Han–Xiongnu Wars

2171:). A new office, the Colonel-Protector of the Wuhuan, was established in Shanggu in order to prevent contact between the Wuhuan with the Xiongnu and to use them to monitor the Xiongnu activities. Nevertheless, the effective Han control over the Wuhuan was lacking through much of the Western Han period, since the Xiongnu had considerable military and political influence over the Wuhuan while relations between the Wuhuan and Han often remained strained at best. This can be exemplified by a situation in 78 BC, when the Xiongnu led a punitive campaign against the Wuhuan, resulting in General Fan Mingyou (范明友) leading a Han army to impede further incursions. When they learned that the Xiongnu had left by the time the army arrived, the Han court ordered Fan to attack the Wuhuan instead, killing 6000 Wuhuan men and three chieftains, since the Wuhuan had recently raided Han territory. Only in 49 AD, when 922 Wuhuan chieftains submitted during Emperor Guangwu's reign, did many of the Wuhuan tribes come under tributary system of the Han empire. The Han court provided for the Wuhuan and in return the Wuhuan tribes guarded the Han frontier against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples. 1781: 6449: 1082: 1869: 1982: 888: 2105:

Southern Xiongnu more tightly under regulation and supervision of the Han. The Chanyu was required to send tribute and a princely hostage annually, while an imperial messenger would be dispatched to escort the previous princely hostage back. The Southern Xiongnu were resettled inside the empire at the northern commanderies and were overseen by a Han prefect, who acted as an arbiter in their legal cases and monitored their movements. Attempts by Punu, the Northern Chanyu, to establish peaceful relations with the Han empire always failed, because the Northern Xiongnu were unwilling to come under Han's tributary system and the Han court had no interest to treat them along the same lines as the Southern Xiongnu instead of dividing them.

1585: 1356: 7004: 2289:, thus initiating the Eastern Han period. During his reign, the Han empire began to abandon its offensive strategy against the Xiongnu, which allowed the latter to frequently raid the northern frontier. It resulted in large migrations southwards, which led to the depopulation of the frontier regions. During the Eastern Han period, various nomadic peoples were resettled in these frontier regions, serving the Han empire as cavalry against the Xiongnu. With his primary focus still towards the interior of the empire, Emperor Guangwu declined several requests from the western states to re-establish the office of 1644:

overwhelmed by the ordeal, whereupon he sent hostages to Han. When Ban Chao traveled further to Yutian (Khotan), King Guangde received him with little courtesy. The king's soothsayer told the king that he should demand Ban Chao's horse, so Ban Chao killed the soothsayer for the insult. Impressed by the ruthlessness that he witnessed, the king killed a Xiongnu agent and offered submission to Han. Going further westward, Ban Chao and his party arrived at Shule. Earlier, King Jian of Qiuci had deposed the former king and replaced him with his officer Douti. In 74 AD, Ban Chao's forces captured King Douti of

2089:. In 49 BC, he traveled to the Han court for a second time to pay homage to the emperor. In 53 BC, Zhizhi Chanyu also sent his son as hostage to the Han court. In 51 and 50 BC, he sent two envoys respectively to Han to present tribute, but failed to personally come to the Han court to pay homage. Therefore, he was rejected by the Han court, leading to the execution of a Han envoy in 45 BC. In 33 BC, Huhanye Chanyu came to the Han court to pay homage again. During his visit, he asked to become an imperial son-in-law. Instead of granting him this request, 1471: 2114: 2293:. Early in Emperor Guangwu's reign, King Kang of Yarkand united neighbouring kingdoms to resist the Xiongnu. At the same time, he protected the Han officials and people of the former Protector-General, who were still left behind after Wang Mang's reign. In 61 AD, Yarkand was conquered by Khotan and the western states fell in conflict with each other. Taking this opportunity, the Northern Xiongnu recovered their control over the Western Regions, which threatened the security of the Hexi Corridor. In 73 AD, General 2122:

the Han frontier and attack when there were too few troops stationed in a certain region. He noted that if troops are mobilized in support, then few troops will be insufficient to defeat the Xiongnu, while many troops will arrive too late as the Xiongnu will have retreated by then. He also noted that keeping the Xiongnu mobilized will be at a great expense, while they will just raid another time after dispersing them. To negate these difficulties, Chao Cuo elaborated a proposal, which in essence suggested that

1220:. The two forces together comprised 100,000 cavalrymen, 140,000 horses, and few hundred thousand infantry. They advanced into the desert in pursuit of the main force of the Xiongnu. The military campaign was a major Han military victory against Xiongnu, where the Xiongnu were driven from the Gobi Desert. The Xiongnu casualties ranged from 80 to 90 thousand troops, while the Han casualties ranged from 20 to 30 thousand troops. In the aftermath, the Han forces had lost around 100,000 horses during the campaign. 974: 1181: 298: 214: 53: 2065:

Han court. Secondly the heir apparent or a prince needed to be delivered to the Han court as hostage. Thirdly, the Chanyu had to present tribute to the Han emperor and in return will receive imperial gifts. Accepting the tributary system meant that the Xiongnu were lowered to the status of outer vassal, while the marriage alliance meant that the two nations were regarded as equal states. In 119 BC,

2459:, 137) states: "Your servant humbly thinks back on how since his ancestor submitted to the Han we have been blessed with your support, keeping a sharp watch on the passes and providing strong armies for more than forty years. Your subjects have been born and reared in Han territory and have depended entirely on the Han for food. Each year we received gifts counted in the hundreds of millions ." 1825:

General Geng Kui and Major Ren Shang with a light cavalry of 800 advanced further via the Juyan Gol (Juyansai) into the Altai Mountains, where the Northern Chanyu had encamped. At the Battle of Altai Mountains, they massacred 5000 Xiongnu men and pursued the Northern Chanyu until he escaped to an unknown place. By 91 AD, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the

1263:

10,000-strong vanguard cavalry. The battle solidified into a stalemate until dusk, when a sandstorm obscured the battlefield. Subsequently, Wei Qing sent in his main forces and overwhelmed the Xiongnu. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Xiongnu army from both flanks, but Yizhixie Chanyu and a contingent of troops broke through and escaped.

1418:, the kingdom—which was the easternmost state of the Western Regions—became increasingly apprehensive towards the Han. Their policies became somewhat anti-Han in nature and supportive towards the Xiongnu, such as allowing the killing of passing Han envoys to happen and revealing Han military logistics. In 77 BC, King Angui received the Han emissary 1945:. In preparation for the military use of the horses, the best breeds were selected to partake military training. The Xiongnu frequently raided the Han government pastures, because the military horses were of great strategic importance for the Han military against them. By the time of Emperor Wu's reign, the horses amounted to well over 450,000. 1973:'s administration in order to support the military expeditions against the Xiongnu in Turfan. Immediately after the Han conquest of Turfan, Zheng established an agricultural garrison in Turfan. Even though, the Xiongnu unsuccessfully tried to prevent the Han from making Turfan into a major economic base by military force and threats. 1069:. Two months later, the Han army advanced towards the Xiongnu again, but this time the Xiongnu were prepared for the invasion by the Han forces. However, hereafter, due to the military expeditions that the Han empire undertook, the Xiongnu moved their capital and retreated to the far northern regions of the 2197:(Khotan). Although the Han empire tried to diplomatically sway the western states over the years, it met with little success due to the Xiongnu's influence over the Western Regions at the time. Therefore, from 108 BC onwards, the Han resorted to conquest in order to bring the western states to submission. 2245:

remarked, a clear indication of the political influence that the Han empire had over the region. Cheng was a former Xiongnu king himself, but he had submitted to the Han and was ennobled as Marquis of Kailing (開陵侯). As a result of the expedition, the Han court received the formal submission of Turfan

1908:

playing a supporting role. He advocated the policy of "using barbarians to attack barbarians", that is, incorporating surrendered Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes into the Han military, a suggestion that was eventually adopted, especially with the establishment of dependent states of different nomads

1815:

had encamped at Wuwei. He sent Deputy Colonel Yan Pan with 2000 light cavalry to strike down the final Xiongnu defenses in the Western Regions, capturing Yiwu and receiving the surrender of Jushi. Major Liang Feng was dispatched to capture the Northern Chanyu, which he did, but he was forced to leave

1299:

were caught in between the onslaught of the war, with much shifting of allegiance. There were several Han military expeditions undertaken to secure the submission of the local kings to the Han empire; the Han took control of the regions for strategic purposes while the Xiongnu needed the regions as a

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led his army of 100,000 men towards Mayi, but he became increasingly suspicious of the situation. When the ambush failed, because Junchen Chanyu realized he was about to fall into a trap and fled back north, the peace was broken and the Han court resolved to engage in full-scale war. In light of this

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was prospering and the national treasury had accumulated large surpluses. However, burdened by the frequent Xiongnu raids at the frontier of the Han empire, the emperor abandoned the policies of his predecessors to maintain peace with the Xiongnu early in his reign. In 136 BC, after continued Xiongnu

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In 14 AD, Yan Yu presented the difficulties of conducting extended military campaigns against the Xiongnu. For a 300-day campaign, each Han soldier needed 360 liters of dried grain. These heavy supplies had to be carried by oxen, but experience showed that an ox could only survive for about 100 days

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was sent on a punitive expedition to the Xiongnu and inflicted them a considerable defeat. Immediately, the fertile lands of Hami (Yiwu) was reoccupied and an agricultural garrison established. The next year (74 AD), he expelled the Xiongnu from Turfan and reoccupied the state. The recovery of Hami

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Since Loulan (Cherchen) was the closest western state to Han, it was key for the Han empire's expansion into Central Asia. Turfan (Jushi), on the other hand, was the Xiongnu's entrance into the Western Regions. By conquering Loulan and Turfan, the Han empire would gain two critical locations in the

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When the Hunye King surrendered to the Han in 121 BC, the Han court resettled all the 40,000 Xiongnu people from the Hexi Corridor into the northern frontier regions. The Hexi Corridor proved to be an invaluable region, since it gave direct access and became the base of military operations into the

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The Xiongnu attempted to negotiate peace several times, but every time the Han court would accept nothing less than tributary submission of the Xiongnu. Tributary relations with the Han comprised out of several things. Firstly, the Chanyu or his representative was required to come pay homage to the

1832:

The Southern Xiongnu—who had been situated in the Ordos region since about 50 AD—remained within the territory of the Han empire as semi-independent tributaries. They were dependent to the Han empire for their livelihood as indicated by a memorial from the Southern Chanyu to the Han court in 88 AD.

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survived the struggle to power. After Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC) had inflicted serious losses against his rival Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC), Huhanye and his supporters debated whether to request military protection and become a Han vassal. In 53 BC, Huhanye decided to do so and surrendered to the

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and the Hunye King gave chase and killed Xiutu and his 8000 troops. In the end, the Hunye King and 40,000 Xiongnu soldiers surrendered, which also led to the Xiongnu tribes of Hunye and Xiutu submitting to the rule of the Han empire. Due to the series of victories, the Han had conquered a territory

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in 121 BC, gaining the surrender of many Xiongnu aristocrats. The Han court also sent expeditions, ranging to over 100,000 troops, into Mongolia in 124 BC, 123 BC, and 119 BC, attacking the heart of Xiongnu territory. Following the successes of these 127–119 BC campaigns, Emperor Wu wrote edicts in

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noted that the frontier commanderies of Jiuquan, Zhangye, and Dunhuang were established by Emperor Wu to separate the then-powerful Chuoqiang tribe of the Qiang people from the Xiongnu. The Chuoqiang tribe and its king, however, eventually submitted to the Han empire and took part in the campaigns

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people. In 88 BC, the Xianling tribe of the Qiang people sent an envoy to the Xiongnu, proposing a joint-attack against the Han in the region as they were discontented that they had lost the fertile lands at Jiuquan and Zhangye. It had often been the meeting place between the Xiongnu and the Qiang

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In 169 BC, the Han minister Chao Cuo presented to Emperor Wen a memorandum on frontier defence and the importance of agriculture. Chao characterized the Xiongnu as people whose livelihood did not depend on permanent settlement and were always migrating. As such, he wrote, the Xiongnu could observe

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has sent me to punish the king, by reason of his crime in turning against Han. It is fitting that in his place you should enthrone his younger brother Wei-t'u-ch'i who is at present in Han. Han troops are about to arrive here; do not dare to make any move which would result in yourselves bringing

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The control over Turfan, however, often fluctuated due to its proximity to the Xiongnu. In 90 BC, General Cheng Wan (成娩) led the troops of six western states against Turfan to prevent it from allying the Xiongnu. The fact that the forces used comprised solely from the troops of the western states

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When Bi, the Southern Chanyu, decided submit to the Han in 50 AD, he sent a princely son as hostage to the Han court and prostrated to the Han envoy as he received the imperial edict from them. During the Eastern Han period, the tributary system had made some significant changes, which placed the

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In 53 BC, Huhanye Chanyu decided to submit to the Han court. He sent his son Zhulouqutang (朱鏤蕖堂), the Tuqi King of the Right, as hostage to the Han court in 53 BC. In 52 BC, he formally requested through the officials at the Wuyuan commandery to have an audience with the Han court to pay homage.

