Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram

2442: 2701: 1959: 927: 951: 939: 1682: 2153: 4070:, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 27, No. 3, pages 267-268, context: 265-274, Quote: "The latter states that 'King Vicitracitta caused this temple dedicated to Brahma, Visnu, and Siva to be made without the use of brick, wood, metal, or mortar'. This has been interpreted as indicating that Mahendra claimed to be the first to make an important use of stone in religious architecture; it is argued that earlier buildings, in the perishable materials "brick, wood, metal, and mortar," have failed to survive because of the passage of time and the climate of the South. (...) As for the Mandagapattu inscription, a more reasonable interpretation of Mahendra's statement is that most of the earlier temples in the Tamil country had been built of all five materials, including stone; the Pallava king merely claimed that he had at Mandagapattu used stone only, dispensing with the other four." 911: 1263: 966: 2430: 1521: 2632: 55: 2141: 2668: 1017: 553: 2181:, holding pillars, and two pilasters. Behind them is another row of pillars. The walls of the pillared hall depict village life woven into the story of Krishna. Krishna holds Goverdhana Mountain, under which are people, cattle and other animals, in one section. In another section, a young man holds the hands of his beloved and pulls her in the direction he is going; although she resists slightly, she is willing. The panel then depicts a milkmaid carrying stacks of milk containers and a bundle of cattle feed on her head. Next to her is a man milking a cow. The cow has a calf, which she licks with a curved tongue. Above, Krishna plays the flute while people and animals listen intently. 773: 2818: 2873: 1414: 1509: 1670: 2056: 672: 8093: 255: 793:

temple was dedicated to "Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva". This was the first Pallava rock-built Hindu temple, and Mahendravarman I and his descendants probably constructed others. According to Mate and other scholars, the inscription implies that the Tamil people had a temple-construction tradition based on the mentioned materials which predated the 6th century. The Mandagapattu inscription is not isolated, and additional Mahendravarman I inscriptions relating to cave temples have been discovered across his kingdom. Further evidence is in the form of cave temples (such as the

1971: 1275: 2656: 1852: 285: 2569: 9619: 2882: 2470: 1071: 1757: 598: 2188: 847:, ten mandapas, two rock bas-reliefs and three structural temples. The monumental plan is based on a square and circle, or stacked squares (producing a rectangle). The reliefs, sculptures and architecture incorporate Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism, with each monument dedicated to a deity or a character in Hindu mythology. The monuments are a source of many 7th- and 8th-century Sanskrit inscriptions, providing insight into medieval South Indian history, culture, government and religion. 6771: 2771: 1159: 544:" by European sailors who landed on the coast after they saw the towers of seven Hindu temples. Seventh-century inscriptions refer to it as "Mamallapuram" or close variants; "Mahabalipuram" appears only after the 16th century, and (with Seven Pagodas) was used in colonial-era literature. The Tamil Nadu government adopted Mamallapuram as the official name of the site and township in 1957, and declared the monuments and coastal region a special tourism area and health resort in 1964. 1533: 806: 66: 1080: 2689: 2644: 2187: 9399: 2478: 9409: 9388: 44: 292: 262: 7839: 3002: 9419: 1572: 7831: 1563:, cutting deep grooves into the rock to create rough-hewn protuberances with margins. The hanging rocks were then cut off, and they repeated the process. After the excavation, other artisans moved in to polish the rocks and begin the creation of designs, motifs, friezes and Hindu iconography. The process of producing rock-cut cave temples influenced later structural Hindu temples. 2415:, is found at the southern end of the site (known locally as Yamapuri). Excavated on the eastern scarp of a boulder on the main Mamallapuram hill, above it are the ruins of the Olakkannesvara temple. According to Ramaswami, the temple is unfinished but what has been carved represents the ultimate in Tamil temple rock art. The cave has many panels, and their narrative follows the 757:. Mamallapuram's architecture is linked to Simhavishnu's son, Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE), who was a patron of the arts. Mahendravarman's son, Narsimha Varman I, built on his father's efforts and most scholars attribute many of the monuments to him. After a brief hiatus, temple and monument construction continued during the reign of Rajasimha (or Narasimhavarman II; 690–728). 1710:. This is an unusual depiction; Varaha is turned to his right instead of the typical left and affectionately holds (and looks at) the rescued Bhūmi instead of dangling her from his tusks. She sits near his raised knee, and the demon who created the chaotic waters is trampled by Varaha. The other characters in the panel include 594:(who lived in Tamil Nadu and was associated with the Pallava court) praised artists for their repair of a Vishnu sculpture at Mamallapuram. However, Daṇḍin's authorship of this text is disputed. The medieval Sanskrit text mentions the Mamallapuram monuments, an early tradition of repairs, and the significance of Vaishnavism. 1437:, it is adjacent to (and north of) the Descent of the Ganges bas-relief and south of Krishna's butter-ball monument. The two-storey, relatively-undamaged Ganesha Ratha, similar to Bhima Ratha, is 19 feet (5.8 m) long, 11.25 feet (3.43 m) wide and 28 feet (8.5 m) high. The first storey has five small 1749:-Trivikrama legend. The giant incarnation of the Vishnu dwarf avatar takes the third huge step to cover the heavens and Bali sits below, amazed. In the panel are other characters from the legend, such as Brahma and Shiva (seated on lotuses as witnesses). Again, the closest narration of the panel is the 2388:

