284:. For his doctoral dissertation, Terrace showed that it was possible to train a discrimination without any errors. He did this with pigeons who learned to discriminate two narrowly spaced stimuli by starting with a large distance between the discriminative stimuli that was gradually reduced. When a discrimination is trained with errors, subjects exhibit frustration. Such aversive effects are absent when a discrimination is trained without errors. Skinner cited a similar difference in the case of the teaching machine, a device he invented to train human subjects to learn different types of technical material. The teaching machine introduces a new topic with simple questions that are gradually made more difficult. Subjects who learn with few or no errors do not exhibit the frustration they would have experienced had they learned by trial and error.
398:, Terrace devised a task in which the monkeys had to place a “bet” that was commensurate with their confidence in the accuracy of a response on a cognitive task. Following each response, monkeys learned to select a “high confidence” symbol if their response was correct and a “low confidence” symbol after an error. They did so correctly even when the appearance of the confidence symbols was delayed for as much as 5 sec after a trial ended. This was the first demonstration that a monkey could think about its behavior.
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communication were limited to imperatives, language would have never evolved. Initially, Terrace hoped that combinations of a chimpanzee's signs would provide evidence that it could create a sentence. What
Project Nim showed, however, is that a chimpanzee cannot even use signs declaratively. Until a chimpanzee can learn words, he concluded that it's pointless to ask if it can create a sentence.
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result of a recent mutation and that the origin of words remained a mystery. Terrace argued that language originated with words, which are as different from the signals that animals use to communicate as words are from grammar. Unlike
Chomsky, who argued that language was the result of a mutation, Terrace argued that words could be explained by natural selection.
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could not hunt, they had to scavenge large animals. That required a group effort, in which a scout had to inform members of his group about the location of a dead animal they could not see. Because it required displaced reference, such communication was assumed to be the occasion for the first use of
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Although chimpanzees cannot learn language, there is evidence that their behavior, and that of other animals, is more intelligent than behavior that could result from conditioning. Since
Descartes, it has been generally accepted that animals cannot think because they do not have language. To explain
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Although
Project Nim confirmed Chomsky's view that language is uniquely human, it showed that the use of grammar was not sufficient to distinguish language from animal communication. The use of words, specifically, the ability to name objects, was also necessary. Chomsky argued that grammar was the
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The negative results of
Project Nim posed two questions: why can a chimpanzee not learn language, words in particular, and which of our ancestors was the first species to use words? To answer the first question, Terrace cited recent discoveries by developmental psychologists who showed that infants
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Terrace's research in
Project Nim has been criticized for its research methodology and the various ethical concerns raised by treating Nim "like a human child for the first decade of his life." Following the project's conclusion, Nim was effectively abandoned by Terrace, who visited the chimpanzee
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Because chimpanzees only signed to obtain rewards, their signing was, by definition, limited to the imperative function of words. That differs fundamentally from its declarative function, which is to name objects conversationally. Imperatives are a minuscule portion of human vocabulary. If human
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In 1985, Terrace began a primate cognition laboratory in which he studied how monkeys use representations in various serial learning tasks, for example, to respond in the correct order to ascending and descending series of numerically defined stimuli, to acquire serial expertise and to imitate
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Because the simultaneous training paradigm requires the subject to represent each item's ordinal position, it provides an opportunity to study animal cognition. In the early 80s, Terrace helped organize an international conference on animal cognition at
Columbia University that discussed the
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When learning a sequence by the simultaneous training paradigm, monkeys were shown an array of photographs on a touch-sensitive video display. On each trial, the position of the photographs varied randomly. As a result, subjects could not rely on its physical location as an external cue for
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Terrace concluded that the only reason Nim (and other chimpanzees) signed was to obtain rewards. Were it not for his teacher, Nim would try to grab a reward directly. When that failed, Nim's only alternative was to sign. Anticipating his signing, Nim's teachers unwittingly made one or more
308:. Sign language was used because of the physical limitations of a chimpanzee's vocal apparatus. Nim's vocabulary grew steadily and he began to combine signs. However, analyses of videotapes of Nim signing with his teachers showed that most of his signs were cued by a teacher's prompts.