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and Ganwei River (甘微河), while Shizi attacked from the west via the Western Lake (西海). The Northern Chanyu—said to be greatly shocked by this—launched a counterattack, but he was forced to flee and left his family and seal behind. The Han killed 8,000 men and captured several thousands. In 91 AD,

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However, this never came to pass as Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8,000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河雲), in 90 AD. Once the Han forces arrived at Zhuoye Mountains, they left their heavy equipment behind to launch a

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The first half of the 1st century BC witnessed several succession crises for the Xiongnu leadership, allowing the Han empire to reaffirm its control over the Western Regions. Huduershi Chanyu was succeeded by his son Punu (蒲奴) in 46 AD, thus breaking the late Huhanye's orders that only a Xiongnu

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and held a banquet for the envoy, who came under the guise of bringing many coveted gifts. During the banquet, Fu Jiezi requested a private discussion with King Angui, which was a pretence for the assassination of the Loulan ruler by two of Fu Jiezi's officers. Amid the cries of horror, Fu Jiezi

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that provided archers, crossbowmen, and infantry protection from the Xiongnu's cavalry charges, and allowing the Han troops to utilize their ranged weapons' advantages. A 5000-strong cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array against any Xiongnu attack. The Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a

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in reoccupying their former territory in the Hexi Corridor and to form an alliance with them against the Xiongnu. In 115 BC, Zhang Qian and his men were sent towards the Western Regions, but they did not succeed in convincing the Wusun to relocate. They were, however, successful in establishing

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comprising 400,000 troops, which included 80,000 to 100,000 cavalrymen, essential to the future campaigns against the Xiongnu. However, by 124 BC, that number had grown to a total of 600,000 to 700,000 troops, including 200,000 to 250,000 cavalrymen. In order to sustain the military expeditions

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and weaponry. He also noted that in contrast the Han armies were better capable to fight in disciplined formations. According to Chao, the Xiongnu were also defenseless against coordinated onslaughts of arrows—especially long-ranged and in unison—due to their inferior leather armour and wooden

864:) before being ambushed by Modu Chanyu's cavalry. His encampment was encircled by the Xiongnu, but Emperor Gaozu escaped after seven days. After realizing that a military solution was not feasible for the time being, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Jing to negotiate peace with Modu Chanyu. In 198 BC, a 2179:

Possession of the Western Regions was economically critical to the Xiongnu, since they exacted many of their necessary resources from the western states. The diplomat Zhang Qian suggested to the emperor to establish diplomatic relations with the western states. He proposed to try convince the

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In 119 BC, when the Xiongnu suffered a catastrophic defeat by the Han armies, the Chanyu moved his court (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) to another location north. This had the desired result that the Xiongnu were separated from the Wuhuan people, which also prevented the Xiongnu from

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led several expeditions in the Tarim Basin, re-establishing Han control over the region. At the capital of Shanshan by Lop Nur, Ban Chao and a small party of his men slaughtered a visiting Northern Xiongnu embassy to Shanshan. Ban Chao presented their heads to King Guang of Shanshan, who was

1652:(Qiuci 龜玆) and an ally of the Xiongnu. Local opponents to the new regime had offered support to the Han. Tian Lü (Ban Chao's officer) took Douti captive and Ban Chao put Zhong (a prince of the native dynasty) on the throne. Ban Chao, insisting on leniency, send Douti back to Qiuci unharmed. 1612:. He regarded the Xiongnu as lowly vassals and relations rapidly deteriorated. During the winter 10 to 11 AD, Wang amassed 300,000 troops along the northern frontier, which forced the Xiongnu to defer launching large-scale attacks. Although Han rule was restored in August 25 AD by 679:, the Chinese initially found their hands full after the chaotic civil war and could not afford any full-scale mobilizations against the Xiongnu raids, they therefore resorted to continue lobbying amongst Xiongnu faction rulers instead. This continued for another two decades until 1957:

in the desert. Once in the territory of the Xiongnu, the harsh weather would also prove to be very inhospitable for the Han soldiers, who could not carry enough fuel for the winter. For these reasons, according to Yan Yu, military expeditions seldom lasted longer than 100 days.

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him behind as Dou Xian had already broken camp and returned to China. In the tenth month of 90 AD, Dou Xian sent Liang Feng and Ban Gu to help the Northern Chanyu make preparations for his planned travel as he wished to submit to the Han court in person the following month.

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and Han invaded the territory of the Luli King of the Right. Around 40,000 Xiongnu people and many of their livestock were captured before their city was sacked. The very next year, various tribes invaded and raided the Xiongnu territory on all fronts; Wusun from the west,

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incursions near the northern frontier, Emperor Wu had a court conference assembled. The faction supporting war against the Xiongnu was able to sway the majority opinion by making a compromise for those worried about stretching financial resources on an indefinite campaign:

1530:(r. 68–60 BC), but the Han court gave only one option, tributary submission. After Xulüquanqu Chanyu's death in 60 BC, a Xiongnu civil war broke out in 57 BC over the succession, which fully fragmented the Xiongnu confederation with many contenders. In the end, only 2069:(126–114) sent an envoy, hoping to achieve peaceful relations with the Han. However, the peace negotiations collapsed, since the Han court disregarded his terms and gave him the option to become an outer vassal instead, which infuriated Yizhixie Chanyu. In 107 BC, 1960:

For their western campaigns against the Xiongnu, the Han armies exacted their food supplies from the Western Regions. This placed a heavy burden to the western states, thus the Han court decided to initiate agricultural garrisons in Bugur and Kurla. During

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against the Northern Xiongnu. The army advanced from Jilu, Manyi, and Guyang in three great columns. In the summer, the forces, comprising a total of 40,000 troops, assembled at Zhuoye Mountain. Near the end of the campaign, Dou's forces chased the

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to the Xiongnu. During the former Xiongnu rule of the Western Regions, the area was under the jurisdiction of the Rizhu King (日逐王) with the office "Commandant in Charge of Slaves". However, in 60 BC, the Rizhu King surrendered to Protector General

1780: 1320:. From 115 to 60 BC, the Han and Xiongnu competed for control and influence over these states, which saw the rise of power of the Han empire over eastern Central Asia with the decline of that of the Xiongnu's. The Han empire brought the states of 940:

battle, the Xiongnu became aware of the Han court's intentions to go to war. By that point the Han empire was long consolidated politically, militarily, and economically, and was led by an increasingly pro-war faction in the imperial court.

549:, the Han Empire began to change from a relatively passive foreign policy to a proactively offensive strategy seeking to permanently remove the northern threat. The tension fully escalated in 133 BC when the Han army unsuccessfully tried to 2057:. Despite their efforts, the envoy could not secure a military alliance. As the Yuezhi had settled in those new lands for quite some time, they had almost no desire to wage a war against the Xiongnu. In 126 BC, Zhang Qian headed to the 1414:(Turfan), a critical economic and military stronghold of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions. After he conquered the region, the Han forces repelled all Xiongnu attacks to regain control over Jushi. When King Angui acceded the throne of 1916:

that he presented to the throne in 169 BC, Chao compared the relative strengths of Xiongnu and Han battle tactics. In regards to the Han armies, Chao deemed the Xiongnu horsemen better prepared for rough terrain due to their better

2028:

left with an envoy and headed towards the Yuezhi encampments. However, the envoy was captured by the Xiongnu and held hostage. A decade went by, until Zhang Qian and some of his convoy escaped. They travelled to the territories of

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ruler's brother was a valid successor. Bi (比), the Rizhu King of the Right and Huduershi's nephew, was outraged and was declared a rival Chanyu by eight southern Xiongnu tribes in 48 AD. The Xiongnu confederation fell apart in the

1570:. On return to Chang'an, the two officers faced legal enquiries for forging a decree, but were pardoned. Chen and Gan received modest rewards, although the Han court was reluctant to do so due to the precedent that this event set. 2246:

later in the year (90 BC). This victory was significant in the sense that Turfan's location was the closest to the Xiongnu of all the western states, thereby they lost their access into the Western Regions with this Han conquest.

2097:. Yituzhiyashi (伊屠智牙師), the son of Huhanye and Wang Zhaojun, became a vocal partisan for the Han empire within the Xiongnu realm. Although peaceful relations were momentarily achieved, it fully collapsed when the Han official 1044:

walled fortifications in their control, the Han set out to repair and extend the walls. In 126 BC, the Xiongnu sent out three forces of 30,000 troops each to raid Dai, Dinxiang, and Shang. In that same year (126 BC), General

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against the Xiongnu and other northern nomadic people. Due to the northward expansion, the threat that the Qin empire posed to the Xiongnu ultimately led to the state formation of the many tribes towards a confederacy.

792:. Believing that the Xiongnu were a possible threat, the emperor launched a pre-emptive strike against the Xiongnu with the intention of expanding his empire. Later that year (215 BC), General Meng Tian succeeded in 964:

moved out with a force and captured some Xiongnu troops, causing the main force of the Xiongnu to withdraw. Meanwhile, Li Xi had led a force across the frontier and also captured some of the Xiongnu troops.

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source of revenue. Due to the ensuing war with the Han empire, the Xiongnu were forced to extract more crafts and agricultural foodstuffs from the Tarim Basin urban centres. By 115 BC, the Han had set up

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states conquered various nomadic territories inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples. They strengthened their new frontiers with elongated wall fortifications. By 221 BC, the Qin ended the chaotic

2073:(114–105) also attempted to negotiate peaceful relations and even halted the border raids. In response, the Han disregarded his terms and demanded that the Chanyu sent his heir apparent as a hostage to 1235:

and his army. Huo Qubing's army encircled and overran their enemy, killing around 70,000 Xiongnu, including the Tuqi King of the Left. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the

1636:, and Bi submitted to the reign of the Han empire in 50 AD. The Han took control of the Southern Xiongnu under Bi, which had 30–40 thousand troops and a population of roughly twice or thrice the size. 948:

In the autumn of 129 BC, a Han force of 40,000 cavalrymen launched a surprise attack against the Xiongnu in the frontier markets, where masses of Xiongnu people visited to trade. In 128 BC, General

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The Xiongnu practised marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General

2229:. If the Han armies succeeded in conquering Ferghana, the Han empire would demonstrate certain military might to the western states and consolidate its control, while gaining many of the famed 1764:, before returning to Han. The Han victory in the campaign of 89 AD resulted in the destruction of the Xiongnu state. In 2017, a joint Sino-Mongolian archaeological expedition rediscovered the 1965:'s reign (r. 87–74 BC), the agricultural garrison in Bugur was expanded to accommodate the heavy Han military presence which was the natural result of the empire's westward expansion. During 1756:, killing 13,000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200,000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes. A light cavalry of 2000 was sent towards the Xiongnu at Hami, capturing the region from them. General 1562:) in 36 BC. Taking the initiative, Chen Tang had forged an imperial decree, which led to the mobilization of 40,000 troops in two columns. The Han forces besieged and defeated the forces of 956:

and came out victorious. The next year (127 BC), the Xiongnu invaded Liaoxi, killing its governor, and advanced towards Yanmen. Han Anguo mobilized 700 men, but was defeated and withdrew to

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against the Northern Xiongnu, who continued to resist and was eventually evicted westwards by the further expeditions by the Han Empire and its vassals, as well as the rise of other hostile

1921:, better with horseback archery, and better able to withstand the elements and harsh climates. However, on level plains, he regarded Xiongnu cavalry inferior especially when faced with Han 1423:

proclaimed an admonition to the Loulan aristocracy and beheaded the dead king. The Han court informed Weituqi—who was an ally of the Han—of his brother's death, had him escorted back from

6448: 1407:; the Han forces brought Dayuan into submission in 101 BC. The Xiongnu, aware of this predicament, had tried to halt the Han advance, but they were outnumbered and suffered defeat. 1873: 848:. During the transitional years between Qin and Han, while the Chinese were mainly focused towards the interior of their nation, the Xiongnu took the opportunity to retake the 1053:

and captured 15,000 men along with 10 tribal chiefs. In the autumn of 126 BC, the Xiongnu raided Dai once again; they took some prisoners and killed a Han military commander.

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against the Xiongnu and its resulting conquests, Emperor Wu and his economic advisors undertook many economic and financial reforms, which proved to be highly successful.

4522: 4539: 1200:(119 BC) saw Han forces invade the northern Gobi Desert, as well as areas north of the Gobi. In 119 BC, two separate expeditionary forces led by the Han generals 6598: 2061:

in order to return to his nation. While traveling through the area, he was captured by the Xiongnu, only to escape a year later and return to China in 125 BC.

