Helium-3 - Knowledge

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procedures. US industrial demand for helium-3 reached a peak of 70,000 litres (15,000 imp gal; 18,000 US gal) (approximately 8 kilograms (18 lb)) per year in 2008. Price at auction, historically about $ 100 per litre ($ 450/imp gal), reached as high as $ 2,000 per litre ($ 9,100/imp gal). Since then, demand for helium-3 has declined to about 6,000 litres (1,300 imp gal; 1,600 US gal) per year due to the high cost and efforts by the DOE to recycle it and find substitutes. Assuming a density of 114 grams per cubic metre (0.192 lb/cu yd) at $ 100/l helium-3 would be about a thirtieth as expensive as tritium (roughly $ 880 per gram ($ 25,000/oz) vs roughly $ 30,000 per gram ($ 850,000/oz)) while at $ 2000/l helium-3 would be about half as expensive as tritium ($ 17,540 per gram ($ 497,000/oz) vs $ 30,000 per gram ($ 850,000/oz)).

650:, about 26 cubic metres (920 cu ft) or almost 5 kilograms (11 lb) of He is available annually for separation from the US natural gas stream. If the process of separating out the He could employ as feedstock the liquefied helium typically used to transport and store bulk quantities, estimates for the incremental energy cost range from $ 34 to $ 300 per litre ($ 150 to $ 1,360/imp gal) NTP, excluding the cost of infrastructure and equipment. Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million normal cubic metres and this would contain between 7 and 24 cubic metres (250 and 850 cu ft) of helium-3 (about 1 to 4 kilograms (2.2 to 8.8 lb)) assuming a similar He fraction. 469: 1419: 1379: 1339: 1540: 1500: 1459: 1177: 1136: 1581: 1299: 45: 1218: 2618:, and many more, though many of these concepts have fundamental problems with achieving a net energy gain, and generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible, and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big" and "hot" fusion systems, if such systems worked, they could scale to the higher barrier 2305: 1860: 1259: 600:>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid He (since all materials except He have solidified and sunk to the bottom of the liquid He and any He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system. 2448:. Thus, a year's production (at 6 grams for each operation hour) would require 52.5 kilograms of helium-3. The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kW·h (1.14×10 W·h). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7 623:, thought to have become entrapped in the Earth during planetary formation. The ratio of He to He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that of estimates of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower He/He ratios due to production of He from radioactive decay. 3831: 3415:"any concentration of helium above approximately 0.2 percent is considered worthwhile examining" ... "U.S. government still owns approximately 1 billion nm of helium inventory", "Middle East and North Africa ... many very large, helium-rich (up to 0.5 percent) natural gas fields" (Smith uses nm to mean "normal 747:, which contains 28 ppm helium-4 and 2.8 ppb helium-3 (which is at the lower end of actual sample measurements, which vary from about 1.4 to 15 ppb). Terrestrial ratios of the isotopes are lower by a factor of 100, mainly due to enrichment of helium-4 stocks in the mantle by billions of years of 627:

isotopes has generated significant amounts of He, such that only around 7% of the helium now in the mantle is primordial helium, lowering the total He/He ratio to around 20 ppm. Ratios of He/He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the

2301:+ γ + 4.98 MeV. If the fusion temperature is below that for the helium nuclei to fuse, the reaction produces a high energy alpha particle which quickly acquires an electron producing a stable light helium ion which can be utilized directly as a source of electricity without producing dangerous neutrons. 1017:

Treaty in 1991 the number of nuclear warheads that are kept ready for use has decreased. This has reduced the quantity of helium-3 available from this source. Helium-3 stockpiles have been further diminished by increased demand, primarily for use in neutron radiation detectors and medical diagnostic

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One early estimate of the primordial ratio of He to He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of Jupiter, measured by the mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe. This ratio is about 1:10,000, or 100 parts of He per million parts of He. This is

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In a zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field

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signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able

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and historically it was produced and stockpiled primarily for this application. The decay of tritium into helium-3 reduces the explosive power of the fusion warhead, so periodically the accumulated helium-3 must be removed from warhead reservoirs and tritium in storage. Helium-3 removed during this

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Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources, and large sources have over 0.5% (above 0.2% makes it viable to extract). The fraction of He in helium separated from natural gas in the U.S. was found to range from 70 to 242 parts per billion. Hence the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion

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deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total. Wittenberg cited Anderson's estimate of

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Currently only two commercial nuclear reactors (Watts Bar Nuclear Plant Units 1 and 2) are being used for tritium production but the process could, if necessary, be vastly scaled up to meet any conceivable demand simply by utilizing more of the nation's power reactors. Substantial quantities of

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10 lb), the mass of He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or about 37,000 tonnes (36,000 long tons; 41,000 short tons) of He. (In fact the effective figure is ten times smaller, since the above ppm are ppmv and not ppmw. One must multiply by 3 (the molecular mass of

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He has a cosmological ratio of 300 atoms per million atoms of He (at. ppm), leading to the assumption that the original ratio of these primordial gases in the mantle was around 200-300 ppm when Earth was formed. Over Earth's history alpha-particle decay of uranium, thorium and other radioactive

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claimed that their 7th fusion prototype (Polaris; fully funded and under construction as of September 2022) will demonstrate "net electricity from fusion", and will demonstrate "helium-3 production through deuterium–deuterium fusion" by means of a "patented high-efficiency closed-fuel cycle".

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are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–He fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with

3335:"Table II. He Abundance of Natural Gas ... He in ppm ... Aldrich 0.05 – 0.5 ... Sano 0.46 – 22.7", "Table V. ... of Water ... He in ppm ... 1.6 – 1.8 East Pacific ... 0.006 – 1.5 Manitoba Chalk River ... 164 Japan Sea" (Aldrich measured Helium from US wells, Sano that of Taiwan gas: 455:

is also lower at 3.35 K, compared with helium-4 at 5.2 K. Helium-3 has less than half the density of helium-4 when it is at its boiling point: 59 g/L compared to 125 g/L of helium-4 at a pressure of one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026

2684:, launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals. No such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, though many of its scientific payloads have held helium-3-related applications. 2568:). In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050. In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D–T fusion. The reason for this is the very low 4213: 572:

and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a

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Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen and is typically produced by bombarding lithium-6 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. The lithium nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into helium-4 and tritium. Tritium decays into helium-3 with a half-life of

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from tritium can penetrate only about 6.0 millimetres (0.24 in) of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin. The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of

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Niemann, Hasso B.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Carignan, George R.; Donahue, Thomas M.; Haberman, John A.; Harpold, Dan N.; Hartle, Richard E.; Hunten, Donald M.; et al. (1996). "The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere".