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intelligent behavior in animals without language and without the principles of conditioning, Terrace argued that it is necessary to show that they can represent objects, that is, solve a problem in the absence of external cues that can guide their behavior.
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relations with their caretakers, intersubjectivity and joint attention, before they learn to name objects. He argued that the absence of those precursors in chimpanzees is the best explanation for their failure to learn words.
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in which subjects execute a sequence by responding to individual stimuli, which appear successively as, for example, learning which way to turn at successive choice points in a maze.
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simultaneous training paradigm and other instances in which animals are able to represent stimuli. Since then, animal cognition has become a dominant area in comparative cognition.
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394:. In humans, metacognition is assessed by asking subjects how certain they are about their knowledge of a particular topic, for example, how well they did on an exam. To assess
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appropriate signs, about a quarter of a second before he signed. Terrace also showed that prompting explained the signing of other chimpanzees who were trained to use ASL.
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Terrace, H. S. (1984a). "Simultaneous chaining: The problem it poses for traditional chaining theory". In
Commons, M. L.; Herrnstein, R.; Wagner, A. (eds.).
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To answer the second question, Terrace integrated hypotheses by an anthropologist and a linguist who suggested that the caloric requirements of
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determining to which photograph it should respond first, second, and so on. Instead, they had to memorize the order of each photograph.
611:, a 2011 film that explores Terrace's work. The film offered critiques of Terrace, and he, in turn, offered critiques of the film.
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large brain was the motivation for their invention of words. Meat was the most efficient way to get those calories. Because
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Terrace, H. S. (2013). "Becoming Human: Why two minds are better than one". In
Metcalfe, Janet; Terrace, Herbert (eds.).
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only once in spite of Nim's sale to a new facility, and his documented difficulties adapting to his new environment.
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Terrace obtained a
Bachelor of Arts in psychology (1957) and a Master of Arts in Experimental Psychology (1958) from
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Kornell, N.; Son, L. K.; Terrace, H. S. (2007). "Transfer of metacognitive skills and hint seeking in monkeys".
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Terrace also studied a monkey's ability to think about its own behavior, that is, its ability to engage in
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Terrace, H. S.; Petitto, L.A.; Sanders, R.J.; Bever, T.G. (1979). "Can an ape create a sentence?".
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Terrace, H. S.; Son, L. K.; Brannon, E. (2003). "Serial expertise of rhesus macaques".
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Terrace, H. S. (2005). "The simultaneous chain: A new approach to serial learning".
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Brannon, E.; Terrace, H. S. (1998). "Ordering of the numerosities 1-9 by monkeys".
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences
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439:. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced
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Terrace, H. S. (1984). Roitblat, H. L.; Bever, T. G.; Terrace, H. S. (eds.).
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in New York. His interest in science was instilled by an older sister, Dr.
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150:(born 29 November 1936) is a professor of Psychology and Psychiatry at
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Animal cognition: Proceedings of the Harry Frank Guggenheim Conference
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Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding
829:"In the beginning: A review of Robert C. Berwick and Noam Chomsky's
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1071:"Discrimination learning, the peak shift, and behavioral contrast"
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Since 1962, Terrace's research has been funded by grants from the
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1015:
Terrace, H. S. (1966). "Discrimination learning and inhibition".
154:. His work covers a broad set of research interests that include
296:'s theory that only humans can learn language and grammar. With
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Fellow (1957–1958). His mentor during graduate studies was
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from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially
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968:"Errorless transfer of a discrimination across two continua"
919:"Errorless Transfer of a Discrimination Across Two Continua"
892:. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 7–28.
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as the youngest child of two Polish immigrants. He attended
1307:. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co. pp. 115–138.
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Quantitative Analyses of Behavior: Discrimination Processes
1218:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
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Terrace, H. S. (1985). "In the beginning was the name".
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Why Chimpanzees Can't Learn Language and Only Humans Can
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Why Chimpanzees Can't Learn Language and Only Humans Can
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657:. Hillsdale, New Jersey: 'Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
635:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 271–344.
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Terrace joined other leading behaviorists challenging
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More Than Nature Needs: Language, Mind, and Evolution
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1203:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11–48.