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Distraught by the huge losses and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu Chanyu, the Xiutu King and the Hunye King planned to surrender to the Han forces of General

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exacting many resources from the Wuhuan. The Han court placed the Wuhuan in tributary protection and resettled them in five northeastern commanderies, namely

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marched with his troops in a triumphal progress to the heartland of the Northern Xiongnu's territory and engraved an inscription commemorating the victory on

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allies. In 111 BC, a major Qiang–Xiongnu allied force was repelled from the Hexi Corridor. Hereafter, four commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor—

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had each sanctioned major offensives against the Xiongnu during their reigns. The overall strategic Han successes against the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to

6627: 2274:. As its dominance of the area was established, the Han were effectively controlling the trade and shaping the early history of what would be known as the 1937:'s reign, the Han court initiated breeding programs for military horses and established 36 large government pastures in the border regions, extending from 683:, when repeated natural disasters severely weakened the Xiongnu and forced them to flee north from an attack by Wuhuan. Xiongnu then permanently split in 935:

with the intention of attacking the Xiongnu supply route. Han Anguo (韓安國) and Gongsun He (公孫賀) commanded the remaining forces and advanced towards Mayi.

1126:. At the Qilian Mountains, the Hunye King (渾邪王) saw the deaths of over 30,000 troops in battle against the Han, while 2800 of his troops were captured. 2126:

with permanent residents should be established to secure the frontier and that surrendered tribes should serve along the frontier against the Xiongnu.

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and Turfan facilitated the re-establishment of the Protector-General, since these important locations were key points to control the Western Regions.

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Second to the Chanyu in power were the Tuqi Kings; the Tuqi Kings are also called the "Wise Kings", where the Xiongnu word for "Tuqi" means "Wise" (

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When Emperor Wu made the decision to conquer the Hexi Corridor, he had the intention to separate the Xiongnu from the Western Regions and from the

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protected the people, guided caravans and troops to and from Central Asia, and served to separate the Xiongnu from their allies, the Qiang people.

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into two groups, known as the Northern and Southern Xiongnu, respectively. The Southern Xiongnu eventually submitted to the Han Empire and became

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Due to the many losses inflicted on the Xiongnu, rebellion broke out and their enslaved rose up in arms. Around 80 BC, the Xiongnu attacked the

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shields. When dismounted in close combat, he believed that the Xiongnu, lacking the ability as infantry, would be decimated by Han soldiers.

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the Han throne and attempted to split the Xiongnu by installing 15 new chanyu. Wang Mang mobilized 300,000 troops against Xiongnu and forced

292: 6287: 852:. The Xiongnu frequently led incursions to the Han frontier and had considerable political influence over the border regions. In response, 727:

when a 4,000-strong Han militia was enough to defeat them, causing them to flee further west into Central Asia where they disappeared from

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was concluded between the Han and the Xiongnu, but this proved far from effective as the incursions in the frontier regions continued.

327: 1104:

and decided to launch a large military offensive to purge the Xiongnu from the area. The campaign was undertaken in 121 BC by General

7003: 6809: 6687: 2024:. Thus the Han court decided it was favourable to send an envoy to the Yuezhi to secure a military alliance. In 138 BC, the diplomat 1379:. He came back without achieving his goals, but he gained valuable knowledge about the Western Regions like in his previous travels. 991:

to lead several large-scale military campaigns against the Xiongnu. Leading campaigns involving tens of thousands of troops, General

553:, and retaliatory raids intensified. Emperor Wu then started deploying newer generations of military commanders and launched several 731:. Southern Xiongnu, on the other hand, continued cycles of "rebel then resubmit" under the Eastern Han dynasty until as late as the 7073: 7059: 2290: 1925:

cavalry and chariots as the Xiongnu are easily dispersed. He emphasized that the Xiongnu were incapable of countering the superior

1028:

towards Longxi to invade the Xiongnu in Ordos. After the conquest, about 100,000 people resettled in the Ordos. In the region, two

7351: 7083: 7063: 927:

In 133 BC, the Xiongnu forces led by the Chanyu were lured into a trap at Mayi, while a Han army of about 300,000 troops laid in

707:

led 50,000 cavalry on an expedition that decisively defeated the Northern Xiongnu's main force, causing it to split further. In

6457: 6416: 6362: 1489:

in a punitive campaign and the Wusun monarch requested military support from the Han empire. In 72 BC, the joint forces of the

7039: 6636: 6209: 6190: 6133: 6114: 6095: 6076: 6057: 6019: 6000: 5878: 5859: 5840: 5817: 5798: 5760: 5739: 5720: 5701: 5682: 5663: 5644: 5590: 5550: 5527: 5508: 5451: 5413: 5394: 5346: 5323: 5262: 5243: 3528: 2562: 1725:

and his men. As a result, the Han garrison at Hami was forced to withdraw in 77 AD, which was not reestablished until 91 AD.

1345: 793: 493: 320: 31: 6871: 6391: 1868: 1522:

As the Xiongnu economic and military situation deteriorated, the Xiongnu were willing to renew peace during the reigns of

7356: 7265: 7034: 6632: 6593: 6381: 2271: 2263: 1838: 1719: 1547: 598: 1675:. In 74 AD, Dou Gu retook Turfan from the Xiongnu. The Han campaigns resulted in the retreat of the Northern Xiongnu to 6255: 5961: 4292: 1981: 1450:, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General 1363:(died 117 BC): statue of a horse stomping a Xiongnu warrior, with detail of the head of the vanquished Xiongnu warrior. 832:

However, after the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang, the ensuing political corruption and chaos during the short reign of

613:

further weakened the confederation, fracturing it into various self-ruling factions. The Han Empire then adhered to a

7346: 7341: 6642: 6228: 6171: 6152: 6038: 5897: 5779: 5621: 5571: 5489: 5470: 5432: 5300: 5281: 1112:

led light cavalry through five Xiongnu kingdoms, conquering the Yanzhi and Qilian mountain ranges from the Xiongnu.

887: 7361: 6280: 3751: 1391:" or "blood-sweating horses". Zhang brought back some of these horses to the Han empire. The emperor thought that 6788: 2221:. This happened in 108 BC, when General Zhao Ponu conquered these two states. The farthest-reaching invasion was 1668: 1355: 920:

over with wealth and promises of defections in order to eliminate him and cause political chaos for the Xiongnu.

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to secure military alliances against the Xiongnu. He sought out the various states in Central Asia, such as the

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Barfield, Thomas J. (2001). "The Shadow Empires: Imperial State Formation Along the Chinese-Nomad Frontier".

1749: 1744: 1734: 716: 393: 542:" to appease the Xiongnu, who still raided Chinese borderlands routinely. Thus ended First Han-Xiongnu War. 6366: 5907:

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Expanding Empires: Cultural Interaction and Exchange in World Societies from Ancient to Early Modern Times

6570: 6386: 6273: 2233:. The Xiongnu were aware of the situation and attempted to stop the invasion, but they were defeated by 836:

would lead to various anti-Qin rebellions, eventually bringing about the collapse of the Qin dynasty. A

7197: 7164: 7126: 7051: 6652: 6515: 6343: 6305: 2334: 2222: 1404: 1290: 30:"Sino-Xiongnu War" redirects here. For the military campaign of the Qin Empire against the tribes, see 4541:

Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections

4524:

Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections

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decided to give him a court lady-in-waiting. Thus, the Han court allowed Huhanye Chanyu to marry Lady

7229: 7182: 7139: 7021: 6333: 2315: 2130: 1969:'s reign (r. 74–49 BC), the farming soldiers in Kurla were increased to 1500 under Protector-General 1147: 1049:

advanced from Gaoque into Mongolia with 30,000 men and inflicted defeat to the Xiongnu forces of the

816:, connecting them with the old walls built by Qin, Yan and Zhao states. The fortified walls ran from 736: 175: 147: 3738: 2285:

was established as Emperor Guangwu, restoring the Han throne after a usurpation by the Han official

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3486:"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis" 1458:

Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was

6932: 6665: 6426: 1863: 732: 1508:, this event marks the beginning of Xiongnu decline and the dismantlement of the confederation. 6917: 6431: 6371: 6313: 5993:

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before the Han empire had conquered and annexed the Hexi Corridor. In 6 BC, Wang Shun (王舜) and

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were forced to surrender to the Han empire. Although Dou Gu was able to evict the Xiongnu from

1613: 1502:

from the east. The Han forces set out in five columns and invaded from the south. According to

1119:

King (休屠王), beyond the Yanzhi Mountains. About 18,000 Xiongnu cavalry were captured or killed.

461: 6323: 5983: 3518: 7239: 7205: 7149: 6615: 6583: 6503: 6490: 6145:

Trade and Expansion in Han China: Study in the Structure of Sino-barbarian Economic Relations

3725: 2237:'s forces. After a campaign that lasted four years, Li Guangli conquered Ferghana in 101 BC. 2152: 1765: 931:. Wang Hui (王恢) led this campaign and commanded a force of 30,000 men strong, advancing from 856:

led a Han army against the Xiongnu in 200 BC, pursuing them as far as Pingcheng (present-day

748: 554: 457: 1096:

In the Battle of Hexi (121 BC), the Han forces had inflicted a major defeat to the Xiongnu.

7271: 7134: 7078: 6765: 6677: 6520: 6436: 6376: 2327: 1620:

had weakened. The Xiongnu had taken advantage of the situation and gained control over the

1066: 853: 605:. For the Xiongnu, the situation deteriorated with each setback, leading to erosion of the 5291:

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2164: 2090: 2082: 1966: 1962: 1938: 1934: 1276: 1133:. However, the Xiutu King suddenly changed his mind and fled with his followers. General 1037: 1025: 813: 796:, seizing their territory as result. After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng, 672: 586: 582: 513: 373: 344: 6164:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. - A.D. 220

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In the spring of 121 BC, Huo set out from Longxi and advanced into the territory of the

1065:

set off to Mongolia with an army to attack the Xiongnu; they marched back victorious to

5971: 5940: 5932: 5561: 5373: 5222: 5214: 2321: 2144: 1897: 1447: 1348:

between 108 and 101 BC. The long-walled defence line that now stretched all the way to

1301: 1122:

That summer (121 BC), Huo advanced into the Anshan Desert to invade the regions at the

1029: 837: 521: 501: 4266:"Archaeologists discover story of China's ancient military might carved in cliff face" 7304: 6730: 6251: 6224: 6205: 6186: 6167: 6148: 6129: 6110: 6091: 6072: 6053: 6034: 6015: 5996: 5957: 5944: 5924: 5893: 5874: 5855: 5836: 5829: 5813: 5794: 5775: 5756: 5750: 5735: 5716: 5697: 5678: 5659: 5640: 5633: 5617: 5586: 5567: 5546: 5539: 5523: 5504: 5485: 5466: 5447: 5428: 5409: 5390: 5342: 5335: 5319: 5296: 5277: 5258: 5239: 5226: 4288: 3524: 2558: 2368:, a Han statesman and diplomat who was a captive of the Xiongnu for about two decades 2250: 2194: 2160: 2148: 2135: 2113: 1998: 1821: 1800: 1769: 1477:

statues of a prancing horse (foreground) and a cavalryman on horseback (background),

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tried to fight off Xiongnu invasions but had himself trapped in an ambush during the

469: 416: 250: 57: 2557:. Nara International Foundation Commemorating the Silk Road Exposition. p. 23. 1845:

in 91 AD. At the remote frontier, Ban Chao reaffirmed absolute Han control over the

7210: 6979: 6949: 6907: 6588: 5920: 5916: 5365: 5204: 3497: 2411:

The Tuqi King of the Left was generally designated as the successor of the Chanyu (

2086: 1942: 1664: 1633: 1629: 1579: 1551: 1517: 1474: 1272: 1185: 1123: 1004: 735:, but from 89 AD onwards the Han Empire's main concern had already switched to the 590: 453: 388: 383: 368: 234: 222: 6802: 1427:

to Loulan, and installed him as the new monarch of the kingdom, which was renamed

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Second to the Chanyu in power were the Tuqi Kings, followed by the Luli Kings (

2226: 2081:

Thus, the next year (51 BC), he arrived at court and personally paid homage to

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to the north, since Han armies were still primarily infantry with cavalry and

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swift pincer movement towards Heyun. Geng Kui attacked from the east via the

1804: 1684: 1563: 1531: 1411: 1403:, to provide the Han empire with the horses and the execution of a Han envoy 1325: 1295:

With the Han conquest of the Hexi Corridor in 121 BC, the city-states at the

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Destruction of Xiongnu steppe hegemony and vassalization of Southern Xiongnu

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to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as

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The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu

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that Han armies should have a cavalry-centric army to counter the nomadic

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confederation, although extended conflicts can be traced back as early as

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1231:'s forces in Yucheng, after which they advanced further and engaged the 1208:

mobilized towards the Xiongnu. The two generals led the campaign to the

7315: 7217: 7116: 6880: 6750: 6745: 6544: 5377: 5218: 2234: 2025: 1883: 1707: 1559: 1459: 1368: 1360: 1259: 1224: 1205: 1134: 1130: 1109: 1105: 1021: 1000: 988: 932: 833: 789: 581:, the conflict de-escalated to mostly small border conflicts, although 558: 465: 260: 61: 5255:

Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin

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General Zhao Ponu (趙破奴) was sent on an expedition in 108 BC to invade

808:(Prince of Qin) and General Meng Tian were stationed at a garrison in 6705: 6672: 6539: 6509: 6470: 6265: 5951: 5613: 5193:"The Hsiung-nu Imperial Confederacy: Organization and Foreign Policy" 2355: 2286: 2275: 2218: 2214: 2206: 2098: 2054: 2038: 2021: 1826: 1683:

to submission under the Han empire once again. In 74 AD, the King of

1679:, while Ban Chao was threatening and bringing the city-states at the 1676: 1601: 1543: 1287:

History of the Great Wall of China § Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

777: 720: 664: 648: 485: 5369: 5209: 5192: 1566:, and afterwards beheaded him. His head was sent to the Han capital 1550:

Gan Yanshou, acting without explicit permission from the Han court,

1431:. Thereafter, the royal seat was relocated to the southern parts of 6740: 6700: 6578: 6533: 6411: 3710: 2318:, expansion of realm and influence of the Han dynasty in Inner Asia 2168: 2077:, which once again led to the breakdown of the peace negotiations. 1893: 1887: 1834: 1812: 1757: 1740: 1711: 1695: 1640: 1589: 1495: 1432: 1428: 1419: 1349: 1317: 1247: 1201: 1159: 1090: 1062: 1046: 1017: 992: 984: 961: 949: 841: 817: 704: 656: 640: 280: 275: 270: 255: 103: 52: 1008:

which he heavily praised the two generals for their achievements.