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in 2010. In this process tritium-producing burnable absorber rods (TPBARs) containing lithium in a ceramic form are inserted into the reactor in place of the normal boron control rods Periodically the TPBARs are replaced and the tritium extracted.

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10 psi), and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (101325 Pa) in the Earth's atmosphere, and He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about

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increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion

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has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation "each year, three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world".

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discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which were soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3. The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996

2363:, can be contained by means of electric and magnetic fields. The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process) will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation. 4167: 2605:

To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D–T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–He fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed – the

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The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 0.1–1 megatonne (98,000–984,000 long tons; 110,000–1,100,000 short tons). Most mantle is not directly accessible. Some helium-3 leaks up through deep-sourced

320:, not release the dangerous radiation of traditional fusion or require much higher temperatures. The process may unavoidably create other reactions that themselves would cause the surrounding material to become radioactive. 4704: 686:, and beta decay of tritium (H). The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of He by 4029: 2444:. If the total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a gigawatt electrical plant per mole of 2726:

in 2015, characterises helium-3 extraction from the Moon for use in fusion as magical thinking about an unproven technology, and questions the feasibility of lunar extraction, as compared to production on Earth.

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had hoped to deploy detectors to spot smuggled plutonium in shipping containers by their neutron emissions, but the worldwide shortage of helium-3 following the drawdown in nuclear weapons production since the

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The belief in helium-3 mining is a great example of a myth that has been incorporated into the larger enthusiasm for human spaceflight, a magical incantation that is murmured, but rarely actually discussed.

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is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the

3675: 3829:, Sur, Bhaskar; Rodrigo, Lakshman & Didsbury, Richard, "System and method for collecting He gas from heavy water nuclear reactors", published 30 September 2013, issued 2013 2409:

reaction. It offers a theoretical reaction that produces no neutrons; the charged protons produced can be contained in electric and magnetic fields, which in turn directly generates electricity.

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NASA Technical Memorandum 2006-214122. AIAA–2005–4319. Prepared for the 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit cosponsored by AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE, Tucson, Arizona, July 10–13, 2005.

1836:(JET) have experimented with adding a little helium-3 to a H–D plasma to increase the absorption of radio-frequency (RF) energy to heat the hydrogen and deuterium ions, a "three-ion" effect. 2673:. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 150 tonnes of regolith to obtain one gram of helium-3). 523:. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. Many speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into 3836: 4145: 409:. Also, the microscopic properties of helium-3 cause it to have a higher zero-point energy than helium-4. This implies that helium-3 can overcome dipole–dipole interactions with less 2490:

conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70% may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive a

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per year of helium-3 would be required for that segment of the energy demand of the United States, 15 to 20 tonnes per year given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.

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helium-3) and divide by 29 (the mean molecular mass of the atmosphere), resulting in 3,828 tonnes (3,768 long tons; 4,220 short tons) of helium-3 in the earth's atmosphere.)

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fleet, are both known to extract tritium from moderator/coolant heavy water, but those amounts are not nearly enough to satisfy global demand of either tritium or helium-3.

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fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D–T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction.

4955: 1049:(see the article on tritium for details), extraction from those sources could be another source of helium-3. If the annual discharge of tritium (per 2018 figures) at 4065:

Leawoods, Jason C.; Yablonskiy, Dmitriy A.; Saam, Brian; Gierada, David S.; Conradi, Mark S. (2001). "Hyperpolarized He Gas Production and MR Imaging of the Lung".

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is taken as a basis, the amounts discharged (31.2 grams (1.10 oz) at La Hague) are not nearly enough to satisfy demand, even if 100% recovery is achieved.

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from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4. Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million.

4746: 2474:. The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of 3104: 798: 1870: 3872:[2020 Environmental Radiation Survey and Evaluation Report Around Nuclear Power Plant]. Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power. 26 April 2021. p. 25. 5091: 3337:

Sano, Yuji; Wakita, Hiroshi; Huang, Chin-Wang (September 1986). "Helium flux in a continental land area estimated from He/He ratio in northern Taiwan".

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than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water

2378:. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D–D reaction ( 5076: 4475: 3719: 990:, so helium-3 can be produced by simply storing the tritium until it undergoes radioactive decay. As tritium forms a stable compound with oxygen ( 3322:

Aldrich, L.T.; Nier, Alfred O. Phys. Rev. 74, 1590 – 1594 (1948). The Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium. Page 1592, Tables I and II.

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Davidson, Thomas A.; Emerson, David E. (1990). Method and Apparatus for Direct Determination of Helium-3 in Natural Gas and Helium (Report).

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Helium three: proceedings of the Second Symposium on Liquid and Solid Helium Three, held at the Ohio State University, August 23--25, 1960

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particles on the ocean floors. In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release.

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There have been many claims about the capabilities of helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on

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fusion is feasible as demonstrated in the laboratory and has immense advantages, but commercial viability is many years in the future.

4386: 4608: 2923: 2889:"Global inventory of Helium-3 in lunar regoliths estimated by a multi-channel microwave radiometer on the Chang-E 1 lunar satellite" 2482:

and the fusion protons. High speed protons, as positively charged particles, can have their kinetic energy converted directly into

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The DOE recognized the developing shortage of both tritium and helium-3, and began producing tritium by lithium irradiation at the

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are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity.

4504: 3763: 3992: 5012: 4571: 4239: 3088: 2405:), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus is even more difficult than the D- 1805: 1510: 2572:

for this reaction; for D+He, the barrier is much higher, and it is even higher for He–He. The immense cost of reactors like

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Not all writers feel the extraction of lunar helium-3 is feasible, or even that there will be a demand for it for fusion.

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normal m would have contained about 12 to 43 kilograms (26 to 95 lb) of helium-3. According to American physicist

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Osheroff, D. D.; Gully, W. J.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (1972). "New Magnetic Phenomena in Liquid He below 3 mK".

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announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020, if funding can be found.

2677: 4311: 4641: 3935: 4743: 1804:. This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as 2760: 1693:

helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. This effect is employed in

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won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.

