289:
377:
263:
313:
251:
28:
357:
416:
401:
334:
104:
153:
137:
128:
Carbonate hardgrounds often host a unique fauna and flora adapted to the hard surface. Organisms usually cement themselves to the substrate and live as sessile filter-feeders (Brett and
Liddell, 1982). Some bore into the cemented carbonate to make protective domiciles (borings) for filter-feeding.
96:, early marine calcite cements, or extensive surfaces mineralized by iron oxides or calcium phosphates (Palmer, 1982; Bodenbender et al., 1989; Vinn and Wilson, 2010; Vinn and Toom, 2015). Modern hardgrounds are usually detected by sounding in shallow water or through remote sensing techniques like
204:
Systems have the least (usually none). This cyclicity in hardground formation is reflected in the evolution of hardground-dwelling communities. There are distinct differences between the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic hardground communities: the former are dominated by thick calcitic
129:
Sometimes hardgrounds are undermined by currents which remove the soft sediment below them, producing shallow cavities and caves which host a cryptic fauna (Palmer and FĂĽrsich, 1974). The evolution of hardground faunas can be traced through the
Phanerozoic, from the
262:
376:
288:
559:
Malpas, J.A.; Gawthorpe, R. L.; Pollard, J.E.; Sharp, I.R. (2004). "Ichnofabric analysis of the shallow marine Nukhul
Formation (Miocene), Suez Rift, Egypt: implications for depositional processes and sequence stratigraphic evolution".
714:
Pope, M.C.; Read, J.F. (1997). "High-resolution surface and subsurface sequence stratigraphy of the Middle to Late
Ordovician (late Mohawkian-Cincinnatian) foreland basin rocks, Kentucky and Virginia".
522:
FĂĽrsich, F.T.; Oschmann, W.; Singh, B.; Jaitly, A.K. (1992). "Hardgrounds, reworked concretion levels and condensed horizons in the
Jurassic of western India: their significance for basin analysis".
356:
64:
sequences and distinguished from later-lithified sediments by evidence of exposure to normal marine waters. This evidence can consist of encrusting marine organisms (especially
240:
and as indicators of sedimentary hiatuses and flooding events (FĂĽrsich et al., 1981, 1992; Pope and Read, 1997). Hardgrounds and their faunas can also represent very specific
495:
FĂĽrsich F.T., Kennedy, W.J., Palmer, T.J. (1981). "Trace fossils at a regional discontinuity surface: the Austin/Taylor (Upper
Cretaceous) contact in central Texas".
415:
312:
870:
250:
400:
600:
514:
333:
886:
1002:
608:
Palmer, T.J.; Palmer, C.D. (1977). "Faunal distribution and colonization strategy in a Middle
Ordovician hardground community".
923:"Early large borings from a hardground of Floian-Dapingian age (Early and Middle Ordovician) in northeastern Estonia (Baltica)"
244:
such as tidal channels (Wilson et al., 2005) and shallow marine carbonate ramps (Palmer and Palmer, 1977; Malpas et al., 2004)
241:
60:(Wilson and Palmer, 1992). A hardground is essentially, then, a lithified seafloor. Ancient hardgrounds are found in
672:
Palmer, T.J. (1978). "Burrows at certain omission surfaces in the Middle
Ordovician of the Upper Mississippi Valley".
466:
Brett, C.E.; Liddell, W.D. (1981). "Preservation and paleoecology of a Middle
Ordovician hardground community".
887:"Sparsely encrusted hardground in the Darriwilian calcareous sandstone of Cape Pakri, NW Estonia (Baltica)"
1060:
17:
774:"Microconchid-dominated hardground association from the late Pridoli (Silurian) of Saaremaa, Estonia"
581:
Palmer, T.J. FĂĽrsich, F.T. (1974). "The ecology of a Middle Jurassic hardground and crevice fauna".
838:"Development of a Jurassic rocky shore complex (Zohar Formation, Makhtesh Qatan, southern Israel)"
156:
Scientific papers on hardgrounds by period. Serves as a proxy for hardground abundance over time.