panels of the Gajalakshmi and Durga Mahishamardini legends have the same (or similar) quality as the Varaha temple, Varaha- and Vamana-Trivikrama-legend panels are absent from Adivaraha. The north side has a standing Vishnu sculpture with two devotees, and the south side has a standing Harihara (half

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On the rear wall of the niche north of the sanctum is Gajalakshmi, and the southern niche shows Durga. The Durga panel symbolizes Shakti tradition and she is called "Vijaya Sri", the goddess of victory. Durga, depicted with four arms, stands on a lotus. A warrior is shown near her, ready to sacrifice

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Nineteenth-century reports note local mentions of "gilt tops of many pagodas" in the surf at sunrise, which elders talked about but could no longer be seen. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Mahabalipuram site was the focus of colonial-era tourist guides and speculation. Portions of many

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article, the tsunami exposed rocks with an "elaborately sculpted head of an elephant and a horse in flight", "a small niche with a statue of a deity; another rock with a reclining lion", and other Hindu religious iconography. Marine archaeologists and underwater diving teams have explored a site east

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briefly exposed the beachfront near Saluvankuppam (now north of Mahabalipuram), revealing inscriptions and structures. Badrinarayanan said in a BBC report that they dated to the 9th century and may have been destroyed by a 13th-century tsunami. The tsunami also revealed large structures on the seabed

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Mahabalipuram is known by several names, including Mamallapuram; Mamalla means "Great Wrestler", and refers to the 7th-century king Narasimha Varman I. Other names found in historic texts include Mamallapattana, Mavalipuram, Mavalivaram, Mavellipore, Mauvellipooram and Mahabalipur, all of which refer

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has laid the lawns and pathways around the monuments, and the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) has designed parks on both sides of the roads leading to the Shore Temple and the Five Rathas. A path from behind the Shore Temple to the Five Rathas and the conservation of more monuments

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A small temple in the original forecourt of the larger temple. The other two temples in the complex are behind the main temple, face each other and are known as the Rajasimhesvara (or Nripatisimha Pallava Vishnugriha) and the Kshatriyasimhesvara. The main shrine has Vishnu and Durga images. The rear

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found in other Mamallapuram cave temples, consistent with its Durga theme. Uniquely, the temple's interior artwork was completed before its facade details, ceiling or floor. Its southern pillar and pilaster are the only ones which have been finished. The temple is an example of parallel construction

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Evidence dating some of the Mamallapuram monuments to the early 7th century includes the Mandagapattu inscription (Laksitayana inscription) of Mahendravarman I. The inscription reads that he "brought into existence a temple without utilizing either timber or lime (mortar) or brick or metal", and the

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is praying for the Ganges to be brought to earth. Shiva receives the river, to which all life is racing in peace and thirst. This theory has not been universally accepted because central characters are missing or are inconsistent with their legends. The absence of a boar from the entire panel makes

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Most of its Nandi sculptures were in ruins and scattered around the main temple complex. Twentieth-century restoration efforts replaced them in accordance with the inscriptions, descriptions of the temple in medieval texts and excavations of layers which confirmed that Nandi bulls were seated along

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group is on a north–south axis with the Dharmaraja Ratha at the south end, followed by the Bhima, Arjuna and Draupadi Rathas. The latter two share a common platform. There is a lion west of the Arjuna-Draupadi platform, a seated bull on its east and a standing elephant on its southwest. The Nakula

690:' 1788 literary survey of Mahabalipuram brought the monuments to the attention of European scholars. Chambers interviewed local residents and linked the monumental art he saw to Hindu texts, calling it remarkable and expressive in narrative detail. A series of 19th-century studies, such as those by 2559:

temples). Surviving examples, fewer in number and representing a different stage, style and sophistication than the other monuments, are some of best examples of early medieval Tamil Hindu-temple architecture. These temples (like other monuments in Mamallapuram) were dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and

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The monuments are a fusion of religion, culture and legend relating to the Hindu religious pantheon. They are expressions through rock or inside boulders, on a grand scale, integrating nature and sculpture. The site has about forty monuments, in varying degrees of completion, categorized into five