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An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a

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beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction

452: 4437:"Mining the Moon: Lab experiments suggest that future fusion reactors could use helium-3 gathered from the moon" 661:

10 (1.38 parts per million). The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 0.52 pascals (7.5

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For decades this has been, and remains, the principal source of the world's helium-3. Since the signing of the

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Helium-3 is thought to be more abundant on the Moon than on Earth, having been deposited in the upper layer of

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in permanently shadowed regions. A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to

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The low energy of tritium's radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using

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reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D–D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore, fusion using D–

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nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy by-product, the

971:) appropriate for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory (the most recent experiment being 5201: 3921: 3794: 3332: 2698: 2586: 2557: 2549: 2523: 2420:

are substantial by comparison to amounts currently available. The total amount of energy produced in the

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Gentile, T.R.; Jones, G.L.; Thompson, A.K.; Barker, J.; Glinka, C.J.; Hammouda, B.; Lynn, J.W. (2000).

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Discovering Alvarez: selected works of Luis W. Alvarez, with commentary by his students and colleagues

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Leggett, A. J. (1972). "Interpretation of Recent Results on He below 3 mK: A New Liquid Phase?".

3199: 2662: 1878: 1797: 794: 351: 299: 165: 31: 1674:, or protons (p, H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a 634:

The ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly. Samples of the

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different from those of helium-4, with a mass of 4.0026 u. On account of the weak, induced

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between the helium atoms, their microscopic physical properties are mainly determined by their

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infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an

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Chase, C. E.; Zimmerman, G. O. (1973). "Measurements of P-V-T and Critical Indices of He".

3045: 3000: 2959: 2623: 1833: 1675: 1635: 764: 614: 354: 17: 4411: 2640: 732: 8: 4589: 2914: 2526: 1046: 1039: 968: 716: 539:. Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s, 508:

for quantized angular momentum. At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a

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Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space

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Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2.

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using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping. During this process,

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has to some extent prevented this. As of 2012, DHS determined the commercial supply of

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Virtually all helium-3 used in industry today is produced from the radioactive decay of

596:=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, 5119: 4550:

Todd Rider. "A general critique of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion systems".

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Helium.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Nuclear Bomb Detectors Stopped by Material Shortage

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Production, sales and distribution of helium-3 in the United States are managed by the

457: 417: 279: 259: 220: 200: 3775: 298:. Some found in the terrestrial atmosphere is a remnant of atmospheric and underwater 5179: 5008: 4209: 4119: 3702: 3613: 3362: 3179: 3084: 2658: 2654: 2619: 2585:(17.6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for 2356: 1845: 1690: 1655: 1651: 695: 536: 406: 398: 317: 204: 120: 113: 57: 4744:

Luna C/I:: Chandrayaan-1 Payload Feature #2: Sub KeV Atom Reflecting Analyser (SARA)

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The reality is not so clear-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are

440:, but with one fewer neutron, helium-3 has an overall spin of one half, making it a 4947: 4830: 4665:"The challenge of mining He-3 on the lunar surface: how all the parts fit together" 4551: 4195: 4187: 4111: 4102:

Altes, Talissa; Salerno, Michael (2004). "Hyperpolarized Gas Imaging of the Lung".

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over billions of years, though still lower in abundance than in the Solar System's

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would support converting its neutron detection infrastructure to that technology.

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waste disposal requirements. Recent estimates suggest that about $ 6 billion in

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to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the

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tritium and helium-3 could also be extracted from the heavy water moderator in

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plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand.

2347:") fusion process produces energetic neutrons which render reactor components 420:

effects on helium-3 and helium-4 are significantly different because with two

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interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of

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While tritium has several different experimentally determined values of its

4336: 4123: 3706: 3057: 3013: 2986: 2785: 2710: 2615: 2425: 2325: 1908: 1776: 1750: 1354: 1314: 5089:: A BBC Horizon documentary on the possibility of lunar mining of Helium-3 4587: 4009: 3671:"Comprehensive Review and Critical Evaluation of the Half-Life of Tritium" 3617: 5171: 4200: 3688: 3676:

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology

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WebElements Periodic Table: Professional Edition: Helium: key information

2534: 2530: 2519: 2483: 2417: 2348: 2254: 1556: 1515: 1475: 1304: 748: 711: 702:, but only 300 grams (11 oz) per year is emitted to the atmosphere. 683: 528: 382: 361:

collided with deuteron targets (incidentally, the first demonstration of

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A Modular Neutron Detector | Summer 2003| Los Alamos National Laboratory

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Cocks, F. H. (2010). "He in permanently shadowed lunar polar surfaces".

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Holden, Normen E. 1993. Helium Isotopic Abundance Variation in Nature.

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Alvarez, Luis; Cornog, Robert (1939). "Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3".

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Slyuta, E. N.; Abdrakhimov, A. M.; Galimov, E. M. (March 12–16, 2007).

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nuclear reactors. India and Canada, the two countries with the largest

958:, while the remaining energy is carried off by the nearly undetectable 829: 707: 679: 657:. The natural abundance of He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38 532: 513: 343:

The existence of helium-3 was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian

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Smith, D. M.; Goodwin, T. W.; Schillinger, J. A. (26 September 2003).

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Phase diagram for Helium-3. Bcc - body-centered cubic crystal lattice.

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until it was also found in samples of natural helium, which is mostly

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Accelerator Production of Tritium – That Could Mean 40 Years of Work

2821:"Is MOON's Sci-Fi Vision of Lunar Helium 3 Mining Based in Reality?" 2529:

will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion

994:) while helium-3 does not, the storage and collection process could 5132: 5110: 3192: 2666: 2611: 2542: 2170: 1784: 1710: 1706: 951: 890: 628: 429: 378: 358: 324: 248: 240: 1045:

As tritium is also produced inadvertently in various processes in

4925:"Challenges to the worldwide supply of helium in the next decade" 2984: 2748: 2653:'s surface contain helium-3 at concentrations between 1.4 and 15 2491: 2383: 2340: 2304: 1994: 1780: 1667: 1223: 1014: 787: 781: 756: 752: 635: 584:=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, 477: 441: 425: 283: 252: 236: 224: 188: 4590:"The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith" 5123: 3444:

The Helium-3 Shortage: Supply, Demand, and Options for Congress

2471: 2360: 1817: 1738: 1726: 1545: 1505: 1464: 1344: 1264: 999: 972: 790:, given its very low natural abundance and its very high cost. 448: 421: 232: 228: 4782:

Russian Rocket Builder Aims for Moon Base by 2015, Reports Say

3070: 2916:

The Estimation of Helium-3 Probable Reserves in Lunar Regolith

2657:

in sunlit areas, and may contain concentrations as much as 50

1697:, a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter. 4753:. Luna-ci.blogspot.com (2008-11-12). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 4064: 3668: 3500:"The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses" 2922:. 38th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p. 2175. 2607: 2449: 1424: 1384: 1035: 491: 437: 30:

This article is about the isotope. For the record label, see

3586: 715:

another 1,200 tonnes (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) in

255:

with more protons than neutrons. It was discovered in 1939.