728:
639:"Calcite precipitation and dissolution of biogenic aragonite in shallow Ordovician calcite seas"
1055:
864:
594:
508:
961:
752:
694:
650:
617:
531:
446:
8:
56:
are surfaces of synsedimentarily cemented carbonate layers that have been exposed on the
965:
756:
698:
654:
621:
535:
450:
27:
1050:
984:
949:
706:
629:
547:
483:
458:
773:
764:
989:
837:
737:
551:
367:
223:
172:
intervals in Earth history, which were times of rapid precipitation of low-magnesium
120:
558:
487:
382:
Cross-section of a carbonate hardground encrusted by oysters and bored by bivalves (
1021:
979:
969:
934:
901:
852:
809:
760:
724:
702:
658:
625:
569:
539:
475:
454:
387:
196:
Systems have the most hardgrounds (sometimes hundreds in a single section) and the
421:
Carbonate hardground; Ora Formation, Upper Cretaceous (Turonian), southern Israel.
974:
685:
Palmer, T.J. (1982). "Cambrian to Cretaceous changes in hardground communities".
573:
97:
950:"Bioerosion of Inorganic Hard Substrates in the Ordovician of Estonia (Baltica)"
856:
237:
663:
638:
521:
479:
1044:
543:
157:
85:
1007:
borings from the Llandovery of the Velise River, western Estonia (Baltica)"
993:
1026:
906:
939:
922:
825:
University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Institute of Earth Studies Publications
814:
797:
494:
432:
319:
210:
169:
161:
81:
77:
823:
Wilson, M.A.; Palmer, T.J. (1992). "Hardgrounds and hardground faunas".
256:
Hardground in the Liberty Formation (Upper Ordovician) of southern Ohio.
103:
433:
Bodenbender, B.E.; Wilson, M.A.; Palmer, T.J. (1989). "Paleoecology of
343:
324:
306:
holdfasts cemented to its upper surface. The scale bar is 1.0 cm.
303:
295:
278:
269:
193:
181:
107:
93:
42:
37:
798:"Some encrusted hardgrounds from the Ordovician of Estonia (Baltica)"
206:
177:
73:
65:
61:
391:
363:
273:
201:
189:
185:
152:
141:
130:
89:
57:
46:
32:
738:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"
409:
borings in an Upper Ordovician hardground from northern Kentucky.
347:
229:
218:
214:
197:
173:
145:
115:
69:
835:
236:
Stratigraphers and sedimentologists often use hardgrounds as
136:
111:
947:
299:
580:
822:
735:
636:
607:
465:
168:
Carbonate hardgrounds were most commonly formed during
282:) filled with dolomite. The scale bar is 1.0 cm.
920:
771:
713:
276:. The light-colored vertical elements are borings (
869:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
562:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1042:
1000:
795:
1003:"A sparsely encrusted hardground with abundant
144:hardground (Carmel Formation) with encrusting
836:Wilson, M.A.; Wolfe, K.R.; Avni, Y. (2005).
684:
671:
599:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
513:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
729:10.1306/3b05c654-172a-11d7-8645000102c1865d
524:Journal of the Geological Society of London
133:Period to today (Taylor and Wilson, 2003).
1025:
983:
973:
948:Vinn, O.; Wilson, M.A.; Toom, U. (2015).
938:
905:
813:
662:
92:), borings of organisms produced through
884:
362:Carbonate hardground with an encrusting
298:hardground from the Kanosh Formation of
151:
135:
102:
26:
164:intervals are plotted on the time axis.
14:
1043:
31:A carbonate hardground surface with a
233:) borings (Taylor and Wilson, 2003).
437:on an Upper Ordovician hardground".
736:Taylor, P.D.; Wilson, M.A. (2003).
637:Palmer, T.J.; Wilson, M.A. (2004).
24:
1014:Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences
894:Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences
878:
707:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1982.tb01696.x
630:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1977.tb00608.x
459:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1989.tb01685.x
124:borings. The scale bar is 1.0 cm.
25:
1072:
845:Israel Journal of Earth Sciences
414:
399:
375:
355:
332:
311:
287:
261:
249:
180:(Palmer and Wilson, 2004). The
176:and the dissolution of skeletal
921:Vinn, O.; Wilson, M.A. (2010).
772:Vinn, O.; Wilson, M.A. (2010).
13:
1:
765:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9
426:
975:10.1371/journal.pone.0134279
574:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.09.007
7:
1001:Vinn, O.; Toom, U. (2016).
857:10.1560/71EQ-CNDF-K3MQ-XYTA
796:Vinn, O.; Toom, U. (2015).
10:
1077:
778:Palaeontologia Electronica
327:hardground, southern Ohio.
268:Cross-section of an Upper
664:10.1080/00241160410002135
480:10.1017/s0094837300006035
242:depositional environments
544:10.1144/gsjgs.149.3.0313
674:Journal of Paleontology
497:Journal of Paleontology
370:) of Utah; scale in mm.