312: 7288: 6959: 6902: 6897: 6774: 6715: 6695: 2341: 2123: 2046: 2002: 1994: 1901: 1796: 1795:-type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century CE 1722: 1660: 1645: 1593: 1451: 1305: 1228: 1155: 1151: 1143: 781: 696: 626: 534: 438: 284: 183: 143: 107: 27:

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contact with the many states, such as Wusun, Dayuan (Ferghana),

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launched his military campaigns against the Xiongnu in 133 BC.

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Following the military successes against the Xiongnu, General

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In the Xiongnu hierarchy, the Chanyu was the supreme leader (

2365: 2330:, a military campaign launched by Emperor Wu against Gojoseon 2262:. Afterwards (60 BC), the Han imperial court established the 2202: 2190: 2181: 2156: 2050: 1842: 1715: 1699: 1649: 1555: 1490: 1486: 1376: 1116: 865: 849: 809: 708: 700: 684: 680: 676: 652: 644: 602: 578: 539: 529: 424: 218: 187: 99: 1192:

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In 67 BC, the Han empire gained absolute control over the

3895: 3893: 1948:

At the start of Emperor Wu's reign, the Han empire had a

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667:

and provisions, which led to the mass defection of these

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Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. 5170: 5168: 5166: 5164: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5086: 5084: 5021: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5013: 5011: 4746: 4685: 4683: 4657: 4616: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4088: 4086: 3214: 3212: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3072: 2630: 2628: 2578: 1443:), outside the sphere of Xiongnu influence. 5887: 5694:Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations 5408:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 5389:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 5318:(Translated ed.). Hong Kong: Odyssey. 5290: 4954: 4893: 4891: 4866: 4864: 4839: 4837: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4782: 4724: 4722: 4701: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4491: 4455: 4415: 4285:Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or 4230: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4098: 3968: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3711:"Aristocratic elites in the Xiongnu empire" 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3345: 3343: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3042: 3040: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2876: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2686: 2684: 2682: 1914:Guard the Frontiers and Protect the Borders 1694:Later in the year (74 AD), the kingdoms of 1663:and advanced towards the Northern Xiongnu, 1462:who also married a daughter of the Chanyu. 1393:the horses were of high importance to fight 1108:. Departing from Longxi that year, General 914:in an engagement along the border near Mayi 800:Chanyu and his followers fled far into the 6872: 6858: 6288: 6274: 5871:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang 5066: 4974: 4972: 4903: 4196: 4020: 4018: 4016: 3836: 3675: 3594: 3294: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3102: 3052: 3027: 3025: 2664: 2610: 2600: 2598: 2270:, placed it under the jurisdiction of its 1687:submitted to the Han forces under General 1146:, thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their 768:period by conquering all other states and 335: 321: 6810:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 6185:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6183:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia 6166:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5990: 5774:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5711:Hulsewé, Anthony François Paulus (1979). 5517: 5498: 5484:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5465:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5441: 5295:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5276:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 5208: 5161: 5149: 5132: 5081: 5008: 4689: 4680: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4544:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 29. 4301: 4239: 4224: 4178: 4123: 4092: 4083: 3830: 3812: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3501: 3218: 3209: 3199: 3197: 3124: 3122: 3069: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2625: 1465: 1166:—which were populated with Han settlers. 788:, and establish a frontier region at the 6048:Tucker, Spencer C.; et al. (2010). 5868: 5849: 5630: 5309: 5271: 5238:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5233: 5190: 5114: 4888: 4861: 4834: 4803: 4719: 4595: 4577: 4282: 4146: 4129: 4024: 4007: 4001: 3869: 3806: 3757: 3652: 3635: 3629: 3617: 3575: 3537: 3370: 3364: 3360: 3358: 3340: 3288: 3236: 3177: 3171: 3037: 2981: 2911: 2823: 2794: 2771: 2679: 2646: 2634: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2291:Protector-General of the Western Regions 2112: 1980: 1867: 1787:(Chinese funerary statuette) of a young 1779: 1583: 1469: 1354: 1179: 1080: 972: 886: 6181:Yü, Ying-shih (1994). "The Hsiung-nu". 6066: 5906: 5892:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 5873:. New York: Columbia University Press. 5854:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 5812:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 5755:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 5710: 5522:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 5341:. New York: Columbia University Press. 4969: 4140: 4013: 3914: 3857: 3669: 3465: 3349: 3313: 3270: 3247: 3159: 3134: 3113: 3063: 3046: 3022: 3010: 2992: 2924: 2905: 2834: 2595: 2425: 1454:after he surrendered and defected. The 1100:desired to place firm control over the 1056: 1020:invaded and retook full control of the 844:eventually victorious to establish the 812:and soon began the construction of the 14: 7334: 6417:Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions 6295: 6085: 6028: 6009: 5826: 5752:The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han 5691: 5580: 5559: 5463:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 5403: 5384: 5332: 5252: 5126: 5108: 5102: 4776: 4651: 4560: 4537: 4520: 4485: 4468: 4409: 4373: 4346: 3995: 3983: 3953: 3696: 3684: 3605: 3588: 3558: 3552: 3483: 3444: 3385: 3203: 3194: 3147: 3119: 3096: 3004: 2975: 2963: 2870: 2858: 2800: 2732: 2726: 2478: 2362:who was punished for defending Li Ling 1909:living on the Han empire's frontiers. 6853: 6269: 6126:The Great Wall: From Beginning to End 5807: 5788: 5769: 5748: 5729: 5599: 5479: 5460: 5422: 5355: 5143: 5075: 4948: 4924: 4855: 4797: 4589: 4449: 4432: 4385: 4361: 4257: 4251: 4048: 3938: 3899: 3818: 3471: 3432: 3397: 3355: 3325: 3276: 3264: 3230: 3016: 2951: 2846: 2765: 2750: 2714: 2658: 2619: 2604: 2589: 2525: 2519: 2502: 2456: 2443: 2433:about the destruction of your state." 2412: 2399: 2386: 2242: 1061:During the spring of 123 BC, General 316: 6392:Second Chinese domination of Vietnam 6033:. Edinburgh: Durham Academic Press. 5672: 5536: 4263: 3569: 3128: 2117:Commanderies of the Han empire, 2 AD 1573: 1512:Internal discord between the Xiongnu 1169: 7266:The Cambridge History of Inner Asia 7035:Protectorate of the Western Regions 6633:Protectorate of the Western Regions 6382:First Chinese domination of Vietnam 6204:. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources. 5653: 5602:Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300 – 900 5585:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2817: 2738: 2264:Protectorate of the Western Regions 2022:skull fashioned into a drinking cup 1875:Horse Stepping on a Xiongnu Soldier 944:Skirmishes at the northern frontier 577:. After the death of Emperor Wu in 468:) to defend against raids from the 342: 24: 6239: 6199: 6180: 6161: 6142: 6104: 5810:Military Culture in Imperial China 5358:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5174: 5155: 5090: 5060: 5037: 5025: 5002: 4990: 4978: 4963: 4936: 4912: 4897: 4882: 4870: 4843: 4828: 4816: 4764: 4752: 4740: 4728: 4713: 4674: 4639: 4610: 4554: 4508: 4397: 4334: 4322: 4209: 4190: 4163: 4077: 4060: 4036: 3926: 3884: 3845: 3794: 3770: 3646: 3459: 3420: 3188: 2939: 2893: 2782: 2702: 2690: 2673: 2538: 2490: 1671:before establishing a garrison at 629:) to recruit some against others. 32:Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu 25: 7373: 6128:. New York: Sterling Publishing. 6088:The Rough Guide: History of China 5563:A History of Chinese Civilization 5520:The Military Culture of Later Han 5272:Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). 3708: 2124:military-agricultural settlements 2012:In 162 BC, the Xiongnu troops of 1554:at his capital city (present-day 1371:was once again dispatched to the 969:Early campaigns by the Han empire 7002: 6643:Translation of government titles 6447: 5658:. Westport: Praeger Publishers. 5446:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 5120: 5096: 5031: 4996: 4984: 4942: 4930: 4918: 4876: 4849: 4822: 4770: 4758: 4707: 4645: 4583: 4548: 4531: 4514: 4403: 4391: 4367: 4340: 4328: 4276: 4245: 4184: 4054: 4042: 4030: 3989: 3932: 3752:Monumenta Serica, Volume 52 2004 2449: 1993:, manufactured in China for the 1837:was promoted to the position of 1395:the Xiongnu. The refusal of the 1267:Control over the Western Regions 1076: 419:fought over two centuries (from 296: 212: 51: 6789:Book on Numbers and Computation 6107:Debating War in Chinese History 5183: 4264:Chen, Laurie (21 August 2017). 3920: 3863: 3851: 3824: 3800: 3788: 3776: 3745: 3702: 3690: 3623: 3611: 3510: 3477: 3438: 3426: 3391: 3331: 3319: 3282: 3224: 3165: 3153: 3090: 2998: 2969: 2957: 2945: 2899: 2864: 2852: 2840: 2788: 2744: 2720: 2708: 2696: 2652: 2640: 2436: 2418: 2405: 2392: 2379: 1728: 1639:Between 73 and 102 AD, General 7352:Wars involving the Han dynasty 6606:Three Lords and Nine Ministers 6477:Records of the Grand Historian 5921:10.1080/02549948.2004.11731409 5890:China: Its History and Culture 5257:(2nd ed.). Orchid Press. 4283:Kurbanov, Sharofiddin (2021). 2360:Records of the Grand Historian 2349:Records of the Grand Historian 1665:defeating the Northern Xiongnu 1592:(left) captured King Douti of 1387:. These horses were known as " 1258:in a ring formation, creating 551:ambush Xiongnu raiders at Mayi 496:to expel the Xiongnu from the 13: 1: 6498:Records of the Three Kingdoms 6422:Way of the Five Pecks of Rice 6329:Rebellion of the Seven States 6010:Tanner, Harold Miles (2009). 5692:Higham, Charles F.W. (2004). 5583:Central Asia in World History 3484:Qingbo, Duan (January 2023). 3032:Yamashita & Lindesay 2007 2466: 1735:Battle of the Altai Mountains 1648:(Shule 疏勒), both a puppet of 1399:kingdom, a nation centred in 1011: 742: 717:Battle of the Altai Mountains 575:a decisive campaign in 119 BC 5734:. Leiden: Brill Publishers. 5673:Haar, Barend J. ter (2009). 5503:. Leiden: Brill Publishers. 5197:The Journal of Asian Studies 5191:Barfield, Thomas J. (1981). 2108: 1976: 1775: 1667:and pursuing them as far as 168:Tributary and allied forces: 7: 6067:Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). 6052:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 5995:(in German). Hamburg: Lit. 5850:Millward, James A. (1998). 5749:Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). 5696:. New York: Facts On File. 5499:Crespigny, Rafe de (2007). 2301: 1882:, from the tomb of General 1857: 1659:and his army departed from 1089:rammed-earth watchtower in 850:territory north of the wall 532:was negotiated. Decades of 10: 7378: 7357:Wars involving the Xiongnu 7135:against Northwest khanates 6628:Provinces and commanderies 6516:Eight Immortals of Huainan 6344:War of the Heavenly Horses 5991:Spakowski, Nicola (1999). 