ATP via respiration. S and N in organic carbon source are transformed into H
445:. While these authors agreed on the gasses present and the progression of events to a point, Oparin championed a progressive complexity of organic matter prior to the formation of cells, while Haldane had more considerations about the concept of genes as units of heredity and the possibility of light playing a role in chemical synthesis (
976:"The purpose of saprotrophs and their internal nutrition, as well as the main two types of fungi that are most often referred to, as well as describes, visually, the process of saprotrophic nutrition through a diagram of hyphae, referring to the Rhizobium on damp, stale whole-meal bread or rotting fruit."
487:
On early Earth, oceans and shallow waters were rich with organic molecules that could have been used by primitive heterotrophs. This method of obtaining energy was energetically favorable until organic carbon became more scarce than inorganic carbon, providing a potential evolutionary pressure to
516:
was the main carbon source at the early Earth, suggesting that early cellular life were autotrophs that relied upon inorganic substrates as an energy source and lived at alkaline hydrothermal vents or acidic geothermal ponds. Simple biomolecules transported from space was considered to have been
409:
Heterotrophs, by consuming reduced carbon compounds, are able to use all the energy that they obtain from food for growth and reproduction, unlike autotrophs, which must use some of their energy for carbon fixation. Both heterotrophs and autotrophs alike are usually dependent on the metabolic
402:(or facultative chemolithotroph) can use either carbon dioxide or organic carbon as the carbon source, meaning that mixotrophs have the ability to use both heterotrophic and autotrophic methods. Although mixotrophs have the ability to grow under both heterotrophic and autotrophic conditions,
488:
become autotrophic. Following the evolution of autotrophs, heterotrophs were able to utilize them as a food source instead of relying on the limited nutrients found in their environment. Eventually, autotrophic and heterotrophic cells were engulfed by these early heterotrophs and formed a
508:
relationships that provide needed resources to both organisms. One example of this is the mutualism between corals and algae, where the former provides protection and necessary compounds for photosynthesis while the latter provides oxygen.
410:
activities of other organisms for nutrients other than carbon, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and can die from lack of food that supplies these nutrients. This applies not only to animals and fungi but also to bacteria.
373:
and purple non-sulfur bacteria synthesize organic compounds using sunlight coupled with oxidation of organic substances. They use organic compounds to build structures. They do not fix carbon dioxide and apparently do not have the
504:, allowing the differentiation of tissues and development into multicellularity. This advancement allowed the further diversification of heterotrophs. Today, many heterotrophs and autotrophs also utilize
1670:
Preiner, Martina; Asche, Silke; Becker, Sidney; Betts, Holly C.; Boniface, Adrien; Camprubi, Eloi; Chandru, Kuhan; Erastova, Valentina; Garg, Sriram G.; Khawaja, Nozair; Kostyrka, Gladys (2020-02-26).
276:
to organic carbon compounds and energy to sustain their life. Comparing the two in basic terms, heterotrophs (such as animals) eat either autotrophs (such as plants) or other heterotrophs, or both.
186:, mainly plant or animal matter. In the food chain, heterotrophs are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, but not producers. Living organisms that are heterotrophic include all
655:). They release the chemical energy of nutrient molecules by oxidizing carbon and hydrogen atoms from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins to carbon dioxide and water, respectively.
761:
formed from deamination is further oxidized by lithotrophs to the forms available to plants. Heterotrophs' ability to mineralize essential elements is critical to plant survival.
366:. Phototrophs utilize light to obtain energy and carry out metabolic processes, whereas chemotrophs use the energy obtained by the oxidation of chemicals from their environment.
623:
that use organic carbon (e.g. glucose) as their carbon source, and organic chemicals (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins) as their electron sources. Heterotrophs function as
536:. Domain Bacteria includes a variety of metabolic activity including photoheterotrophs, chemoheterotrophs, organotrophs, and heterolithotrophs. Within Domain Eukarya, kingdoms
434:, which further reacted to form more complex compounds and eventually resulted in life. Alternative theories of an autotrophic origin of life contradict this theory.