859:(inactive 2024-09-12).
165:
149:
125:
50:
35:and vertical borings (
1027:10.3176/earth.2016.01
907:10.3176/earth.2015.31
745:Earth-Science Reviews
155:
139:
106:
54:Carbonate hardgrounds
30:
366:; Kanosh Formation (
342:borings in an Upper
323:borings in an Upper
966:2015PLoSO..1034279V
927:Carnets de GĂ©ologie
802:Carnets de GĂ©ologie
757:2003ESRv...62....1T
699:1982Letha..15..309P
655:2004Letha..37..417P
622:1977Letha..10..179P
536:1992JGSoc.149..313F
451:1989Letha..22..217B
394:) of southern Utah.
1061:Historical geology
940:10.4267/2042/35594
815:10.4267/2042/56744
166:
150:
126:
51:
885:Vinn, O. (2015).
384:Gastrochaenolites
368:Middle Ordovician
224:Gastrochaenolites
121:Gastrochaenolites
41:) from the Upper
16:(Redirected from
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710:
681:
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568:(3–4): 239–264.
555:
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512:
504:
491:
462:
418:
403:
388:Carmel Formation
379:
359:
336:
315:
291:
272:hardground from
265:
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213:, the latter by
114:with encrusting
110:hardground from
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238:marker horizons
98:side-scan sonar
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1038:
998:
945:
933:: CG2010_L04.
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880:
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876:
875:
851:(3): 171–178.
833:
820:
793:
769:
751:(1–2): 1–103.
733:
711:
693:(4): 309–323.
682:
669:
649:(4): 417–427.
634:
616:(3): 179–199.
605:
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530:(3): 313–331.
519:
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723:: 1866–1893.
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717:AAPG Bulletin
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583:Palaeontology
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435:Sphenothallus
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40:
39:
34:
29:
19:
1031:. Retrieved
1017:
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1004:
957:
953:
930:
926:
911:. Retrieved
897:
893:
865:cite journal
848:
844:
828:
824:
808:(7): 63–70.
805:
801:
786:. Retrieved
784:(2): 13.2.9A
781:
777:
748:
744:
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690:
686:
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673:
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613:
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595:cite journal
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509:cite journal
500:
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468:Paleobiology
467:
442:
438:
434:
406:
383:
346:hardground,
339:
318:
277:
235:
228:
222:
167:
148:and borings.
127:
119:
82:hederelloids
53:
52:
36:
900:: 249–253.
320:Petroxestes
211:echinoderms
170:calcite sea
162:calcite sea
78:cornulitids
1045:Categories
1033:2016-03-05
1005:Trypanites
913:2015-09-23
788:2012-09-16
680:: 109–117.
589:: 507–524.
503:: 537–551.
427:References
407:Trypanites
344:Ordovician
340:Trypanites
325:Ordovician
304:echinoderm
296:Ordovician
279:Trypanites
270:Ordovician
194:Cretaceous
182:Ordovician
108:Cretaceous
94:bioerosion
43:Ordovician
38:Trypanites
18:Hardground
1051:Limestone
1020:: 19–26.
552:130374753
294:A Middle
207:bryozoans
178:aragonite
158:Aragonite
74:barnacles
66:bryozoans
62:limestone
994:26218582
954:PLOS ONE
831:: 1–131.
488:52255847
392:Jurassic
390:(Middle
364:bryozoan
274:Kentucky
202:Triassic
190:Jurassic
188:and the
186:Silurian
142:Jurassic
131:Cambrian
90:crinoids
58:seafloor
47:Kentucky
33:bryozoan
985:4517899
962:Bibcode
753:Bibcode
695:Bibcode
687:Lethaia
651:Bibcode
643:Lethaia
618:Bibcode
610:Lethaia
532:Bibcode
447:Bibcode
439:Lethaia
348:Indiana
230:Entobia
219:bivalve
217:, deep
215:oysters
198:Permian
174:calcite
146:oysters
140:Middle
116:oysters
70:oysters
992:
982:
550:
486:
1010:(PDF)
890:(PDF)
841:(PDF)
741:(PDF)
548:S2CID
484:S2CID
302:with
112:Texas
990:PMID
931:2010
871:link
782:2010
601:link
515:link
300:Utah
209:and
160:and
118:and
88:and
1022:doi
980:PMC
970:doi
935:doi
902:doi
853:doi
810:doi
761:doi
725:doi
703:doi
659:doi
626:doi
570:doi
566:215
540:doi
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455:doi
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