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Roitblat, H. L.; Bever, T.G.; Terrace, H.S. (1984).
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178:(2019). Terrace has made important contributions to
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Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
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280:Learning by trial and error is a basic feature of
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725:"Discrimination learning with and without errors"
709:. New York, New York: 'Columbia University Press.
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1075:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
972:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
923:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
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255:. He obtained his PhD in psychology (1961) from
182:, many of which have important implications for
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1261:"Animal cognition: Thinking without language"
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827:Studdert-Kennedy, M.; Terrace, H. S. (2017).
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1118:Skinner, B. F. (1961). "Teaching Machines".
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172:Nim: A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language
1233:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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288:Ape language and the evolution of language
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503:Learn how and when to remove this message
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1549:Terrace biography written by G. Jensen
300:, he attempted to teach a chimpanzee (
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568:Society of Experimental Psychologists
558:Society of Experimental Psychologists
271:Contributions to psychological theory
1244:Berwick, R. C.; Chomsky, N. (2016).
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1626:20th-century American psychologists
1596:21st-century American psychologists
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547:Fulbright Senior Research Scholar
527:Harry Frank Guggenheim Fellowship
16:Professor of Psychology (b. 1936)
1516:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01850.x
677:. New York, New York: 'A. Knopf.
517:John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship
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267:Pre-Doctoral Fellow (1959–1961)
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215:Terrace was born and raised in
364:simultaneous training paradigm
1:
1621:Stuyvesant High School alumni
1037:10.1126/science.154.3757.1677
917:Terrace, H. S. (April 1963).
837:Journal of Language Evolution
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575:Comparative Cognition Society
366:differs from the traditional
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1383:10.1126/science.282.5389.746
1320:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
573:Lifetime Achievement Award,
537:All Souls College Fellowship
421:biography of a living person
368:successive training paradigm
306:American Sign Language (ASL)
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34:biography of a living person
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1606:Columbia University faculty
1248:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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249:Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation
61:must be removed immediately
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1332:10.1016/j.tics.2005.02.003
1201:Agency and joint attention
596:James McDonnell Foundation
564:Howard Crosby Warren Medal
1611:Cornell University alumni
904:"Herbert S. Terrace Ph.D"
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1601:Animal cognition writers
1087:10.1901/jeab.1968.11-727
723:Terrace, H. S. (1963a).
396:metacognition in monkeys
1473:10.1126/science.1099136
1418:10.1111/1467-9280.01420
1259:Terrace, H. S. (1985).
1069:Terrace, H. S. (1968).
984:10.1901/jeab.1963.6-223
966:Terrace, H. S. (1963).
935:10.1901/jeab.1963.6-223
705:Terrace, H. S. (2019).
673:Terrace, H. S. (1979).
631:Terrace, H. S. (1966).
276:Discrimination learning
263:. At Harvard, he was a
259:, where his mentor was
188:discrimination learning
170:. He is the author of
1591:American psychiatrists
1286:10.1098/rstb.1985.0014
1229:Bickerton, D. (2014).
803:10.1126/science.504995
435:Please help by adding
221:Stuyvesant High School
180:comparative psychology
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48:Please help by adding
1554:Primate Cognition Lab
1504:Psychological Science
1406:Psychological Science
1214:Hardy, S. B. (2009).
1163:American Psychologist
741:10.1901/jeab.1963.6-1
430:references or sources
196:evolution of language
168:evolution of language
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521:University of Sussex
452:"Herbert S. Terrace"
231:for her research in
76:"Herbert S. Terrace"
54:Contentious material
1465:2004Sci...305..407S
1375:1998Sci...282..746B
1277:1985RSPTB.308..113T
1132:1961SciAm.205e..90S
1120:Scientific American
1029:1966Sci...154.1677T
1023:(3757): 1677–1680.
849:10.1093/jole/lzx005
795:1979Sci...206..891T
531:Columbia University
282:conditioning theory
152:Columbia University
1564:2020-02-07 at the
419:This section of a
257:Harvard University
245:Cornell University
148:Herbert S. Terrace
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143:Herbert S. Terrace
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