1077:"Oceanithermus profundus gen. nov., sp. nov., a thermophilic, microaerophilic, facultatively chemolithoheterotrophic bacterium from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent"
900:
639:. They break down complex organic compounds (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) produced by autotrophs into simpler compounds (e.g., carbohydrates into
944:. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. Vol. XI (5th ed.). Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: The Biological Laboratory. pp. 302–303.
2279:
1170:
Liang, Yanna (July 2009). "Biomass and lipid productivities of
Chlorella vulgaris under autotrophic, heterotrophic and mixotrophic growth conditions".
990:
675:
1144:
992:
The
Environmental Geochemistry of Mineral Deposits: Part A: Processes, Techniques, and Health Issues Part B: Case Studies and Research Topics
517:
either too reduced to have been fermented or too heterogeneous to support microbial growth. Heterotrophic microbes likely originated at low H
945:
1117:
2318:
718:
into the atmosphere, making it available for autotrophs as a source of nutrient and plants as a cellulose synthesis substrate.
2202:
2156:
1758:
1376:
1154:
1127:
1075:
Miroshnichenko, M.L.; L'Haridon, S.; Jeanthon, C.; Antipov, A.N.; Kostrikina, N.A.; Tindall, B.J.; et al. (1 May 2003).
1056:
1003:
881:
714:
O into the atmosphere. Heterotrophic microbes' respiration and fermentation account for a large portion of the release of CO
1438:"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates"
441:, and eventually published “The Origin of Life.” It was independently proposed for the first time in English in 1929 by
544:
are entirely heterotrophic, though most fungi absorb nutrients through their environment. Most organisms within
Kingdom
2369:
1226:
148:
430:
and energy sources such as electrical energy in the form of lightning, which resulted in reactions that formed simple
375:
2437:
1843:"Major evolutionary transitions of life, metabolic scaling and the number and size of mitochondria and chloroplasts"
911:
556:
plants. Lastly, Domain
Archaea varies immensely in metabolic functions and contains many methods of heterotrophy.
229:
Heterotrophs may be subdivided according to their energy source. If the heterotroph uses chemical energy, it is a
1953:
Muchowska, K. B.; Varma, S. J.; Chevallot-Beroux, E.; Lethuillier-Karl, L.; Li, G.; Moran, J. (October 2, 2017).
667:
666:
that carry out fermentation in low oxygen environments, in which the production of ATP is commonly coupled with
406:
have higher biomass and lipid productivity when growing under heterotrophic compared to autotrophic conditions.
165:
17:
2458:
2286:
2018:
Weiss, Madeline C.; Preiner, Martina; Xavier, Joana C.; Zimorski, Verena; Martin, William F. (2018-08-16).
1009:
521:
partial pressures. Bases, amino acids, and ribose are considered to be the first fermentation substrates.
791:
Animals are classified as heterotrophs by ingestion, fungi are classified as heterotrophs by absorption.
437:
The theory of a chemical origin of life beginning with heterotrophic life was first proposed in 1924 by
2189:, Ecological Studies, vol. 157, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 375–413,
481:
457:
215:
2086:
1048:
695:
238:
2463:
722:
1398:
690:
for removing organic fermentation products from anaerobic environments. Heterotrophs can undergo
358:, to obtain electrons. Another way of classifying different heterotrophs is by assigning them as
303:
772:
are heterotrophic; in particular, all animals and fungi are heterotrophs. Some animals, such as
628:
346:
from plants and animals. On the other hand, lithoheterotrophs use inorganic compounds, such as
141:
63:
2020:"The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics"
1074:
936:
907:
624:
614:
1041:
2236:
1966:
1683:
1625:
1570:
1558:
1356:
1351:, in Gargaud, Muriel; Irvine, William M.; Amils, Ricardo; Cleaves, Henderson James (eds.),
1258:
691:
59:
1348:
745:. The conversion of N and S from organic form to inorganic form is a critical part of the