5732:Warfare in Chinese History 5253:Baumer, Christoph (2003). 3490:Journal of Chinese History 2428:, 90) is as follows: "The 2335:The Emperor in Han Dynasty 1861: 1732: 1600:In 9 AD, the Han official 1577: 1515: 1312:, while extending the old 1291:War of the Heavenly Horses 1284: 1270: 1173: 929:ambush against the Xiongnu 880: 719:, and they fled west into 478:conquered all other states 29: 7257: 7196: 7163: 7125: 7092: 7050: 7020: 7011: 7000: 6888: 6764: 6686: 6651: 6565: 6456: 6445: 6334:Han dynasty in Inner Asia 6304: 6014:. Indianapolis: Hackett. 5835:. New York: Grove Press. 5581:Golden, Peter B. (2011). 5480:Cosmo, Nicola Di (2002). 5442:Christian, David (1998). 5404:Chang, Chun-shu (2007b). 5385:Chang, Chun-shu (2007a). 2455:The translation given by 2424:The translation given by 2316:Han dynasty in Inner Asia 2020:monarch executed and his 1912:In a memorandum entitled 1852: 1539:reign of the Han empire. 871: 510:reinvade the Ordos region 354: 193: 137: 76: 60:dispatching the diplomat 50: 41: 7347:1st-century BC conflicts 7342:2nd-century BC conflicts 6928:Western Turkic Khaganate 6923:Eastern Turkic Khaganate 6387:Trung sisters' rebellion 6351:Han conquest of Gojoseon 6318:Feast at Swan Goose Gate 6090:. London: Rough Guides. 5869:Millward, James (2006). 5600:Graff, David A. (2002). 5560:Gernet, Jacques (1996). 5333:Bowman, John S. (2000). 4538:Bunker, Emma C. (2002). 4521:Bunker, Emma C. (2002). 4270:South China Morning Post 3337:Sima & Watson, 1993. 2372: 1710:while their allies from 1359:Tomb of Chinese general 916:, Han forces would lure 876: 784:tribes, situated in the 7362:Wars involving Mongolia 6933:Second Turkic Khaganate 6666:Ancient Chinese coinage 6427:Yellow Turban Rebellion 6246:Yap, Joseph P. (2019). 6086:Wintle, Justin (2002). 6029:Torday, Laszlo (1997). 5789:Loewe, Michael (2006). 5631:Grousset, René (2002). 5310:Boulnois, Luce (2004). 1864:Army of the Han dynasty 1003:expelled them from the 899:'s reign (r. 141–87 BC) 780:to set out against the 733:Yellow Turban Rebellion 599:a regional protectorate 591:project their influence 460:, and various northern 6918:First Turkic Khaganate 6688:Science and technology 6432:End of the Han dynasty 6372:Han conquest of Nanyue 6143:Yü, Ying-shih (1967). 6071:. Lincoln: iUniverse. 5827:Lovell, Julia (2006). 3733:Cite journal requires 2118: 2009: 1890: 1808: 1597: 1482: 1466:Decline of the Xiongnu 1364: 1223:During this campaign, 1193: 1093: 980: 900: 194:Commanders and leaders 7060:against Western Turks 6616:Three Ducal Ministers 6504:Flying Horse of Gansu 6491:Book of the Later Han 2223:Li Guangli's campaign 2139:against the Xiongnu. 2116: 1984: 1878:(馬踏匈奴), dated to the 1871: 1783: 1772:of central Mongolia. 1766:Inscription of Yanran 1733:Further information: 1587: 1578:Further information: 1516:Further information: 1473: 1358: 1271:Further information: 1233:Tuqi King of the Left 1183: 1174:Further information: 1084: 976: 891:The expansion of the 890: 881:Further information: 770:unifying China proper 749:Warring States period 508:, the opportunity to 502:subsequent civil wars 494:a successful campaign 484:, dispatched General 458:Warring States period 445:and ahead as late as 7272:Greater Central Asia 6678:Sino-Roman relations 6521:Mawangdui Silk Texts 6437:Battle of Red Cliffs 6377:Han conquest of Dian 5654:Guo, Xuezhi (2002). 5537:Deng, Yinke (2007). 5427:. Lanham: SR Books. 1849:from 91 AD onwards. 1616:, its grip over the 1552:killed Zhizhi Chanyu 1498:from the north, and 1346:tributary submission 1138:stretching from the 1057:Southern Gobi Desert 715:was defeated in the 643:chanyu waged war in 454:Chinese civilization 411:, also known as the 6557:Eastern Han Chinese 6458:Society and culture 6363:Southward expansion 6324:Lü Clan disturbance 3503:10.1017/jch.2022.25 2253:after inflicting a 2213:(Ferghana) between 1277:Battle of Tian Shan 1016:In 127 BC, General 675:was established in 673:Eastern Han dynasty 516:was established in 514:Western Han dynasty 211:Hunye Chanyu 88:(punitive campaign) 6775:Balanced Discourse 6314:Chu–Han Contention 5982:has generic name ( 3783:Zadneprovskiy 1999 3709:Cosmo, Nicola Di. 3085:Tucker et al. 2010 2505:, pp. 39, 40. 2255:significant defeat 2119: 2010: 1891: 1880:Western Han period 1811:In 90 AD, General 1809: 1803:, 3rd century CE. 1739:In 89 AD, General 1655:In 73 AD, General 1598: 1588:In 74 AD, General 1526:(r. 85–69 BC) and 1483: 1481:period (25–220 AD) 1385:horses of Ferghana 1365: 1194: 1190:Chinese cavalrymen 1094: 1032:were established, 981: 901: 729:historical records 619:marriage alliances 417:military conflicts 415:, was a series of 72:mural, 8th century 7329: 7328: 7305:Chinese Turkestan 7253: 7252: 7074:Mongolian Plateau 6847: 6846: 6356:Four Commanderies 6211:978-0-8420-2731-1 6192:978-0-521-24304-9 6135:978-1-4027-3160-0 6116:978-90-04-22372-1 6109:. Leiden: Brill. 6097:978-1-85828-764-5 6078:978-0-595-22134-9 6059:978-1-85109-667-1 6021:978-0-87220-915-2 6002:978-3-8258-4117-1 5880:978-0-231-13924-3 5861:978-0-8047-2933-8 5842:978-0-8021-4297-9 5819:978-0-674-03109-8 5800:978-0-87220-818-6 5762:978-0-674-02477-9 5741:978-90-04-11774-7 5722:978-90-04-05884-2 5715:. Leiden: Brill. 5703:978-0-8160-4640-9 5684:978-90-8964-120-5 5665:978-0-275-97259-2 5646:978-0-8135-1304-1 5592:978-0-19-515947-9 5552:978-7-5085-1098-9 5529:978-0-674-03109-8 5510:978-90-04-15605-0 5453:978-0-631-20814-3 5415:978-0-472-11534-1 5396:978-0-472-11533-4 5348:978-0-231-11004-4 5325:978-962-217-720-8 5264:978-974-8304-38-0 5245:978-0-521-77020-0 3530:978-0-520-01596-8 2564:978-4-916071-61-3 2272:Protector General 2251:Turfan Depression 1991:zoomorphic design 1985:Belt Buckle with 1886:near present-day 1841:and stationed in 1839:Protector General 1822:Khangai Mountains 1770:Khangai Mountains 1720:Protector General 1574:Collapse of power 1548:Protector General 1528:Xulüquanqu Chanyu 1344:(Soghdiana) into 1260:mobile fortresses 1238:Khentii Mountains 1210:Khangai Mountains 1170:North of the Gobi 978:Emperor Wu of Han 866:marriage alliance 838:massive civil war 802:Mongolian Plateau 621:(such as that of 540:marriage alliance 526:Battle of Baideng 470:Mongolian Plateau 402: 401: 311: 310: 307: 251:Emperor Wu of Han 247: 133: 132: 89: 16:(Redirected from 7369: 7018: 7017: 7006: 6874: 6867: 6860: 6851: 6850: 6451: 6290: 6283: 6276: 6267: 6266: 6234: 6215: 6196: 6177: 6158: 6139: 6120: 6101: 6082: 6063: 6044: 6025: 6012:China: A History 6006: 5987: 5981: 5977: 5975: 5967: 5948: 5909:Monumenta Serica 5903: 5884: 5865: 5846: 5834: 5823: 5804: 5785: 5766: 5745: 5726: 5707: 5688: 5669: 5650: 5638: 5627: 5596: 5577: 5556: 5544: 5541:History of China 5533: 5514: 5495: 5476: 5457: 5438: 5419: 5400: 5381: 5352: 5340: 5329: 5317: 5306: 5287: 5268: 5249: 5230: 5212: 5178: 5172: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5079: 5073: 5064: 5058: 5041: 5040:, 409 & 415. 5035: 5029: 5023: 5006: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4967: 4961: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4916: 4910: 4901: 4895: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4868: 4859: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4832: 4826: 4820: 4814: 4801: 4795: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4702:Bielenstein 1986 4699: 4693: 4687: 4678: 4672: 4655: 4649: 4643: 4637: 4614: 4608: 4593: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4518: 4512: 4506: 4489: 4483: 4472: 4466: 4453: 4447: 4436: 4430: 4413: 4407: 4401: 4395: 4389: 4383: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4359: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4299: 4298: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4228: 4222: 4213: 4207: 4194: 4193:, 415 & 420. 4188: 4182: 4176: 4167: 4161: 4144: 4138: 4127: 4121: 4096: 4090: 4081: 4075: 4064: 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3972: 3969:Bielenstein 1986 3966: 3957: 3951: 3942: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3903: 3897: 3888: 3882: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3843: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3792: 3786: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3736: 3731: 3729: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3673: 3667: 3650: 3644: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3592: 3586: 3573: 3567: 3556: 3550: 3535: 3534: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3401: 3395: 3389: 3383: 3368: 3362: 3353: 3347: 3338: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3311: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3251: 3245: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3207: 3201: 3192: 3186: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3132: 3126: 3117: 3111: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3067: 3061: 3050: 3044: 3035: 3029: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2928: 2922: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2856: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2832: 2821: 2815: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2769: 2763: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2677: 2671: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2623: 2617: 2608: 2602: 2593: 2587: 2576: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2523: 2517: 2506: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2460: 2453: 2447: 2440: 2434: 2422: 2416: 2409: 2403: 2396: 2390: 2383: 2358:, author of the 2328:Gojoseon–Han War 2087:Chinese New Year 1634:Southern Xiongnu 1630:Northern Xiongnu 1580:Battle of Yiwulu 1518:Battle of Zhizhi 1340:(Ferghana), and 1273:Battle of Loulan 1124:Qilian Mountains 1005:Qilian Mountains 903:By the reign of 776:ordered General 617:strategy, using 413:Sino–Xiongnu War 409:Han–Xiongnu Wars 349: 347: 337: 330: 323: 314: 313: 302: 300: 289: 242: 239: 227: 216: 172:Southern Xiongnu 165: 87: 78: 77: 55: 42:Han–Xiongnu War 39: 38: 21: 7377: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7332: 7331: 7330: 7325: 7301:Western Regions 7294:Chinese Tartary 7284:Eurasian nomads 7249: 7206:against Dzungar 7192: 7173:against Mongols 7159: 7121: 7088: 7046: 7030:against Xiongnu 7013:Chinese empires 7007: 6998: 6890:Nomadic empires 6884: 6878: 6848: 6843: 6838:Zhoubi Suanjing 6817:Huangdi Neijing 6782:Book of Origins 6760: 6756:Zhang Zhongjing 6682: 6647: 6561: 6452: 6443: 6339:Han–Xiongnu War 6300: 6294: 6263: 6261: 6242: 6240:Further reading 6237: 6231: 6212: 6193: 6174: 6155: 6136: 6117: 6098: 6079: 6060: 6041: 6022: 6003: 5979: 5978: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5900: 5881: 5862: 5843: 5820: 5801: 5782: 5763: 5742: 5723: 5704: 5685: 5666: 5647: 5624: 5593: 5574: 5553: 5530: 5511: 5492: 5473: 5454: 5435: 5416: 5397: 5370:10.2307/2718463 5349: 5326: 5303: 5284: 5265: 5246: 5210:10.2307/2055601 5186: 5181: 5173: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5089: 5082: 5074: 5067: 5059: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5024: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4985: 4977: 4970: 4962: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4911: 4904: 4896: 4889: 4881: 4877: 4869: 4862: 4854: 4850: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4823: 4815: 4804: 4796: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4727: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4696: 4688: 4681: 4673: 4658: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4617: 4609: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4576: 4561: 4553: 4549: 4536: 4532: 4519: 4515: 4507: 4492: 4484: 4475: 4467: 4456: 4448: 4439: 4431: 4416: 4408: 4404: 4396: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4360: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4302: 4295: 4281: 4277: 4262: 4258: 