4982:. Second Wisconsin Symposium on Helium-3 and Fusion Power. 3936:"SANS polarization analysis with nuclear spin-polarized He" 2650: 2573: 2561: 2433: 2320:

can be used in fusion reactions by either of the reactions

313: 286:

is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by

274:

over millions of years. It is also thought to be a natural

4796:"Moonscam: Russians try to sell the Moon for foreign cash" 4772:. Chinadaily.com.cn (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 4165: 3933: 3105:"Lawrence and His Laboratory: Episode: A Productive Error" 308:

using helium-3 has long been viewed as a desirable future

3858:. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 13 April 2021. 2479: 2272: 2238: 2205: 2159: 2111: 2063: 2020: 1975: 706:

emit another 3 kilograms per year (8.2 g/d). Around

2985:

Oliphant, M. L. E.; Harteck, P.; Rutherford, E. (1934).

1650:

Helium-3 is an important isotope in instrumentation for

4697:"With He-3 on mind, India gets ready for lunar mission" 4588:

E. N. Slyuta; A. M. Abdrakhimov; E. M. Galimov (2007).

3193:

Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (1972).

3912:. Ncnr.nist.gov (2004-04-28). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 737: 381:, taken both from the terrestrial atmosphere and from 3147: 2779:

Galli, D. (September 2004). "The cosmic saga of He".

1654:. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal 1634:, which are underway at the Surface Physics Group at 5074:

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech

3853:"Basic policy on handling of the ALPS treated water" 2987:"Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen" 2416:

The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for

1824:

Radio energy absorber for tokamak plasma experiments

1725:

uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3

678:

He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium

4784:. Associated Press (via space.com). 26 January 2006 1057:

Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities

365:). Isolation of helium-3 was first accomplished by 357:. Oliphant had performed experiments in which fast 4662: 4464:Date from the US Energy Information Administration 3825: 3561:Page A-1 citing Anderson 1993, "1200 metric tonne" 3442:Shea, Dana A.; Morgan, Daniel (22 December 2010). 3072: 2945: 2943: 2886: 2626:, which requires no exotic fuel such as helium-3. 2386:. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D– 2374:fusion are much higher than those of conventional 2286:can be produced by the low temperature fusion of 243:, has two protons and two neutrons.) Helium-3 and 4734:. Isro.org (2008-11-11). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 1733:uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach 5193: 3573:Page A-4 "1 kg (He), pumping power would be 1.13 3107:. Newsmagazine Publication. 1981. Archived from 1685:Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly 1638:in Cambridge and in the Chemistry Department at 4932:American Institute of Physics Conference Series 3924:. Ill.eu (2010-10-22). Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 3733:"Savannah River Tritium Enterprise: Fact Sheet" 3478: 3336: 2940: 2622:fuels, and so their proponents tend to promote 2355:. The appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the 27:Helium isotope with two protons and one neutron 4896:"Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System" 4631: 4384: 4309: 3497: 1737:temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a 4893: 4820: 4578:. Fti.neep.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 4569:FTI Research Projects :: He Lunar Mining 4434: 4166:Kazakov, Ye. O.; et al. (19 June 2017). 3797:. Spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 3795:Physics Projects Deflate for Lack of Helium-3 3669:Lucas, L. L. & Unterweger, M. P. (2000). 3577:10 MWyr ... fusion power derived ... 19 MWyr" 3035: 1070: 954:'s kinetic energy varies, with an average of 743:roughly the same ratio of the isotopes as in 460:compared with the 0.0829 kJ/mol of helium-4. 4101: 2949: 2533:. Financial break even at today's wholesale 1806:chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 1010:process is marketed for other applications. 728: 619:He is a primordial substance in the Earth's 519:that can be roughly understood as a type of 4793: 4473: 4236:"Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion" 4140:MIT Achieves Breakthrough in Nuclear Fusion 3498:Smith, Lesley; Trenberth, Kevin E. (2005). 3398:. Webelements.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 2709:In January 2006, the Russian space company 2510:and helium-3 would offer lower capital and 2455:A second-generation approach to controlled 4634:"A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski" 3776:Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 1 3441: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3318: 3316: 1077: 1063: 504:particles. This is a direct result of the 451:compared with helium-4 at 4.23 K, and its 43: 5024:The properties of liquid and solid helium 4199: 4078: 3696: 3644:US Department of Energy Office of Science 3523: 3220: 3071:Alvarez, Luis W; Peter Trower, W (1987). 3012: 2784: 2739:for helium-3 has also been proposed. The 1632:spin echo experiments of surface dynamics 393:Due to its low atomic mass of 3.016 239:. (In contrast, the most common isotope, 3079:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 2793: 2303: 1873:: vague phrasing that often accompanies 608: 480:since it contains an odd number of spin 467: 4012:. Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 3472: 3401: 3313: 3304: 3302: 3270: 3129:Teragon's Summary of Cryogen Properties 2766: 2600: 14: 5194: 4549: 3845: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3325: 3195:"Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He" 2887:Fa WenZhe; Jin YaQiu (December 2010). 2818: 2459:power involves combining helium-3 and 710:, various sources produce helium-3 in 388: 373:in 1939. Helium-3 was thought to be a 4872:from the original on 27 December 2018 4385:John Santarius (September 28, 2004). 3720:Nuclide safety data sheet: Hydrogen-3 2849: 2778: 1625: 1511:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 4663:I.N. Sviatoslavsky (November 1993). 4644:from the original on January 9, 2011 3922:He-spin-filters/ ILL He spin filters 3893:. Lanl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-08. 3816:Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2005. 3650:from the original on 19 October 2011 3419:", elsewhere called "cubic metre at 3299: 2868:from the original on 22 October 2017 2772: 2501: 1853: 1645: 1551:Pickering Nuclear Generating Station 1027:Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station 603: 494:, containing an even number of spin 4856: 4632:Eric R. Hedman (January 16, 2006). 4597:Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII 3819: 3766:. Los Alamos Monitor. March 1, 1998 3426: 2831:from the original on 30 August 2017 2799: 2629: 1005:Tritium is a critical component of 946:Among the total released energy of 770: 738:Solar nebula (primordial) abundance 24: 5042:Exotic properties of superfluid He 4838:from the original on June 15, 2023 4826:"Death throes and grand delusions" 4802:from the original on June 15, 2023 4216:from the original on 1 August 2020 4116:10.1097/01.rti.0000142837.52729.38 3990:Neutron Spin Filters: Polarized He 3151:Journal of Low Temperature Physics 2992:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 2678:Indian Space Research Organisation 1787:inside a sealed glass vessel. The 1749:Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic 1744: 25: 5223: 5067: 4435:Mark Williams (August 23, 2007). 3460:from the original on 4 March 2016 2703:Chinese Lunar Exploration Program 576:-wave superfluid, with spin one, 4794:James Oberg (February 6, 2006). 4763:He asked for the moon-and got it 3785:. IEER. Retrieved on 2011-11-08; 3487:. Report of Investigations 9302. 2761:List of elements facing shortage 2428:, which corresponds to some 493 2370:, the temperatures required for 1858: 1798:alveolar oxygen partial pressure 1579: 1538: 1498: 1470:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 1457: 1417: 1377: 1337: 1297: 1257: 1216: 1175: 1134: 775: 722: 463: 447:Pure helium-3 gas boils at 3.19 4989:from the original on 2021-01-17 4961:from the original on 2015-01-04 4916: 4887: 4850: 4814: 4787: 4775: 4756: 4737: 4718: 4707:from the original on 2008-09-21 4689: 4656: 4625: 4614:from the original on 2008-07-05 4581: 4562: 4543: 4522: 4497: 4467: 4458: 4447:from the original on 2010-12-30 4428: 4378: 4367:from the original on 2000-02-01 4353: 4303: 4278: 4253: 4242:from the original on 2021-01-26 4228: 4159: 4148:from the original on 2020-08-01 4130: 4095: 4058: 4046: 4015: 4008:Wald, Matthew L.. (2009-11-22) 4002: 3983: 3972:from the original on 2012-04-02 3927: 3915: 3896: 3877: 3862: 3800: 3788: 3769: 3756: 3745:from the original on 2016-12-22 3725: 3713: 3662: 3632: 3580: 3564: 3552: 3540: 3491: 3382: 3264: 3229: 3186: 3141: 3122: 3097: 3064: 2929:from the original on 2008-07-05 2895:from the original on 2017-10-11 2825:Scientific American – News Blog 2641:Lunar resources § Helium-3 2397:The second possibility, fusing 1839: 1702:Department of Homeland Security 698:volcanoes such as those of the 631:produced by radioactive decay. 490:particles. Helium-4 nuclei are 5062:. Ohio State University Press. 4973:L.J. Wittenberg (July 1994) . 4067:Concepts in Magnetic Resonance 3870:"2020년도 원전주변 환경방사능 조사 및 평가보고서" 3451:Congressional Research Service 3029: 2978: 2906: 2880: 2843: 2812: 2741:British Interplanetary Society 2121:Third-generation fusion fuels 2073:Second-generation fusion fuel 1934:First-generation fusion fuels 1051:La Hague reprocessing facility 828:). It decays into helium-3 by 580:=1, and angular momentum one, 13: 1: 5048: 3485:US Department of the Interior 2730: 1716: 1695:neutron polarization analysis 1229:Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant 1147:Heysham nuclear power station 980:liquid scintillation counting 832:as in this nuclear equation: 127:0.001% (% He in Solar System) 5049:W. P. Halperin, ed. (1990). 