8:
1247:"New insights into prebiotic chemistry from Stanley Miller's spark discharge experiments"
827:
757:
S formed from desulfurylation is further oxidized by lithotrophs and phototrophs while NH
632:
505:
427:
2311:
2240:
1970:
1687:
1629:
1574:
1360:
1262:
306:
in processing decayed organic matter. The process is most often facilitated through the
2375:
2350:
2162:
2067:
2054:
2019:
1995:
1954:
1935:
1875:
1818:
1714:
1671:
1649:
1539:
1470:
1195:
780:
relationships with autotrophs and obtain organic carbon in this way. Furthermore, some
663:
636:
674:, sulfide). These products can then serve as the substrates for other bacteria in the
426:
with heterotrophs. The summary of this theory is as follows: early Earth had a highly
2433:
2365:
2260:
2252:
2198:
2166:
2152:
2114:
2106:
2059:
2041:
2000:
1982:
1927:
1919:
1880:
1862:
1823:
1805:
1754:
1719:
1701:
1641:
1594:
1586:
1531:
1523:
1503:
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1457:
1418:
1372:
1329:
1321:
1282:
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1222:
1187:
1150:
1123:
1098:
1052:
999:
877:
785:
738:
553:
370:
2379:
2071:
1939:
1653:
1543:
2357:
2244:
2190:
2144:
2098:
2049:
2031:
1990:
1974:
1911:
1870:
1854:
1813:
1797:
1746:
1709:
1691:
1633:
1614:"The 1953 Stanley L. Miller experiment: Fifty years of prebiotic organic chemistry"
1613:
1578:
1515:
1465:
1449:
1410:
1368:
1364:
1313:
1266:
1199:
1179:
1088:
600:
595:
442:
438:
431:
383:
307:
299:
234:
81:
2184:
1738:
182:
that cannot produce its own food, instead taking nutrition from other sources of
2194:
2036:
1786:"Endosymbiosis before eukaryotes: mitochondrial establishment in protoeukaryotes"
1750:
1582:
873:
832:
781:
423:
203:
2224:
1785:
807:
2248:
1801:
812:
746:
583:
578:
453:
419:
273:
269:
265:
211:
183:
55:
39:
2361:
2102:
1978:
1952:
1637:
1519:
1414:
1183:
788:
consume animals to augment their nitrogen supply while remaining autotrophic.
2452:
2256:
2110:
2045:
1986:
1923:
1866:
1809:
1705:
1590:
1527:
1461:
1325:
1278:
1215:
742:
658:
They can catabolize organic compounds by respiration, fermentation, or both.
564:
501:
335:
245:
1842:
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847:
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2118:
2063:
2004:
1931:
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1827:
1723:
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1598:
1535:
1492:
Haldane, J.B.S. (1929) The Origin of Life. The
Rationalist Annual, 3, 3-10.
1479:
1422:
1333:
1286:
1191:
1102:
750:
687:
659:
568:
Flowchart to determine if a species is autotroph, heterotroph, or a subtype
493:
207:
2148:
1093:
1076:
334:. Organotrophs exploit reduced carbon compounds as electron sources, like
1900:"Multispecies Microbial Mutualisms on Coral Reefs: The Host as a Habitat"
1696:
934:
765:
734:
652:
644:
620:
497:
461:
391:
327:
311:
279:
1841:
Okie, Jordan G.; Smith, Val H.; Martin-Cereceda, Mercedes (2016-05-25).
233:(e.g., humans and mushrooms). If it uses light for energy, then it is a
30:
1672:"The Future of Origin of Life Research: Bridging Decades-Old Divisions"
1559:"A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions"
1437:
1317:
1270:
1246:
769:
363:
359:
331:
295:
230:
223:
1453:
1355:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 2010–2014,
2085:
Schönheit, Peter; Buckel, Wolfgang; Martin, William F. (2016-01-01).
777:
573:
489:
446:
399:
249:
171:
154:
35:
1899:
1915:
648:
525:
500:
while the endosymbiosis of smaller heterotrophs developed into the
395:
382:
obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds, including
347:
343:
287:
283:
261:
195:
179:
2186:
Mycorrhizal
Specificity and Function in Myco-heterotrophic Plants
1081:
International
Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
640:
545:
533:
529:
351:
219:
199:
698:. This leads to the release of oxidized carbon wastes such as CO
2183:
Taylor, D. L.; Bruns, T. D.; Leake, J. R.; Read, D. J. (2002),
1397:
Schönheit, Peter; Buckel, Wolfgang; Martin, William F. (2016).