4250: 4246: 4238: 4231: 4223: 4216: 4208: 4197: 4189: 4185: 4177: 4170: 4162: 4147: 4139: 4130: 4122: 4099: 4091: 4084: 4076: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3982: 3975: 3967: 3960: 3952: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3906: 3898: 3891: 3883: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3844: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3781: 3777: 3769: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3734: 3732: 3723: 3722: 3716: 3714: 3707: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3683: 3676: 3668: 3653: 3645: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3604: 3595: 3587: 3576: 3568: 3559: 3551: 3538: 3531: 3515: 3511: 3482: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3419: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3384: 3371: 3363: 3356: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3254: 3246: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3210: 3202: 3195: 3187: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3135: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3070: 3062: 3053: 3045: 3038: 3030: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2991: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2962: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2931: 2923: 2912: 2904: 2900: 2892: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2857: 2853: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2824: 2816: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2781: 2772: 2764: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2680: 2672: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2626: 2618: 2611: 2603: 2596: 2588: 2579: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2549: 2545: 2537: 2526: 2518: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2463: 2454: 2450: 2441: 2437: 2423: 2419: 2410: 2406: 2397: 2393: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2304: 2268:Western Regions 2231:Ferghana horses 2193:(Bactria), and 2177:Western Regions 2111: 2101:came to power. 2067:Yizhixie Chanyu 2014:Laoshang Chanyu 1979: 1866: 1860: 1855: 1847:Western Regions 1778: 1754:Altai Mountains 1750:Northern Chanyu 1737: 1731: 1708:Bogda Mountains 1698:(Yanqi 焉耆) and 1622:Western Regions 1614:Emperor Guangwu 1582: 1576: 1520: 1514: 1468: 1456:Yenisei Kirghiz 1405:led to conflict 1389:heavenly horses 1373:Western Regions 1293: 1283: 1281:Battle of Jushi 1269: 1252:Yizhixie Chanyu 1198:Battle of Mobei 1186:ceramic statues 1178: 1176:Battle of Mobei 1172: 1085:The ruins of a 1079: 1059: 1040:. With the old 1014: 971: 946: 885: 879: 874: 814:walled defences 745: 713:Northern Chanyu 615:divide and rule 611:power struggles 567:Western Regions 557:to control the 500:. However, the 405: 404: 403: 398: 394:Altai Mountains 350: 346:Han–Xiongnu War 345: 343: 341: 301: 291: 285: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 241: 235: 229: 223: 217: 210: 208:Yizhixie Chanyu 206: 202: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 163: 159: 150: 146: 114: 85: 84:133 BC – 89 AD 56: 46: 43: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Han-Xiongnu War 15: 12: 11: 5: 7375: 7365: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7286: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7269: 7261: 7259: 7258:Related topics 7255: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7226: 7225: 7215: 7214: 7213: 7202: 7200: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7178:against Turpan 7175: 7169: 7167: 7161: 7160: 7158: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7131: 7129: 7123: 7122: 7120: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7098: 7096: 7090: 7089: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7056: 7054: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7040:Chief Official 7032: 7026: 7024: 7015: 7009: 7008: 7001: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6982: 6972: 6967: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6936: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6894: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6883:history series 6877: 6876: 6869: 6862: 6854: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6820: 6813: 6806: 6799: 6792: 6785: 6778: 6770: 6768: 6762: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6692: 6690: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6669: 6668: 6657: 6655: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6637:Chief Official 6630: 6625: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6613: 6611:Nine Ministers 6603: 6602: 6601: 6596: 6586: 6581: 6575: 6573: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6559: 6554: 6553: 6552: 6542: 6537: 6530: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6506: 6501: 6494: 6487: 6480: 6473: 6468: 6462: 6460: 6454: 6453: 6446: 6444: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6439: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6400: 6395: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6367:Han–Minyue War 6360: 6359: 6358: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6341: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6310: 6308: 6302: 6301: 6293: 6292: 6285: 6278: 6270: 6260: 6259: 6256:978-1792829154 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6229: 6216: 6210: 6197: 6191: 6178: 6172: 6159: 6153: 6140: 6134: 6121: 6115: 6102: 6096: 6083: 6077: 6064: 6058: 6045: 6039: 6026: 6020: 6007: 6001: 5988: 5980:|author2= 5963:978-0231081672 5962: 5949: 5904: 5898: 5885: 5879: 5866: 5860: 5847: 5841: 5824: 5818: 5805: 5799: 5786: 5780: 5767: 5761: 5746: 5740: 5727: 5721: 5708: 5702: 5689: 5683: 5670: 5664: 5651: 5645: 5628: 5622: 5597: 5591: 5578: 5572: 5557: 5551: 5534: 5528: 5515: 5509: 5496: 5490: 5477: 5471: 5458: 5452: 5439: 5433: 5420: 5414: 5401: 5395: 5382: 5353: 5347: 5330: 5324: 5307: 5301: 5288: 5282: 5269: 5263: 5250: 5244: 5231: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5179: 5160: 5148: 5131: 5119: 5107: 5095: 5080: 5065: 5042: 5030: 5007: 4995: 4983: 4968: 4953: 4941: 4929: 4917: 4902: 4887: 4875: 4860: 4848: 4833: 4821: 4802: 4781: 4769: 4757: 4745: 4733: 4718: 4706: 4694: 4690:Christian 1998 4679: 4656: 4644: 4615: 4594: 4582: 4559: 4547: 4530: 4513: 4490: 4473: 4454: 4437: 4414: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4366: 4351: 4339: 4327: 4300: 4294:978-9461616272 4293: 4275: 4256: 4244: 4240:Crespigny 2009 4229: 4225:Crespigny 2007 4214: 4195: 4183: 4179:Crespigny 2007 4168: 4145: 4128: 4124:Crespigny 2007 4097: 4093:Christian 1998 4082: 4065: 4053: 4041: 4029: 4012: 4000: 3988: 3973: 3958: 3943: 3931: 3919: 3904: 3889: 3874: 3862: 3850: 3835: 3831:Spakowski 1999 3823: 3811: 3799: 3787: 3775: 3756: 3744: 3735:|journal= 3701: 3689: 3674: 3651: 3634: 3622: 3610: 3593: 3574: 3557: 3536: 3529: 3509: 3476: 3464: 3449: 3437: 3425: 3402: 3390: 3369: 3354: 3339: 3330: 3318: 3293: 3281: 3269: 3252: 3235: 3223: 3219:Christian 1998 3208: 3193: 3176: 3164: 3152: 3133: 3118: 3101: 3089: 3068: 3051: 3036: 3021: 3009: 2997: 2980: 2968: 2956: 2944: 2929: 2910: 2898: 2875: 2863: 2851: 2839: 2822: 2799: 2787: 2770: 2755: 2743: 2731: 2719: 2707: 2695: 2678: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2624: 2609: 2594: 2577: 2563: 2543: 2524: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2448: 2435: 2417: 2404: 2391: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2363: 2353: 2345: 2339: 2331: 2325: 2322:Han–Nanyue War 2319: 2313: 2303: 2300: 2110: 2107: 1978: 1975: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1777: 1774: 1730: 1727: 1575: 1572: 1536:Huhanye Chanyu 1524:Huyandi Chanyu 1513: 1510: 1467: 1464: 1268: 1265: 1171: 1168: 1078: 1075: 1058: 1055: 1013: 1010: 970: 967: 960:. Thereafter, 945: 942: 937:Junchen Chanyu 918:Junchen Chanyu 883:Battle of Mayi 878: 875: 873: 870: 744: 741: 472:. The unified 427:) between the 400: 399: 397: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 355: 352: 351: 340: 339: 332: 325: 317: 309: 308: 248: 204:Junchen Chanyu 196: 195: 191: 190: 154: 140: 139: 135: 134: 131: 130: 129: 128: 120: 116: 115: 97: 95: 91: 90: 82: 74: 73: 48: 47: 44: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7374: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7322: 7321:Greater China 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7306: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7262: 7260: 7256: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7224: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7216: 7212: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7199: 7195: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7156: 7155:Northern Yuan 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7124: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7107:Northern Liao 7105: 7103: 7100: 7099: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7069:against Tibet 7067: 7065: 7064:Eastern Turks 7061: 7058: 7057: 7055: 7053: 7049: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7027: 7025: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7010: 7005: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6976: 6975:Mongol Empire 6973: 6971: 6970:Khamag Mongol 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6882: 6875: 6870: 6868: 6863: 6861: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6840: 6839: 6835: 6833: 6832: 6828: 6826: 6825: 6824:Shuowen Jiezi 6821: 6819: 6818: 6814: 6812: 6811: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6800: 6798: 6797: 6793: 6791: 6790: 6786: 6784: 6783: 6779: 6777: 6776: 6772: 6771: 6769: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6685: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6667: 6664: 6663: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6644: 6641: 6638: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6574: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6558: 6555: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6535: 6531: 6529: 6528: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6511: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6499: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6488: 6486: 6485: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6438: 6435: 6434: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6352: 6349: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6315: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6298: 6291: 6286: 6284: 6279: 6277: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6244: 6232: 6230:81-208-1408-8 6226: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6173:0-521-24327-0 6169: 6165: 6160: 6156: 6154:9780520013742 6150: 6146: 6141: 6137: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6118: 6112: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6089: 6084: 6080: 6074: 6070: 6065: 6061: 6055: 6051: 6046: 6042: 6040:1-900838-03-6 6036: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6017: 6013: 6008: 6004: 5998: 5994: 5989: 5985: 5973: 5965: 5959: 5955: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5905: 5901: 5899:0-07-141279-4 5895: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5876: 5872: 5867: 5863: 5857: 5853: 5848: 5844: 5838: 5833: 5832: 5825: 5821: 5815: 5811: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5792: 5787: 5783: 5781:0-521-24327-0 5777: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5754: 5753: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5733: 5728: 5724: 5718: 5714: 5709: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5676: 5671: 5667: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5642: 5637: 5636: 5629: 5625: 5623:0-415-23955-9 5619: 5615: 5611: 5610:New York City 5607: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5588: 5584: 5579: 5575: 5573:0-521-49781-7 5569: 5565: 5564: 5558: 5554: 5548: 5543: 