5039: 5000: 4474:Paul DiMare (October 2004). 4310:John Santarius (June 2006). 4261:"Nuclear Fission and Fusion" 3610:10.1126/science.272.5263.846 2972:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.032 2850:Close, Frank (August 2007). 2819:Matson, John (12 Jun 2009). 2701:who is now in charge of the 2680:'s first lunar probe called 2466:. This reaction produces an 1430:Sanmen Nuclear Power Station 1350:Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant 1310:Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant 512:: A fraction of it enters a 350:while he was working at the 7: 3293:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1227 2800:Ley, Willy (October 1966). 2754: 2699:Chinese Academy of Sciences 2558:magnetic confinement fusion 2550:inertial confinement fusion 2541:) would occur after five 1- 1802:ventilation/perfusion ratio 1689:-dependent, which allows a 1630:Helium-3 can be used to do 1270:La Hague reprocessing plant 836: 312:. The fusion of two of its 10: 5228: 5057: 5035:. Oxford University Press. 5030: 5026:. Oxford University Press. 5021: 4922: 4862:"The helium-3 incantation" 3412: 3258:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.920 3222:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 2638: 2578:National Ignition Facility 2554:National Ignition Facility 1885:Such statements should be 1843: 1662:n + He → H + H + 0.764 MeV 1390:Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant 1023:Tennessee Valley Authority 1002:from the stored material. 998:collect the material that 779: 653:He is also present in the 612: 432:, helium-4 has an overall 338: 205:Complete table of nuclides 29: 5058:J. G. Daunt, ed. (1960). 4972: 3963:10.1107/S0021889800099817 3903:NCNR Neutron Spin Filters 3570: 3558: 3546: 3308: 2676:The primary objective of 2669:and use the helium-3 for 2587:helium-3 fusion reactions 2247: 2214: 2120: 2072: 1933: 1592:Diablo Canyon Power Plant 549:Robert Coleman Richardson 403:dipole–dipole interaction 199: 182: 164: 151: 131: 125:0.000137% (% He on Earth) 119: 112: 95: 78: 66: 56: 51: 42: 3839:23 December 2015 at the 2804:. For Your Information. 2432:(4.93×10 W·h) per three 1911:for different reactions 1763:, and a relatively high 1636:the Cavendish Laboratory 521:Bose–Einstein condensate 3333:copy of paper BNL-49331 3273:Physical Review Letters 3238:Physical Review Letters 3200:Physical Review Letters 2802:"The Delayed Discovery" 2634: 2537:prices (5 US cents per 2478:fields to control fuel 2215:Net result of D burning 1666:into charged particles 1620: 795:US Department of Energy 729:Extraterrestrial mining 352:University of Cambridge 300:nuclear weapons testing 32:Helium 3 (record label) 5040:G. E. Volovik (1992). 4976:Non-Lunar He Resources 4860:(September 28, 2015). 4053:Dilution Refrigeration 3138:Teragon Research, 2005 3058:10.1103/PhysRev.56.613 3014:10.1098/rspa.1934.0077 2806:Galaxy Science Fiction 2366:Because of the higher 2314: 2217:(sum of first 4 rows) 554:Nobel Prize in Physics 473: 251:) are the only stable 5001:H.H. Schmitt (2005). 4441:MIT Technology Review 4286:"The Fusion Reaction" 2852:"Fears Over Factoids" 2639:Further information: 2518:, and only low-level 2307: 2248:Current nuclear fuel 1731:dilution refrigerator 1723:helium-3 refrigerator 1190:reprocessing facility 960:electron antineutrino 765:extinct radionuclides 609:Terrestrial abundance 556:for their discovery. 471: 436:of zero, making it a 258:Helium-3 occurs as a 223:) is a light, stable 5207:Nuclear fusion fuels 5031:E. R. Dobbs (2000). 4312:"A Strategy for D – 3943:J. Appl. Crystallogr 3689:10.6028/jres.105.043 3549:p. 3, Table 1; p. 9. 2861:. Physicsworld.com. 2859:CERN Document Server 2767:Notes and references 2601:Alternatives to He-3 2496:electrical generator 2330:He + He → He + 2 p 1887:clarified or removed 1834:Joint European Torus 1773:circularly polarized 1676:proportional counter 1047:light water reactors 950:, the part taken by 615:Isotope geochemistry 397:, helium-3 has some 355:Cavendish Laboratory 282:, one produced when 74:tralphium (obsolete) 72:helium-3, 3He, He-3, 5044:. World Scientific. 4944:2004AIPC..710..119S 4894:Bryan Palaszewski. 4605:2007LPI....38.2175S 4505:"ITER & Beyond" 4361:"Nuclear Reactions" 4184:2017NatPh..13..973K 4023:"Office of Science" 3955:2000JApCr..33..771G 3646:. 18 October 2018. 3602:1996Sci...272..846N 3525:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1 3516:2005JCli...18..864T 3351:1986Natur.323...55S 3285:1972PhRvL..29.1227L 3250:1972PhRvL..29..920O 3213:1972PhRvL..28..885O 3164:1973JLTP...11..551C 3050:1939PhRv...56..613A 3005:1934RSPSA.144..692O 2964:2010Icar..206..778C 2808:. pp. 116–127. 2353:activation products 1912: 1085: 1040:heavy water reactor 799:DOE Isotope Program 717:interplanetary dust 670:10 kilograms (1.133 413:than helium-4 can. 399:physical properties 389:Physical properties 375:radioactive isotope 288:spontaneous fission 39: 5202:Isotopes of helium 5094:2023-06-15 at the 5079:2008-07-23 at the 4768:2023-06-15 at the 4749:2019-07-20 at the 4730:2009-10-12 at the 4701:The Times Of India 4574:2006-09-04 at the 3995:2011-10-16 at the 3908:2007-05-20 at the 3889:2008-05-03 at the 3812:2016-08-27 at the 3807:Tritium Production 3781:2006-09-27 at the 3762:Charmian Schaller 3504:Journal of Climate 3394:2008-05-09 at the 3172:10.1007/BF00654447 3134:2017-08-09 at the 2786:astro-ph/0412380v1 2470:and a high-energy 2424:reaction is 18.4 M 2418:conventional fuels 2315: 1906: 1800:, and measure the 1767:. Helium-3 can be 1765:magnetogyric ratio 1700:The United States 1680:Geiger–Müller tube 1640:Swansea University 1626:Helium-3 spin echo 1056: 655:Earth's atmosphere 474: 418:quantum mechanical 280:cosmogenic nuclide 260:primordial nuclide 201:Isotopes of helium 37: 5190: 5189: 5022:J. Wilks (1967). 5014:978-0-387-24285-9 4952:10.1063/1.1774674 4824:(March 5, 2007). 4480:Popular Mechanics 4476:"Mining The Moon" 4405:and Fusion Power" 4192:10.1038/nphys4167 3279:(18): 1227–1230. 3090:978-0-226-81304-2 2649:Materials on the 2502:He-3 power plants 2486:, through use of 2382:) does produce a 2335:The conventional 2322:H + He → He + p 2281: 2280: 1904: 1903: 1846:Aneutronic fusion 1652:neutron detection 1646:Neutron detection 1618: 1617: 942: 941: 759:as well as their 604:Natural abundance 537:superconductivity 407:zero-point energy 345:nuclear physicist 292:nuclear reactions 210: 209: 121:Natural abundance 38:Helium-3, He 16:(Redirected from 5219: 5104: 5103: 5063: 5054: 5053:. North-Holland. 5045: 5036: 5027: 5018: 4997: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4981: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4960: 4929: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4901:. Archived from 4900: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4879: 4877: 4866:The Space Review 4854: 4848: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4831:The Space Review 4818: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4773: 4760: 4754: 4741: 4735: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4712: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4676: 4670:. Archived from 4669: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4638:The Space Review 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4619: 4613: 4594: 4585: 4579: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4507:. Archived from 4501: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4482:. Archived from 4471: 4465: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4452: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4416: 4410:. Archived from 4409: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4395: 4394: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4372: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4347: 4341: 4335:. Archived from 4334: 4329: 4328: 4327: 4320: 4319: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4288:. 