541:
537:
387:
355:
244:
Heterotrophs represent one of the two mechanisms of nutrition (
187:
51:
96:
58:(green arrow). Both types of organisms use such compounds via
1745:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 157–199,
773:
549:
315:
291:
191:
54:
and complex organic compounds, mainly through the process of
47:
970:
460:
in which he added gasses that were thought to be present on
2225:"Animals and the invention of the Phanerozoic Earth system"
496:
of autotrophic cells is suggested to have evolved into the
111:
99:
90:
2356:. Springer Series in Microbiology (2 ed.). Springer.
2312:"Heterotrophic nutrition and control of bacterial density"
2017:
129:
1047:(4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p.
784:
have also turned fully or partially heterotrophic, while
524:
Heterotrophs are currently found in each domain of life:
339:
1840:
935:
Lwoff, A.; C.B. van Niel; P.J. Ryan; E.L. Tatum (1946).
1847:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1669:
2137:
Kim, Byung Hong; Gadd, Geoffrey
Michael (2019-05-04).
2084:
1955:"Metals promote sequences of the reverse Krebs cycle"
1396:
861:
132:
120:
114:
102:
2280:"The role of bacteria in environmental geochemistry"
2182:
998:. Society of Economic Geologists. pp. 125–132.
721:
Respiration in heterotrophs is often accompanied by
670:
and the production of end products (e.g. alcohol, CO
126:
123:
108:
105:
93:
2432:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–98.
938:
Nomenclature of nutritional types of microorganisms
452:Evidence grew to support this theory in 1953, when
87:
84:
2349:
1214:
1212:
1040:
27:Organism that ingests organic carbon for nutrition
2406:MICB 201: Introductory Environmental Microbiology
1221:(7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co.
314:within the internal mycelium and its constituent
2450:
662:heterotrophs are either facultative or obligate
1146:The prokaryotes: ecophysiology and biochemistry
1109:
290:(decomposing plant and animal parts as well as
218:. The term is now used in many fields, such as
1897:
1618:Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere
1435:
512:However this hypothesis is controversial as CO
422:hypothesis suggests that life originated in a
1436:Sanger, F.; Thompson, E. O. P. (1953-02-01).
1122:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 192.
413:
1784:Zachar, István; Boza, Gergely (2020-02-01).
966:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. p. 700.
961:
737:, respectively. Heterotrophs also allow for
2222:
1612:Lazcano, Antonio; Bada, Jeffrey L. (2003).
1611:
1136:
552:is almost entirely autotrophic, except for
2347:
1783:
1743:Evolution from a Thermodynamic Perspective
694:, in which ATP production is coupled with
2053:
2035:
1994:
1874:
1817:
1713:
1695:
1504:"J. B. S. Haldane and the origin of life"
1469:
1092:
1034:
1032:
1030:
260:= nutrition). Autotrophs use energy from
2427:
1898:Knowlton, Nancy; Rohwer, Forest (2003).
1043:Botany: An introduction to plant biology
978:Advanced Biology Principles, p 296.
563:
38:and heterotrophs. Autotrophs use light,
29:
2136:
1346:
1299:
1149:(3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988.
1142:
1038:
268:) or oxidation of inorganic compounds (
210:in 1946 as part of a classification of
14:
2451:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1736:
1665:
1663:
1556:
1501:
1240:
1238:
1119:Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry
1027:
895:
893:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2178:
2176:
2140:Prokaryotic Metabolism and Physiology
2132:
2130:
2128:
1169:
1115:
988:
686:, which is an important step for the
2403:
1790:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
1244:
964:Limnology: Lake and river ecosystems
867:
850:. Biology Dictionary. April 28, 2017
1772:
1739:"A Thermodynamic View of Evolution"
1660:
1302:"Primordial soup that cooks itself"
1235:
890:
627:: they obtain these nutrients from
24:
2412:
2386:
2336:
2173:
2125:
25:
2475:
2277:
2229:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2223:Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2011).
1557:Miller, Stanley L. (1953-05-15).
369:Photoorganoheterotrophs, such as
951:from the original on 2017-11-07.
548:are heterotrophic while Kingdom
206:. The term heterotroph arose in
80:
2324:from the original on 2011-05-24
2304:
2271:
2216:
2087:"On the Origin of Heterotrophy"
2078:
2011:
1946:
1891:
1834:
1730:
1605:
1550:
1495:
1486:
1429:
1399:"On the Origin of Heterotrophy"
1390:
1340:
1293:
1206:
1163:
1068:
668:substrate-level phosphorylation
2430:Processes in Microbial Ecology
2143:. Cambridge University Press.