5542: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5506: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5491:0-521-77064-5 5487: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5472:0-521-47030-7 5468: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5449: 5445: 5440: 5436: 5434:0-8420-5103-1 5430: 5426: 5421: 5417: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5354: 5350: 5344: 5339: 5338: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5316: 5315: 5308: 5304: 5302:0-521-24327-0 5298: 5294: 5289: 5285: 5283:9780691150345 5279: 5275: 5270: 5266: 5260: 5256: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5189: 5188: 5176: 5171: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5157: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5128: 5123: 5116: 5115:Millward 2006 5111: 5104: 5099: 5092: 5087: 5085: 5077: 5072: 5070: 5062: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5039: 5034: 5027: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5012: 5004: 4999: 4992: 4987: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4965: 4960: 4958: 4950: 4945: 4938: 4933: 4926: 4921: 4914: 4909: 4907: 4899: 4894: 4892: 4884: 4879: 4872: 4867: 4865: 4857: 4852: 4845: 4840: 4838: 4830: 4825: 4818: 4813: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4799: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4778: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4754: 4749: 4742: 4737: 4730: 4725: 4723: 4715: 4710: 4703: 4698: 4691: 4686: 4684: 4676: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4663: 4661: 4653: 4648: 4641: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4612: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4591: 4586: 4579: 4578:Millward 2006 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4556: 4551: 4543: 4542: 4534: 4526: 4525: 4517: 4510: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4487: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4470: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4451: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4434: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4411: 4406: 4399: 4394: 4387: 4382: 4375: 4370: 4363: 4358: 4356: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4296: 4290: 4286: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4260: 4253: 4248: 4241: 4236: 4234: 4226: 4221: 4219: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4192: 4187: 4180: 4175: 4173: 4165: 4160: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4125: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4094: 4089: 4087: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4062: 4057: 4050: 4045: 4038: 4033: 4026: 4025:Millward 2006 4021: 4019: 4017: 4009: 4008:Millward 2006 4004: 3997: 3992: 3985: 3980: 3978: 3970: 3965: 3963: 3955: 3950: 3948: 3940: 3935: 3928: 3923: 3916: 3911: 3909: 3901: 3896: 3894: 3886: 3881: 3879: 3871: 3870:Grousset 2002 3866: 3859: 3854: 3847: 3842: 3840: 3832: 3827: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3807:Barfield 1981 3803: 3796: 3791: 3784: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3753: 3748: 3740: 3727: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3693: 3686: 3681: 3679: 3671: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3648: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3631: 3630:Millward 1998 3626: 3619: 3618:Boulnois 2004 3614: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3590: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3554: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3532: 3526: 3522: 3521: 3513: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3480: 3473: 3468: 3461: 3456: 3454: 3446: 3441: 3434: 3429: 3422: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3399: 3394: 3387: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3366: 3365:Millward 2006 3361: 3359: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3334: 3327: 3322: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3290: 3289:Barfield 1981 3285: 3278: 3273: 3266: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3249: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3232: 3227: 3220: 3215: 3213: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3190: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3173: 3172:Barfield 1981 3168: 3161: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3130: 3125: 3123: 3115: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3098: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3048: 3043: 3041: 3033: 3028: 3026: 3018: 3013: 3006: 3001: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2960: 2953: 2948: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2926: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2907: 2902: 2895: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2872: 2867: 2860: 2855: 2848: 2843: 2836: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2796: 2795:Barfield 2001 2791: 2784: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2767: 2762: 2760: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2735: 2728: 2723: 2716: 2711: 2704: 2699: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2675: 2670: 2668: 2660: 2655: 2648: 2647:Beckwith 2009 2643: 2636: 2635:Beckwith 2009 2631: 2629: 2621: 2616: 2614: 2606: 2601: 2599: 2591: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2566: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2547: 2540: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2522:, p. 40. 2521: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2504: 2499: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2471: 2458: 2452: 2445: 2439: 2431: 2430:Son of Heaven 2427: 2426:Hulsewé (1979 2421: 2414: 2408: 2401: 2395: 2388: 2382: 2378: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2244: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2189:(Soghdiana), 2188: 2183: 2178: 2172: 2170: 2167:(present-day 2166: 2162: 2158: 2155:(present-day 2154: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2060: 2059:Hexi Corridor 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2007: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1950:standing army 1946: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1876: 1870: 1865: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1828: 1823: 1817: 1814: 1806: 1805:Guimet Museum 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789:Central Asian 1786: 1782: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1736: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1564:Zhizhi Chanyu 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1532:Zhizhi Chanyu 1529: 1525: 1519: 1509: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1435:(present-day 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1362: 1357: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1214:Orkhon Valley 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1140:Hexi Corridor 1136: 1132: 1127: 1125: 1120: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1102:Hexi Corridor 1099: 1092: 1088: 1083: 1077:Hexi Corridor 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1009: 1006: 1002: 998: 995:captured the 994: 990: 986: 979: 975: 966: 963: 959: 955: 951: 941: 938: 934: 930: 925: 923: 919: 915: 910: 906: 898: 894: 889: 884: 869: 867: 863: 859: 855: 854:Emperor Gaozu 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 830: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 774:Qin Shi Huang 772:. In 215 BC, 771: 767: 762: 758: 754: 750: 740: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 669:vassal states 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 635: 630: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 563:Hexi Corridor 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 537: 536: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 512:. After the 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 482:First Emperor 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 450: 448: 444: 440: 437: 433: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 353: 348: 338: 333: 331: 326: 324: 319: 318: 315: 306: 299: 294: 290: 288: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 249: 246: 240: 238: 232: 231:Zhizhi Chanyu 228: 226: 221:Chanyu 220: 215: 209: 205: 201: 198: 197: 192: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 162: 158: 155: 153: 149: 145: 142: 141: 136: 126: 125: 124: 123:Han victory 121: 118: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 96: 93: 92: 83: 80: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 54: 49: 40: 33: 19: 7311:China proper 7277:Central Asia 7264: 7112:Eastern Liao 7102:Western Liao 6836: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6808: 6801: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6773: 6532: 6525: 6508: 6496: 6489: 6482: 6475: 6403:Red Eyebrows 6262: 6247: 6220: 6201: 6182: 6163: 6144: 6125: 6106: 6087: 6068: 6049: 6030: 6011: 5992: 5953: 5912: 5908: 5889: 5870: 5851: 5830: 5809: 5790: 5771: 5751: 5731: 5712: 5693: 5674: 5655: 5634: 5601: 5582: 5562: 5540: 5519: 5500: 5481: 5462: 5443: 5424: 5405: 5386: 5361: 5357: 5336: 5313: 5292: 5273: 5254: 5235: 5203:(1): 45–61. 5200: 5196: 5184:Bibliography 5151: 5122: 5110: 5098: 5033: 4998: 4986: 4944: 4932: 4920: 4878: 4851: 4824: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4736: 4709: 4697: 4647: 4585: 4550: 4540: 4533: 4523: 4516: 4405: 4393: 4381: 4369: 4342: 4330: 4284: 4278: 4269: 4259: 4247: 4186: 4141:Whiting 2002 4056: 4044: 4032: 4003: 3991: 3934: 3922: 3915:Whiting 2002 3865: 3858:Psarras 2004 3853: 3826: 3814: 3802: 3790: 3778: 3747: 3726:cite journal 3715:. Retrieved 3704: 3692: 3670:Hulsewé 1979 3625: 3613: 3519: 3512: 3493: 3489: 3479: 3467: 3440: 3428: 3393: 3350:Whiting 2002 3333: 3321: 3314:Whiting 2002 3284: 3272: 3248:Whiting 2002 3226: 3167: 3160:Whiting 2002 3155: 3114:Whiting 2002 3092: 3064:Whiting 2002 3047:Whiting 2002 3012: 3000: 2993:Whiting 2002 2971: 2959: 2947: 2925:Whiting 2002 2906:Whiting 2002 2901: 2866: 2854: 2842: 2835:Whiting 2002 2790: 2746: 2734: 2722: 2710: 2698: 2654: 2642: 2568:. Retrieved 2553: 2546: 2498: 2486: 2474: 2451: 2438: 2429: 2420: 2407: 2394: 2381: 2359: 2347: 2333: 2307: 2280: 2248: 2243:Lewis (2007) 2239: 2199: 2173: 2141: 2128: 2120: 2103: 2095:Wang Zhaojun 2091:Emperor Yuan 2083:Emperor Xuan 2079: 2071:Wuwei Chanyu 2063: 2011: 1967:Emperor Xuan 1963:Emperor Zhao 1959: 1955: 1947: 1935:Emperor Jing 1932: 1913: 1911: 1892: 1874: 1831: 1818: 1810: 1762:Mount Yanran 1738: 1729:Final stages 1693: 1654: 1638: 1626: 1604:usurped the 1599: 1541: 1521: 1503: 1484: 1445: 1409: 1366: 1302:commanderies 1294: 1246: 1222: 1195: 1128: 1121: 1114: 1095: 1060: 1030:commanderies 1015: 997:Ordos Desert 982: 947: 926: 902: 831: 786:Ordos region 766:Eastern Zhou 746: 737:Qiang people 695:states like 671:. After the 631: 623:Wang Zhaojun 595:Central Asia 593:deeply into 583:Emperor Xuan 544: 533: 498:Ordos region 451: 412: 408: 406: 304: 286: 244: 236: 224: 167: 138:Belligerents 122: 112:Central Asia 98:Present-day 66:Central Asia 7084:Tarim Basin 6736:Luoxia Hong 6599:Family tree 6484:Book of Han 6398:Xin dynasty 6297:Han dynasty 5364:: 148–173. 5127:Chang 2007a 5103:Bowman 2000 4777:Chang 2007a 4652:Chang 2007a 4486:Chang 2007a 4469:Chang 2007a 4410:Chang 2007b 4374:Wintle 2002 4347:Tanner 2009 3996:Tanner 2009 3984:Tanner 2009 3954:Higham 2004 3697:Chang 2007a 3685:Baumer 2003 3606:Golden 2011 3589:Lovell 2006 3553:Golden 2011 3445:Chang 2007b 3386:Golden 2011 3204:Chang 2007b 3148:Chang 2007a 3097:Chang 2007a 3005:Lovell 2006 2976:Chang 2007a 2964:Gernet 1996 2871:Chang 2007a 2859:Torday 1997 2727:Chang 2007a 2479:Chang 2007b 2457:Lewis (2007 2309:Book of Han 2209:valley and 2085:during the 1898:Emperor Wen 1872:The statue 1718:killed the 1681:Tarim Basin 1669:Lake Barkol 1618:Tarim Basin 1479:Eastern Han 1297:Tarim Basin 1242:Lake Baikal 1218:Gobi Desert 1071:Gobi Desert 846:Han dynasty 747:During the 689:auxiliaries 637:Xin dynasty 634:interregnum 632:During the 571:Gobi Desert 555:expeditions 522:Emperor Gao 506:Modu Chanyu 474:Qin dynasty 293:Prince Hsin 200:Modu Chanyu 161:Xin dynasty 157:Han dynasty 70:Mogao Caves 7336:Categories 7316:Sinosphere 7218:Lifan Yuan 7117:Later Liao 6881:Inner Asia 6751:Zhang Heng 6746:Wang Chong 6567:Government 6545:Han poetry 5144:Lewis 2007 5076:Lewis 2007 5063:, 410–411. 