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2791: 2790: 2788: 2776: 2745:Project Daedalus 2743:'s hypothetical 2723:The Space Review 2663:explore the Moon 2630:Extraterrestrial 2464: 2447: 2443: 2423: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2373: 2331: 2323: 2319: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2285: 2258: 2233: 2224: 2201: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2183: 2182: 2173: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2146: 2145: 2136: 2128: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2098: 2097: 2088: 2080: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2050: 2049: 2040: 2032: 2016: 2015: 2014: 2007: 2006: 1997: 1987: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1962: 1961: 1952: 1944: 1913: 1905: 1899: 1896: 1890: 1862: 1861: 1854: 1832:tokamak and the 1789:angular momentum 1762: 1761: 1757: 1670:ions (T, H) and 1585: 1583: 1582: 1544: 1542: 1541: 1504: 1502: 1501: 1463: 1461: 1460: 1423: 1421: 1420: 1383: 1381: 1380: 1343: 1341: 1340: 1303: 1301: 1300: 1263: 1261: 1260: 1222: 1220: 1219: 1181: 1179: 1178: 1140: 1138: 1137: 1092:Nuclear facility 1086: 1079: 1072: 1065: 1055: 989: 957: 949: 938: 937: 935: 934: 927: 924: 923: 908: 907: 905: 904: 897: 896: 881: 880: 879: 872: 871: 857: 856: 855: 848: 847: 837: 827: 825: 819: 817: 771:Human production 708:subduction zones 704:Mid-ocean ridges 700:Hawaiian Islands 673: 669: 664: 660: 558:Alexei Abrikosov 545:Douglas Osheroff 510:phase transition 503: 502: 498: 489: 488: 484: 262:, escaping from 178: 177: 173: 144: 105: 88: 47: 40: 36: 21: 5227: 5226: 5222: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5216: 5192: 5191: 5183: 5175: 5155: 5144: 5130: 5117: 5116:Helium-3 is an 5108: 5101: 5096:Wayback Machine 5081:Wayback Machine 5070: 5015: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4927: 4919: 4914: 4905: 4898: 4892: 4888: 4875: 4873: 4855: 4851: 4841: 4839: 4819: 4815: 4805: 4803: 4792: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4770:Wayback Machine 4761: 4757: 4751:Wayback Machine 4742: 4738: 4732:Wayback Machine 4723: 4719: 4710: 4708: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4680: 4678: 4674: 4667: 4661: 4657: 4647: 4645: 4630: 4626: 4617: 4615: 4611: 4592: 4586: 4582: 4576:Wayback Machine 4567: 4563: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4523: 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3596:(5263): 846–9. 3585: 3581: 3574: 3571:Wittenberg 1994 3569: 3565: 3559:Wittenberg 1994 3557: 3553: 3547:Wittenberg 1994 3545: 3541: 3496: 3492: 3481:Bureau of Mines 3477: 3473: 3463: 3461: 3457: 3446: 3440: 3427: 3411: 3402: 3396:Wayback Machine 3387: 3383: 3345:(6083): 55–57. 3330: 3326: 3321: 3314: 3309:Wittenberg 1994 3307: 3300: 3269: 3265: 3244:(14): 920–923. 3234: 3230: 3207:(14): 885–888. 3191: 3187: 3146: 3142: 3136:Wayback Machine 3127: 3123: 3114: 3112: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3069: 3065: 3038:Physical Review 3034: 3030: 2983: 2979: 2948: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2898: 2896: 2885: 2881: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2854: 2848: 2844: 2834: 2832: 2817: 2813: 2798: 2794: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2757: 2751:, for example. 2733: 2647: 2637: 2632: 2603: 2570:Coulomb barrier 2566:Wendelstein 7-X 2512:operating costs 2504: 2462: 2445: 2441: 2421: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2371: 2368:Coulomb barrier 2329: 2321: 2317: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2287: 2283: 2253: 2231: 2222: 2216: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2176: 2175: 2169: 2152: 2150: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2126: 2104: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2056: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2042: 2038: 2030: 2013: 2011: 2010: 2009: 2005: 2002: 2001: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1985: 1968: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1939: 1900: 1894: 1891: 1884: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1842: 1826: 1814:cystic fibrosis 1759: 1755: 1754: 1747: 1745:Medical imaging 1719: 1648: 1628: 1623: 1580: 1578: 1539: 1537: 1499: 1497: 1458: 1456: 1418: 1416: 1378: 1376: 1338: 1336: 1298: 1296: 1275:English Channel 1258: 1256: 1217: 1215: 1176: 1174: 1135: 1133: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1101: 1096: 1084: 1083: 1007:nuclear weapons 992:tritiated water 988:12.3 years 987: 955: 947: 933: 930: 929: 928: 925: 922: 920: 919: 918: 916: 915: 903: 901: 900: 899: 895: 893: 892: 891: 889: 888: 878: 876: 875: 874: 870: 867: 866: 865: 864: 854: 852: 851: 850: 846: 843: 842: 841: 840: 826:0.02 years 823: 821: 815: 813: 784: 778: 773: 740: 733:Lunar resources 725: 671: 667: 662: 658: 617: 611: 606: 562:Vitaly Ginzburg 500: 496: 495: 486: 482: 481: 466: 391: 341: 203: 184:Parent isotopes 175: 171: 170: 142: 135: 126: 99: 82: 73: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5225: 5215: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5188: 5187: 5177: 5168: 5137: 5136: 5127: 5114: 5099: 5098: 5083: 5069: 5068:External links 5066: 5065: 5064: 5055: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5019: 5013: 4998: 4970: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4912: 4908:on 2009-03-27. 4886: 4849: 4813: 4786: 4774: 4755: 4736: 4717: 4703:. 2008-09-19. 4688: 4655: 4624: 4599:(1338): 2175. 4580: 4561: 4542: 4521: 4496: 4466: 4457: 4427: 4400: 4392: 4377: 4352: 4325: 4317: 4302: 4277: 4252: 4227: 4172:Nature Physics 4158: 4129: 4110:(4): 250–258. 4094: 4073:(5): 277–293. 4057: 4045: 4014: 4001: 3982: 3949:(3): 771–774. 3926: 3914: 3895: 3876: 3861: 3844: 3818: 3799: 3787: 3768: 3755: 3724: 3712: 3683:(4): 541–549. 3661: 3631: 3579: 3563: 3551: 3539: 3510:(6): 864–875. 3490: 3471: 3425: 3400: 3381: 3324: 3312: 3298: 3263: 3228: 3185: 3140: 3121: 3096: 3089: 3063: 3028: 2977: 2958:(2): 778–779. 2939: 2905: 2879: 2842: 2811: 2792: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2756: 2753: 2732: 2729: 2645:Changesite-(Y) 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2602: 2599: 2503: 2500: 2468:alpha particle 2430:megawatt-hours 2279: 2278: 2275: 2269: 2262: 2259: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2244: 2241: 2235: 2228: 2225: 2219: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2193: 2188: 2179: 2166: 2165: 2162: 2156: 2151: 2142: 2132: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2108: 2103: 2094: 2084: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2069: 2066: 2060: 2055: 2046: 2036: 2033: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2017: 2012: 2003: 1991: 1988: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1972: 1967: 1958: 1948: 1945: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1930: 1927: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1907:Comparison of 1902: 1901: 1866: 1864: 1857: 1841: 1838: 1825: 1822: 1769:hyperpolarized 1746: 1743: 1718: 1715: 1691:spin-polarized 1664: 1663: 1647: 1644: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1595: 1589: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1554: 1548: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1473: 1467: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1435:East China Sea 1432: 1427: 1413: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1232: 1226: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1191: 1185: 1183:United Kingdom 1171: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1150: 1144: 1142:United Kingdom 1130: 1129: 1126: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1098: 1093: 1090: 1082: 1081: 1074: 1067: 1059: 1058: 964:Beta particles 944: 943: 940: 939: 931: 921: 913: 910: 902: 894: 886: 883: 877: 868: 862: 859: 853: 844: 777: 774: 772: 769: 761:decay products 745:lunar regolith 739: 736: 724: 721: 688:alpha particle 648:Richard Garwin 613:Main article: 610: 607: 605: 602: 506:addition rules 465: 462: 453:critical point 411:thermal energy 390: 387: 363:nuclear fusion 340: 337: 306:Nuclear fusion 208: 207: 197: 196: 186: 180: 179: 168: 162: 161: 155: 149: 148: 145: 140: 129: 128: 123: 117: 116: 