1959:Nature Ecology & Evolution
1369:10.1007/978-3-662-44185-5_1275
982:
955:
928:
840:
833:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
820:
800:
378:. Chemolithoheterotrophs like
282:are heterotrophs which obtain
13:
1:
794:
443:John Burdon Sanderson Haldane
298:(also called lysotrophs) are
2348:Gottschalk, Gerhard (2012).
2195:10.1007/978-3-540-38364-2_15
2037:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518
1751:10.1007/978-3-030-85186-6_12
1583:10.1126/science.117.3046.528
1353:Encyclopedia of Astrobiology
908:McGraw-Hill Higher Education
733:through desulfurylation and
559:
7:
2428:Kirchman, David L. (2014).
1213:Campbell and Reece (2002).
70:and water (two red arrows).
10:
2480:
2249:10.1016/j.tree.2010.11.012
1802:10.1007/s00018-020-03462-6
1039:Mauseth, James D. (2008).
901:"How Cells Harvest Energy"
678:, and be converted into CO
612:
608:
439:Alexander Ivanovich Oparin
414:Origin and diversification
310:of such materials through
164:
161: 'other' and
147:
2362:10.1007/978-1-4612-1072-6
2103:10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.003
1979:10.1038/s41559-017-0311-7
1520:10.1007/s12041-017-0831-6
1502:Tirard, Stéphane (2017).
1415:10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.003
1347:Lazcano, Antonio (2015),
1300:Bracher, Paul J. (2015).
1245:Bada, Jeffrey L. (2013).
1184:10.1007/s10529-009-9975-7
813:Dictionary.com Unabridged
702:and reduced wastes like H
696:oxidative phosphorylation
239:green non-sulfur bacteria
178: 'nutrition') is an
1251:Chemical Society Reviews
1143:Dworkin, Martin (2006).
1116:Libes, Susan M. (2009).
848:"Heterotroph Definition"
321:
1904:The American Naturalist
1737:Jordan, Carl F (2022),
1638:10.1023/A:1024807125069
1063:heterotroph fix carbon.
625:consumers in food chain
621:chemoorganoheterotrophs
380:Oceanithermus profundus
304:extracellular digestion
272:) to convert inorganic
214:based on their type of
2091:Trends in Microbiology
1859:10.1098/rspb.2016.0611
1403:Trends in Microbiology
870:Essential Microbiology
619:Many heterotrophs are
569:
482:Miller–Urey experiment
71:
2404:Wade, Bingle (2016).
2149:10.1017/9781316761625
1172:Biotechnology Letters
1094:10.1099/ijs.0.02367-0
962:Wetzel, R.G. (2001).
868:Hogg, Stuart (2013).
615:Consumer (food chain)
567:
33:
2352:Bacterial Metabolism
1697:10.3390/life10030020
989:Mills, A.L. (1997).
651:, and proteins into
326:Heterotrophs can be
222:, in describing the
60:cellular respiration
2459:Biology terminology
2408:. pp. 236–250.
2241:2011TEcoE..26...81B
1971:2017NatEE...1.1716M
1688:2020Life...10...20P
1630:2003OLEB...33..235L
1575:1953Sci...117..528M
1508:Journal of Genetics
1442:Biochemical Journal
1361:2015enas.book.2010L
1263:2013CSRev..42.2186B
428:reducing atmosphere
248:), the other being
1853:(1831): 20160611.
1318:10.1038/nchem.2219
1271:10.1039/c3cs35433d
836:. Merriam-Webster.
786:carnivorous plants
637:holozoic nutrients
570:
554:myco-heterotrophic
492:relationship. The
476:), and hydrogen (H
72:
2204:978-3-540-00204-8
2158:978-1-316-76162-5
1965:(11): 1716–1721.
1796:(18): 3503–3523.
1760:978-3-030-85185-9
1569:(3046): 528–529.