5028:, 409–410. 4993:, 408–409. 4966:, 407–408. 4949:Lewis 2007 4925:Lewis 2007 4915:, 438–439. 4885:, 437–438. 4856:Lewis 2007 4846:, 436–437. 4831:, 424–425. 4798:Lewis 2000 4767:, 403–404. 4743:, 400–401. 4716:, 398–399. 4654:, 140–141. 4590:Lewis 2007 4471:, 151–152. 4450:Cosmo 2002 4433:Lewis 2000 4388:, 203–204. 4386:Cosmo 2002 4362:Lewis 2007 4252:Lewis 2007 4166:, 414–415. 4080:, 399–400. 4063:, 392–394. 4051:, 196–198. 4049:Loewe 1986 3939:Loewe 2006 3902:, 211–213. 3900:Loewe 1986 3887:, 396–398. 3848:, 394–395. 3819:Lewis 2007 3717:2019-01-11 3472:Loewe 2009 3462:, 409–411. 3435:, 137–138. 3433:Lewis 2007 3423:, 390–391. 3400:, 250–251. 3398:Cosmo 2002 3326:Chang 1966 3316:, 154–155. 3277:Loewe 2009 3265:Chang 1966 3231:Cosmo 2002 3116:, 152–153. 3066:, 151–152. 3034:, 153–154. 3017:Loewe 2009 2954:, 237–239. 2952:Cosmo 2002 2847:Cosmo 2002 2785:, 389–390. 2768:, 211–214. 2766:Cosmo 2002 2751:Lewis 2000 2717:, 132–136. 2715:Lewis 2007 2676:, 385–386. 2659:Cheng 2005 2620:Cosmo 1999 2605:Lewis 2007 2592:, 892–893. 2590:Cosmo 1999 2570:2 February 2520:Graff 2002 2503:Graff 2002 2467:References 2444:Lewis 2007 2413:Lewis 2007 2400:Lewis 2007 2387:Lewis 2007 2281:In 25 AD, 2235:Li Guangli 2153:Youbeiping 2026:Zhang Qian 1989:-inspired 1884:Huo Qubing 1862:See also: 1807:(MA 4660). 1791:man, with 1745:expedition 1743:led a Han 1560:Kazakhstan 1460:Li Guangli 1381:Emperor Wu 1369:Zhang Qian 1367:In 115 BC 1361:Huo Qubing 1285:See also: 1225:Huo Qubing 1206:Huo Qubing 1135:Huo Qubing 1131:Huo Qubing 1110:Huo Qubing 1106:Huo Qubing 1098:Emperor Wu 1012:Ordos Loop 1001:Huo Qubing 989:Huo Qubing 922:Emperor Wu 909:Han empire 905:Emperor Wu 897:Emperor Wu 893:Han empire 834:Qin Er Shi 826:Qin empire 790:Ordos Loop 743:Background 703:, General 665:conscripts 559:Ordos Loop 547:Emperor Wu 480:under the 466:Great Wall 432:Han Empire 305:and others 261:Huo Qubing 245:and others 62:Zhang Qian 58:Emperor Wu 7230:Manchuria 7183:Manchuria 7140:Manchuria 6726:Liu Xiang 6706:Ding Huan 6673:Silk Road 6540:Old Texts 6510:Huainanzi 6471:Sima Qian 5972:cite book 5945:193415523 5929:0254-9948 5915:: 37–93. 5614:Routledge 5227:145078285 3570:Haar 2009 3496:(1): 52. 3129:Deng 2007 2356:Sima Qian 2287:Wang Mang 2276:Silk Road 2219:Amu Darya 2207:Ili River 2109:Geography 2099:Wang Mang 2055:Amu River 2045:康居), and 2039:Soghdiana 1977:Diplomacy 1927:equipment 1827:Ili River 1801:Later Han 1776:Aftermath 1752:into the 1677:Dzungaria 1602:Wang Mang 1544:Chen Tang 1336:(Bügür), 1067:Dingxiang 1051:Tuqi King 778:Meng Tian 721:Dzungaria 649:Wang Mang 486:Meng Tian 374:Tian Shan 164:(9–23 AD) 86:90–91 AD 7245:Xinjiang 7235:Mongolia 7211:genocide 7145:Mongolia 6980:Chagatai 6913:Göktürks 6741:Sima Tan 6701:Cai Yong 6579:Ban Chao 6571:military 6534:Yiwu Zhi 6412:Chengjia 5937:40727309 4800:, 46–48. 4488:, 86–88. 4435:, 46–47. 4325:, 71–72. 4027:, 23–24. 4010:, 22–23. 3754:, p. 81. 3672:, 89–91. 3608:, 29–30. 3131:, 53–54. 3019:, 69–70. 2861:, 91–92. 2818:Guo 2002 2739:Guo 2002 2649:, 71–72. 2302:See also 2260:Zheng Ji 2241:was, as 2227:Ferghana 2225:against 2169:Liaoning 2165:Liaodong 2075:Chang'an 2031:Ferghana 1971:Zheng Ji 1939:Liaodong 1906:chariots 1894:Chao Cuo 1858:Military 1835:Ban Chao 1829:valley. 1813:Dou Xian 1793:Scythian 1758:Dou Xian 1741:Dou Xian 1712:Karasahr 1696:Karasahr 1641:Ban Chao 1590:Ban Chao 1568:Chang'an 1542:General 1496:Dingling 1448:Zhao Xin 1441:Ruoqiang 1437:Kargilik 1433:Shanshan 1429:Shanshan 1425:Chang'an 1420:Fu Jiezi 1401:Ferghana 1350:Dunhuang 1318:Dunhuang 1256:chariots 1248:Wei Qing 1212:and the 1202:Wei Qing 1184:Painted 1160:Dunhuang 1091:Dunhuang 1063:Wei Qing 1047:Wei Qing 1038:Shuofang 1026:Yunzhong 1018:Wei Qing 993:Wei Qing 985:Wei Qing 962:Wei Qing 950:Wei Qing 842:Liu Bang 818:Liaodong 705:Dou Xian 657:Goguryeo 641:Wuzhuliu 528:, and a 434:and the 281:Li Guang 279:General 276:Dou Xian 274:General 271:Ban Chao 269:General 264:General 259:General 256:Wei Qing 254:General 104:Mongolia 94:Location 7289:Tartary 7079:Beiting 6994:Dzungar 6989:Timurid 6940:Tibetan 6903:Xianbei 6898:Xiongnu 6796:Fangyan 6731:Liu Xin 6716:Hua Tuo 6696:Cai Lun 6661:Coinage 6653:Economy 6589:Emperor 6584:Ma Yuan 6306:History 5378:2718463 5219:2055601 5175:Yü 1986 5156:Yü 1986 5091:Yü 1986 5061:Yü 1986 5038:Yü 1986 5026:Yü 1986 5003:Yü 1986 4991:Yü 1986 4979:Yü 1986 4964:Yü 1986 4937:Yü 1986 4913:Yü 1986 4898:Yü 1986 4883:Yü 1986 4871:Yü 1986 4844:Yü 1986 4829:Yü 1986 4817:Yü 1986 4765:Yü 1986 4753:Yü 1986 4741:Yü 1986 4729:Yü 1986 4714:Yü 1986 4675:Yü 1986 4640:Yü 1986 4611:Yü 1986 4555:Yü 1994 4509:Yü 1986 4398:Yü 1967 4335:Yü 1986 4323:Wu 2013 4210:Yü 1986 4191:Yü 1986 4164:Yü 1986 4078:Yü 1986 4061:Yü 1986 4037:Yü 1986 3927:Yü 1986 3885:Yü 1986 3872:, 37–38 3846:Yü 1986 3795:Yü 2002 3771:Yü 1994 3647:Yü 1994 3460:Yü 1986 3421:Yü 1986 3189:Yü 1986 2940:Yü 1986 2894:Yü 1986 2783:Yü 1986 2703:Yü 1986 2691:Yü 1986 2674:Yü 1986 2539:Wu 2013 2491:Yü 1986 2446:, 131). 2415:, 131). 2402:, 131). 2389:, 131). 2342:Li Ling 2283:Liu Xiu 2205:in the 2145:Shanggu 2136:Liu Xin 2047:Bactria 1999:Mercury 1995:Xiongnu 1987:nomadic 1933:During 1902:Xiongnu 1797:Kushans 1768:in the 1723:Chen Mu 1661:Jiuquan 1646:Kashgar 1594:Kashgar 1475:Ceramic 1452:Li Ling 1306:Jiuquan 1229:Lu Bode 1156:Zhangye 1152:Jiuquan 1144:Lop Nur 782:Xiongnu 697:Xianbei 653:usurped 627:Huhanye 535:de jure 439:Xiongnu 436:nomadic 429:Chinese 287:† 237:† 225:† 184:Xianbei 144:Xiongnu 108:Siberia 6960:Mongol 6955:Kyrgyz 6950:Uyghur 6908:Rouran 6721:Liu An 6711:Du Shi 6466:Ban Gu 6299:topics 6254: 6227: 6208: 6189: 6170: 6151: 6132: 6113: 6094: 6075: 6056: 6037: 6018: 5999: 5960: 5943: 5935: 5927: 5896: 5877: 5858: 5839: 5816: 5797: 5778: 5759: 5738: 5719: 5700: 5681: 5662: 5643: 5620: 5606:London 5589: 5570: 5549: 5526: 5507: 5488: 5469: 5450: 5431: 5412: 5393: 5376: 5345: 5322: 5299: 5280: 5261: 5242: 5225: 5217: 5177:, 414. 5158:, 413. 5129:, 229. 5093:, 411. 5078:, 145. 5005:, 409. 4981:, 408. 4951:, 140. 4939:, 407. 4927:, 150. 4900:, 438. 4873:, 437. 4858:, 149. 4819:, 424. 4779:, 147. 4755:, 401. 4731:, 400. 4704:, 236. 4692:, 201. 4677:, 398. 4642:, 395. 4613:, 394. 4557:, 127. 4511:, 419. 4452:, 203. 4364:, 137. 4349:, 116. 4337:, 405. 4291: 4254:, 138. 4242:, 101. 4227:, 171. 4212:, 415. 4143:, 195. 4095:, 202. 4039:, 399. 3998:, 112. 3986:, 110. 3971:, 237. 3956:, 368. 3929:, 396. 3917:, 179. 3833:, 216. 3821:, 137. 3797:, 138. 3785:, 460. 3773:, 135. 3699:, 225. 3687:, 134. 3649:, 132. 3527: 3447:, 174. 3352:, 155. 3328:, 161. 3267:, 158. 3250:, 154. 3233:, 240. 3221:, 196. 3191:, 391. 3162:, 153. 3150:, 201. 3087:, 109. 3049:, 151. 2995:, 149. 2978:, 189. 2966:, 120. 2942:, 390. 2927:, 148. 2908:, 147. 2896:, 390. 2873:, 159. 2849:, 214. 2837:, 146. 2820:, 185. 2741:, 180. 2729:, 152. 2705:, 388. 2693:, 386. 2622:, 964. 2561: 2493:, 438. 2295:Dou Gu 2211:Dayuan 2195:Yutian 2187:Kangju 2163:, and 2161:Liaoxi 2149:Yuyang 2043:Kangju 2035:Dayuan 2018:Yuezhi 2006:bronze 2003:gilded 1919:horses 1853:Impact 1785:Mingqi 1704:Turfan 1689:Dou Gu 1657:Dou Gu 1505:Hanshu 1500:Wuhuan 1416:Loulan 1397:Dayuan 1342:Kangju 1338:Dayuan 1334:Luntai 1330:Turfan 1322:Loulan 1289:, and 1279:, and 1162:, and 1034:Wuyuan 958:Yuyang 954:Yanmen 907:, the 895:under 872:Course 862:Shanxi 858:Datong 822:Lintao 798:Touman 759:, and 751:, the 725:151 AD 693:Donghu 661:Wuhuan 651:, who 647:after 607:chanyu 518:202 BC 490:215 BC 476:, who 462:states 447:188 AD 443:200 BC 421:133 BC 389:Yiwulu 384:Zhizhi 369:Loulan 295: 283: 266:Dou Gu 233: 180:Wuhuan 152:Wuhuan 119:Result 110:, and 7240:Tibet 7223:Amban 7188:Tibet 7150:Tibet 6965:Tatar 6766:Texts 6623:Kings 6407:Lulin 5941:S2CID 5933:JSTOR 5374:JSTOR 5223:S2CID 5215:JSTOR 5146:, 25. 5117:, 22. 5105:, 12. 4592:, 21. 4580:, 20. 4412:, 18. 4400:, 14. 4376:, 99. 4181:, 73. 4126:, 4–6 3941:, 60. 3860:, 82. 3809:, 51. 3713:: 161 3632:, 25. 3620:, 82. 3591:, 73. 3572:, 75. 3555:, 30. 3474:, 71. 3388:, 29. 3367:, 21. 3291:, 58. 3279:, 72. 3174:, 50. 3007:, 71. 2797:, 25. 2753:, 43. 2661:, 15. 2637:, 71. 2607:, 59. 2541:, 71. 2373:Notes 2366:Su Wu 2203:Wusun 2191:Daxia 2182:Wusun 2157:Hebei 2131:Qiang 2051:Daxia 2037:大宛), 1943:Beidi 1923:shock 1888:Xi'an 1843:Kucha 1716:Kucha 1700:Kucha 1685:Jushi 1650:Kucha 1556:Taraz 1491:Wusun 1487:Wusun 1412:Jushi 1377:Wusun 1326:Jushi 1310:Wuwei 1164:Wuwei 1148:Qiang 1117:Xiutu 1022:Ordos 877:Onset 810:Suide 709:91 AD 701:89 AD 699:. In 685:48 AD 681:46 AD 677:25 AD 645:11 AD 603:60 BC 579:87 BC 573:with 530:truce 425:89 AD 379:Jushi 364:Mobei 219:Xiutu 188:Wusun 176:Qiang 148:Qiang 100:China 7198:Qing 7165:Ming 7127:Yuan 7094:Liao 7052:Tang 6945:Zubu 6594:list 6569:and 6405:and 6252:ISBN 6225:ISBN 6206:ISBN 6187:ISBN 6168:ISBN 6149:ISBN 6130:ISBN 6111:ISBN 6092:ISBN 6073:ISBN 6054:ISBN 6035:ISBN 6016:ISBN 5997:ISBN 5984:help 5958:ISBN 5925:ISSN 5894:ISBN 5875:ISBN 5856:ISBN 5837:ISBN 5814:ISBN 5795:ISBN 5776:ISBN 5757:ISBN 5736:ISBN 5717:ISBN 5698:ISBN 5679:ISBN 5660:ISBN 5641:ISBN 5618:ISBN 5587:ISBN 5568:ISBN 5547:ISBN 5524:ISBN 5505:ISBN 5486:ISBN 5467:ISBN 5448:ISBN 5429:ISBN 5410:ISBN 5391:ISBN 5343:ISBN 5320:ISBN 5297:ISBN 5278:ISBN 5259:ISBN 5240:ISBN 4289:ISBN 3739:help 3525:ISBN 3206:, 8. 3099:, 5. 2572:2013 2559:ISBN 2481:, 8. 2217:and 1714:and 1673:Hami 1632:and 1546:and 1534:and 1308:and 1204:and 1196:The 1036:and 987:and 806:Fusu 757:Zhao 587:Yuan 585:and 565:and 452:The 407:The 359:Mayi 81:Date 45:漢匈戰爭 7022:Han 5917:doi 5366:doi 5205:doi 3498:doi 2215:Syr 2159:), 1941:to 1610:Xin 1606:Han 1439:or 1332:), 1314:Qin 1304:at 1188:of 1142:to 1087:Han 1042:Qin 933:Dai 820:to 761:Yan 753:Qin 625:to 601:in 492:in 488:in 423:to 303:... 243:... 64:to 7338:: 7062:/ 6550:Fu 6250:. 5976:: 5974:}} 5970:{{ 5939:. 5931:. 5923:. 5913:52 5911:. 5616:. 5612:: 5608:, 5604:. 5372:. 5362:26 5360:. 5221:. 5213:. 5201:41 5199:. 5195:. 5163:^ 5134:^ 5083:^ 5068:^ 5045:^ 5010:^ 4971:^ 4956:^ 4905:^ 4890:^ 4863:^ 4836:^ 4805:^ 4784:^ 4721:^ 4682:^ 4659:^ 4618:^ 4597:^ 4562:^ 4493:^ 4476:^ 4457:^ 4440:^ 4417:^ 4354:^ 4303:^ 4268:. 4232:^ 4217:^ 4198:^ 4171:^ 4148:^ 4131:^ 4100:^ 4085:^ 4068:^ 4015:^ 3976:^ 3961:^ 3946:^ 3907:^ 3892:^ 3877:^ 3838:^ 3759:^ 3730:: 3728:}} 3724:{{ 3677:^ 3654:^ 3637:^ 3596:^ 3577:^ 3560:^ 3539:^ 3492:. 3488:. 3452:^ 3405:^ 3372:^ 3357:^ 3342:^ 3296:^ 3255:^ 3238:^ 3211:^ 3196:^ 3179:^ 3136:^ 3121:^ 3104:^ 3071:^ 3054:^ 3039:^ 3024:^ 2983:^ 2932:^ 2913:^ 2878:^ 2825:^ 2802:^ 2773:^ 2758:^ 2681:^ 2666:^ 2627:^ 2612:^ 2597:^ 2580:^ 2527:^ 2510:^ 2278:. 2151:, 2147:, 1997:. 1799:. 1624:. 1558:, 1324:, 1275:, 1244:. 1158:, 1154:, 1073:. 860:, 804:. 755:, 711:, 659:, 639:, 561:, 520:, 449:. 106:, 102:, 68:, 7307:) 7303:( 6873:e 6866:t 6859:v 6639:) 6635:( 6394:) 6365:( 6320:) 6316:( 6289:e 6282:t 6275:v 6258:. 6233:. 6214:. 6195:. 6176:. 6157:. 6138:. 6119:. 6100:. 6081:. 6062:. 6043:. 6024:. 6005:. 5986:) 5966:. 5947:. 5919:: 5902:. 5883:. 5864:. 5845:. 5822:. 5803:. 5784:. 5765:. 5744:. 5725:. 5706:. 5687:. 5668:. 5649:. 5626:. 5595:. 5576:. 5555:. 5532:. 5513:. 5494:. 5475:. 5456:. 5437:. 5418:. 5399:. 5380:. 5368:: 5351:. 5328:. 5305:. 5286:. 5267:. 5248:. 5229:. 5207:: 4297:. 4272:. 3741:) 3737:( 3720:. 3533:. 3506:. 3500:: 3494:7 2574:. 2049:( 2041:( 2033:( 2001:- 1328:( 336:e 329:t 322:v 34:. 20:)

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Han–Xiongnu Wars

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