110: 109: 106: 93: 92: 89: 76: 75: 70: 64: 63: 60: 54: 53: 49: 48: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5224: 5213: 5212:Superfluidity 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5186: 5181: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5160: 5159: 5153: 5149: 5148: 5142: 5141:Decay product 5139: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5128: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5115: 5113: 5112: 5106: 5105: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5087:Moon for Sale 5084: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5010: 5006: 5005: 4999: 4985: 4978: 4977: 4971: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4921: 4920: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4853: 4837: 4833: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4822:Dwayne A. Day 4817: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4783: 4778: 4771: 4767: 4764: 4759: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4740: 4733: 4729: 4726: 4721: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4677:on 2019-01-20 4673: 4666: 4659: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4584: 4577: 4573: 4570: 4565: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4531: 4525: 4511:on 2009-05-20 4510: 4506: 4500: 4486:on 2007-08-14 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4461: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4431: 4417:on 2007-07-03 4413: 4406: 4381: 4366: 4362: 4356: 4342:on 2007-07-03 4338: 4331: 4306: 4292:on 2013-07-31 4291: 4287: 4281: 4267:on 2007-04-04 4266: 4262: 4256: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4201:1721.1/114949 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4147: 4143: 4141: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4054: 4049: 4035:on 2014-07-26 4031: 4024: 4018: 4011: 4005: 3998: 3994: 3991: 3986: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3930: 3923: 3918: 3911: 3907: 3904: 3899: 3892: 3888: 3885: 3880: 3871: 3865: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3822: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3803: 3796: 3791: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3759: 3741: 3734: 3728: 3721: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3677: 3672: 3665: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3635: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3572: 3567: 3560: 3555: 3548: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3456: 3452: 3445: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3385: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3319: 3317: 3310: 3305: 3303: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3152: 3144: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3125: 3111:on 2017-05-10 3110: 3106: 3100: 3092: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3076: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2946: 2944: 2925: 2918: 2917: 2909: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2864: 2860: 2853: 2846: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2787: 2782: 2775: 2771: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2752: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2720:, writing in 2719: 2714: 2712: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695:Ouyang Ziyuan 2693: 2689: 2685: 2683: 2682:Chandrayaan-1 2679: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2665:, mine lunar 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2642: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2598: 2595: 2594:Helion Energy 2590: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2540: 2539:kilowatt-hour 2536: 2532: 2528: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2499: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2476:electrostatic 2473: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2451: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2419: 2414: 2401:with itself ( 2395: 2385: 2377: 2369: 2364: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2332:+ 12.86 MeV. 2327: 2311: 2310:reaction rate 2306: 2302: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2226: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2194: 2172: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2133: 2130: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2085: 2082: 2077: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2037: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2024: 2022: 2018: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1898: 1888: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1867:This section 1865: 1856: 1855: 1851: 1850:Fusion rocket 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1830:Alcator C-Mod 1821: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1752: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1672:Hydrogen ions 1669: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1657: 1653: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1598:Pacific Ocean 1596: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1587:United States 1577: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1536: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1496: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1455: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1395:Taiwan Strait 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1335: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1214: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1105: 1099: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1031: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1016: 1011: 1008: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 983: 981: 976: 974: 970: 965: 961: 953: 948:18.6 keV 936: 914: 911: 906: 887: 884: 863: 860: 839: 838: 835: 834: 833: 831: 811: 807: 802: 800: 796: 791: 789: 783: 776:Tritium decay 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 735: 734: 730: 723:Lunar surface 720: 718: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 691: 689: 685: 681: 676: 656: 651: 649: 643: 641: 637: 632: 630: 624: 622: 616: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 569: 567: 563: 559: 555: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 527:analogous to 526: 522: 518: 515: 511: 507: 493: 479: 470: 464:Superfluidity 461: 459: 454: 450: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 414: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 371:Robert Cornog 368: 364: 360: 356: 353: 349: 348:Mark Oliphant 346: 336: 334: 330: 326: 321: 319: 315: 311: 310:energy source 307: 303: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 264:Earth's crust 261: 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 187: 185: 181: 169: 167: 163: 160: 156: 154: 150: 146: 139: 134: 130: 124: 122: 118: 115: 111: 107: 103: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 77: 71: 69: 65: 61: 59: 55: 50: 46: 41: 33: 19: 5184: 5176:of helium-3 5170: 5166: 5156: 5145: 5131: 5118: 5109: 5100: 5086: 5059: 5051:Helium three 5050: 5041: 5033:Helium three 5032: 5023: 5007:. Springer. 5003: 4991:. Retrieved 4975: 4963:. Retrieved 4935: 4931: 4917:Bibliography 4903:the original 4889: 4881: 4874:. Retrieved 4865: 4852: 4840:. Retrieved 4829: 4816: 4804:. Retrieved 4789: 4777: 4758: 4739: 4720: 4709:. Retrieved 4700: 4691: 4679:. Retrieved 4672:the original 4658: 4646:. Retrieved 4637: 4627: 4616:. Retrieved 4596: 4583: 4564: 4556:1721.1/29869 4545: 4535:29 September 4533:. Retrieved 4530:"Helion FAQ" 4524: 4513:. Retrieved 4509:the original 4499: 4488:. Retrieved 4484:the original 4479: 4469: 4460: 4449:. Retrieved 4440: 4430: 4419:. Retrieved 4412:the original 4380: 4369:. Retrieved 4355: 4344:. Retrieved 4337:the original 4330:Development" 4305: 4294:. Retrieved 4290:the original 4280: 4269:. Retrieved 4265:the original 4255: 4244:. Retrieved 4230: 4218:. Retrieved 4175: 4171: 4161: 4150:. Retrieved 4139: 4132: 4107: 4103: 4097: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4048: 4037:. Retrieved 4030:the original 4017: 4004: 3985: 3974:. 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