1454:10.1042/bj0530353
1378:978-3-662-44184-8
1349:"Primordial Soup"
1156:978-0-387-25492-0
1129:978-0-12-088530-5
1058:978-0-7637-5345-0
1005:978-1-62949-013-7
883:978-1-119-97890-9
739:dephosphorylation
432:organic compounds
371:Rhodospirillaceae
300:chemoheterotrophs
66:and again form CO
62:to both generate
16:(Redirected from
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2443:
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2401:
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2333:
2331:
2329:
2323:
2316:
2308:
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2301:
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2291:
2285:. Archived from
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2268:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2180:
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2170:
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1483:
1473:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1306:Nature Chemistry
1297:
1291:
1290:
1257:(5): 2186–2196.
1242:
1233:
1232:
1220:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1178:(7): 1043–1049.
1167:
1161:
1160:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1096:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1046:
1036:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1014:
1008:. Archived from
997:
986:
980:
974:
968:
967:
959:
953:
952:
950:
943:
932:
926:
925:
923:
922:
916:
910:. Archived from
905:
897:
888:
887:
872:(2nd ed.).
865:
859:
858:
856:
855:
844:
838:
837:
824:
818:
817:
804:
782:parasitic plants
676:anaerobic digest
601:Photoheterotroph
596:Chemoheterotroph
394:, and molecular
384:hydrogen sulfide
308:active transport
235:photoheterotroph
231:chemoheterotroph
204:parasitic plants
175:
168:
158:
151:
139:
138:
135:
134:
131:
128:
125:
122:
117:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
86:
21:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2464:Trophic ecology
2449:
2448:
2447:
2440:
2426:
2413:
2402:
2387:
2372:
2346:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2295:
2293:
2292:on 6 April 2019
2289:
2282:
2276:
2272:
2221:
2217:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2181:
2174:
2159:
2135:
2126:
2083:
2079:
2030:(8): e1007518.
2016:
2012:
1951:
1947:
1910:(S4): S51–S62.
1896:
1892:
1839:
1835:
1782:
1773:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1735:
1731:
1668:
1661:
1610:
1606:
1555:
1551:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1434:
1430:
1395:
1391:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1345:
1341:
1298:
1294:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1211:
1207:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1141:
1137:
1130:
1114:
1110:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1037:
1028:
1018:
1016:
1015:on 6 April 2019
1012:
1006:
995:
987:
983:
975:
971:
960:
956:
948:
941:
933:
929:
920:
918:
914:
903:
899:
898:
891:
884:
874:Wiley-Blackwell
866:
862:
853:
851:
846:
845:
841:
826:
825:
821:
806:
805:
801:
797:
760:
756:
732:
728:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
685:
681:
673:
617:
611:
562:
520:
515:
479:
475:
471:
468:O), methane (CH
467:
416:
324:
270:lithoautotrophs
266:photoautotrophs
119:
83:
79:
69:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2446:
2445:
2438:
2411:
2385:
2371:978-0387961538
2370:
2335:
2303:
2270:
2215:
2203:
2172:
2157:
2124:
2077:
2010:
1945:
1916:10.1086/378684
1890:
1833:
1771:
1759:
1729:
1659:
1624:(3): 235–242.
1604:
1549:
1514:(5): 735–739.
1494:
1485:
1448:(3): 353–366.
1428:
1389:
1377:
1339:
1312:(4): 273–274.
1292:
1234:
1228:978-0805371710
1227:
1205:
1162:
1155:
1135:
1128:
1108:
1087:(3): 747–752.
1067:
1057:
1026:
1004:
981:
969:
954:
927:
889:
882:
876:. p. 86.
860:
839:
819:
816:(Online). n.d.
798:
796:
793:
758:
754:
730:
726:
723:mineralization
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
683:
679:
671:
613:Main article:
610:
607:
606:
605:
604:
603:
598:
588:
587:
586:
584:Photoautotroph
581:
579:Chemoautotroph
561:
558:
518:
513:
477:
473:
472:), ammonia (NH
469:
465:
454:Stanley Miller
424:prebiotic soup
420:origin of life
415:
412:
323:
320:
274:carbon dioxide
246:trophic levels
212:microorganisms
184:organic carbon
67:
56:photosynthesis
43:
40:carbon dioxide
34:Cycle between
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2476:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2441:
2439:9780199586936
2435:
2431:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2407:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2320:
2313:
2307:
2288:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2179:
2177:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2024:PLOS Genetics
2021:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1762:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1666:
1664:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
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1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
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1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1380:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1335:
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1327:
1323:
1319:
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1307:
1303:
1296:
1288:
1284:
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1268:
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1241:
1239:
1230:
1224:
1219:
1218:
1209:
1201:
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1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1166:
1158:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1139:
1131:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1011:
1007:
1001:
994:
993:
985:
979:
973:
965:
958:
947:
940:
939:
931:
917:on 2012-07-31
913:
909:
902:
896:
894:
885:
879:
875:
871:
864:
849:
843:
835:
834:
829:
828:"heterotroph"
823:
815:
814:
809:
808:"heterotroph"
803:
799:
792:
789:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
762:
752:
748:
744:
743:decomposition
740:
736:
724:
719:
697:
693:
689:
677:
669:
665:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
616:
602:
599:
597:
594:
593:
592:
589:
585:
582:
580:
577:
576:
575:
572:
571:
566:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
510:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:endosymbiosis
491:
485:
483:
463:
459:
456:conducted an
455:
450:
448:
444:
440:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
418:The chemical
411:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
372:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
336:carbohydrates
333:
329:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
286:by consuming
285:
281:
277:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
242:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
167:
163:
160:
157:
150:
146:
143:
142:Ancient Greek
137:
77:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Heterotrophic
2429:
2405:
2351:
2326:. Retrieved
2306:
2294:. Retrieved
2287:the original
2278:Mills, A.L.
2273:
2235:(2): 81–87.
2232:
2228:
2218:
2208:, retrieved
2185:
2139:
2097:(1): 12–25.
2094:
2090:
2080:
2027:
2023:
2013:
1962:
1958:
1948:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1793:
1789:
1764:, retrieved
1742:
1732:
1679:
1675:
1621:
1617:
1607:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1488:
1445:
1441:
1431:
1409:(1): 12–25.
1406:
1402:
1392:
1382:, retrieved
1352:
1342:
1309:
1305:
1295:
1254:
1250:
1216:
1208:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1145:
1138:
1118:
1111:
1084:
1080:
1070:
1062:
1042:
1017:. Retrieved
1010:the original
991:
984:
977:
972:
963:
957:
937:
930:
919:. Retrieved
912:the original
869:
863:
852:. Retrieved
842:
831:
822:
811:
802:
790:
766:opisthokonts
763:
751:sulfur cycle
720:
688:carbon cycle
657:
643:, fats into
629:saprotrophic
618:
590:
523:
511:
502:mitochondria
498:chloroplasts
486:
451:
436:
417:
408:
403:
386:, elemental
379:
376:Calvin cycle
368:
328:organotrophs
325:
280:Detritivores
278:
257:
253:
243:
228:
208:microbiology
172:
169:
162:
155:
152:
145:
75:
73:
2328:19 November
2296:19 November
770:prokaryotes
741:as part of
735:deamination
692:respiration
653:amino acids
645:fatty acids
591:Heterotroph
506:mutualistic
462:early Earth
404:C. vulgaris
392:thiosulfate
364:phototrophs
360:chemotrophs
332:lithotrophs
312:endocytosis
296:Saprotrophs
202:, and many
140:; from
76:heterotroph
2453:Categories
2210:2022-04-23
1766:2022-04-23
1384:2022-04-23
921:2010-10-10
854:2023-12-02
795:References
660:Fermenting
464:– water (H
458:experiment
449:).
447:autotrophy
400:Mixotrophs
250:autotrophs
224:food chain
36:autotrophs
2257:0169-5347
2167:165100369
2111:0966-842X
2046:1553-7404
1987:2397-334X
1924:0003-0147
1867:0962-8452
1810:1420-682X
1706:2075-1729
1682:(3): 20.
1591:0036-8075
1528:0022-1333
1462:0306-3283
1326:1755-4330
1279:0306-0012
1019:9 October
778:symbiotic
664:anaerobes
633:parasitic
574:Autotroph
560:Flowchart
490:symbiotic
302:that use
284:nutrients
216:nutrition
2380:32635137
2319:Archived
2265:21190752
2119:26578093
2072:52019935
2064:30114187
2005:28970480
1940:24127308
1932:14583857
1885:27194700
1828:32008087
1724:32110893
1654:19515024
1646:14515862
1599:13056598
1544:28775520
1536:29237880
1480:13032078
1423:26578093
1334:25803461
1287:23340907
1192:19322523
1103:12807196
946:Archived
747:nitrogen
729:S and NH
649:glycerol
546:Protista
542:Animalia
526:Bacteria
396:hydrogen
348:ammonium
344:proteins
288:detritus
262:sunlight
256:= self,
200:protists
196:bacteria
180:organism
50:to form
2237:Bibcode
2055:6095482
1996:5659384
1967:Bibcode
1876:4892803
1819:7452879
1715:7151616
1684:Bibcode
1626:Bibcode
1571:Bibcode
1563:Science
1471:1198157
1357:Bibcode
1259:Bibcode
1217:Biology
1200:1989922
776:, form
710:S, or N
641:glucose
609:Ecology
550:Plantae
534:Eukarya
530:Archaea
352:nitrite
237:(e.g.,
220:ecology
194:, some
188:animals
156:héteros
46:), and
2436:
2378:
2368:
2263:
2255:
2201:
2165:
2155:
2117:
2109:
2070:
2062:
2052:
2044:
2003:
1993:
1985:
1938:
1930:
1922:
1883:
1873:
1865:
1826:
1816:
1808:
1757:
1722:
1712:
1704:
1652:
1644:
1597:
1589:
1542:
1534:
1526:
1478:
1468:
1460:
1421:
1375:
1332:
1324:
1285:
1277:
1225:
1198:
1190:
1153:
1126:
1101:
1055:
1002:
880:
774:corals
682:and CH
532:, and
388:sulfur
356:sulfur
342:, and
316:hyphae
173:trophḗ
149:ἕτερος
52:oxygen
2376:S2CID
2322:(PDF)
2315:(PDF)
2290:(PDF)
2283:(PDF)
2163:S2CID
2068:S2CID
1936:S2CID
1650:S2CID
1540:S2CID
1196:S2CID
1013:(PDF)
996:(PDF)
949:(PDF)
942:(PDF)
915:(PDF)
904:(PDF)
764:Most
635:, or
538:Fungi
354:, or
322:Types
292:feces
258:troph
192:fungi
166:τροφή
144:
48:water
2434:ISBN
2366:ISBN
2330:2017
2298:2017
2261:PMID
2253:ISSN
2199:ISBN
2153:ISBN
2115:PMID
2107:ISSN
2060:PMID
2042:ISSN
2001:PMID
1983:ISSN
1928:PMID
1920:ISSN
1881:PMID
1863:ISSN
1824:PMID
1806:ISSN
1755:ISBN
1720:PMID
1702:ISSN
1676:Life
1642:PMID
1595:PMID
1587:ISSN
1532:PMID
1524:ISSN
1476:PMID
1458:ISSN
1419:PMID
1373:ISBN
1330:PMID
1322:ISSN
1283:PMID
1275:ISSN
1223:ISBN
1188:PMID
1151:ISBN
1124:ISBN
1099:PMID
1053:ISBN
1021:2017
1000:ISBN
878:ISBN
768:and
749:and
706:O, H
647:and
540:and
340:fats
254:auto
198:and
190:and
2358:doi
2245:doi
2191:doi
2145:doi
2099:doi
2050:PMC
2032:doi
1991:PMC
1975:doi
1912:doi
1908:162
1871:PMC
1855:doi
1851:283
1814:PMC
1798:doi
1747:doi
1710:PMC
1692:doi
1634:doi
1579:doi
1567:117
1516:doi
1466:PMC
1450:doi
1411:doi
1365:doi
1314:doi
1267:doi
1180:doi
1089:doi
1049:252
753:. H
362:or
330:or
294:).
241:).
64:ATP
42:(CO
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2093:.
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2066:.
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2040:.
2028:14
2026:.
2022:.
1999:.
1989:.
1981:.
1973:.
1961:.
1957:.
1934:.
1926:.
1918:.
1906:.
1902:.
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1812:.
1804:.
1794:77
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810:.
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226:.
118:,-
112:oʊ
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1977::
1969::
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1942:.
1914::
1887:.
1857::
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1800::
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1636::
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1581::
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