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The Olakkanesvara temple is perched on the rock above the Mahishamardini cave temple. It is also known as the Old Lighthouse because of its conversion by British officials. The temple, built in the early 8th century from grey granite cut into blocks, is credited to King Rajasimha. It is severely

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Further in front of the cave temple, in the sand, is a tall, polished linga. This is not part of the cave temple, and is probably the only remnant of a free-standing temple. In front of the linga is a boulder with a three-by-six-foot Shakti rock relief of the Mahishasuramardini Durga legend. The

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pose, holds the bottom of a bow with the toe of her raised foot and grasps the top with her hand. Both wear earrings which hang from their ear lobes almost to their shoulders. The female guardians suggest that the deity in the sanctum was probably Durga, the Hindu warrior goddess. In the square

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in the form of a circle. Its long side has four round pillars and two rounded pilasters, with the base designed as seated lions. The north and south sides each have two square, massive pillars. The roof has crack lines, possibly caused by structural elements or centuries of weathering (such as

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This chronology has been the subject of scholarly disagreement. Some scholars, such as Marilyn Hirsh in 1987, have said that the earliest temples are traceable to about 600 (under the poet-king Mahendravarman I). Other, such as Nagaswamy in 1962, have said that King Rajasimha (690-728) was the

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The Draupadi Ratha is an 11 by 11 feet (3.4 by 3.4 m) stone structure north of Arjuna Ratha, and they share a platform. Dedicated to Draupadi (whose image is carved on the rear wall), it resembles a wooden hut and has a curved roof. There is a carved structure with alternating lions and

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complex is near the Mamallapuram shore, hence its modern name. It consists of a large temple, two smaller temples and many minor shrines, open halls, gateways, and other elements, much of which is buried by sand. The main temple is within a two-tier, compound wall with statues of Shiva's

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On the northern wall of the temple hall is the Mahishasuramardini legend rock relief, one of the most intricately-carved in the Mamallapuram monuments. On the southern wall of the hall is a carving of the Anantasayi Vishnu narrative with Madhu and Kaitabha. Both layouts are symmetrical.

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and Sahadeva Ratha is northwest of Bhima Ratha and southwest of Arjuna Ratha, behind the elephant. The cross-sectional axis of the Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha is in the centre of the group. All the temples have a west entrance except the Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha, which has a south entrance.

1040:. Its pillars have seated lions at the base. It has three levels; the lowest is solid (probably never carved out), and the upper two have shrines. The two upper levels are connected by stairs carved into the stone. The middle level has two shrines, and the uppermost has one. The 2389:

Vishnu, half Shiva). The Vishnu sculpture shares the Gajalakshmi side, and Harihara shares the Durga side. The temple's main sanctum has a stucco bas-relief of Varaha which was once painted. Other reliefs in the temple include Adisesha, Shiva Gangadhara, and Brahma and a

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The cave's rear wall has a square shrine which projects inside the rock, slightly above the floor. On each side of the sanctum the wall projects inward, creating two sunken niches. At the corners are pilasters with partially-formed dvarapalas, and the upper planks have

609:(1271-1295 CE) arrived in India on his way back to Venice from Southeast Asia, he mentioned (but did not visit) "Seven Pagodas" and the name became associated with the shore temples of Mahabalipuram in publications by European merchants centuries later. It appeared in 560:

Although the ancient history of Mahabalipuram is unclear, numismatic and epigraphical evidence and its temples suggest that it was a significant location before the monuments were built. It is speculated that it is the seaport of Sopatma mentioned in the 1st-century

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bas-relief, much of which has been erased. There is no evidence of panels in the side shrines. The ceilings of the three cells have plaster remnants and evidence that they may have been painted. The walls separating the three shrines were removed by later artisans.

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is defined by four pillars and two pilasters. One of its original pillars was moved to the nearby Adivaraha temple, and was replaced with an incongruous, plain pillar. Portions of another pillar are damaged. Lions are part of the pillar architecture instead of the

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bas-relief, depicting daily life in 7th-century India and two aspects of the Krishna legends: flute-playing and lifting Mount Govardhana. From 1790 to 1820, Mackenzie paid anonymous Indian artists to draw thousands of sketches of temple ruins, inscriptions and

656:(who never visited the site, but saw the monuments from a distance and heard about them) conflated Chinese and Burmese Buddhist pagoda designs with the Hindu temples and assumed that the temples were built by the Chinese. According to Anthony Hamilton's 1727 2038:

probably contained Durga. None of the images have survived; only faint remnants are traceable, because most of the wall reliefs were chiselled off. On the floor between the two pillars of the facade is a Sanskrit inscription in the Grantha alphabet praising

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The Mamallapuram cave temples are incomplete, which has made them a significant source of information about how cave monuments were excavated and built in 7th-century India. Segments of the caves indicate that artisans worked with architects to mark off the

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The Shiva temples have been dated to the early 8th century and are attributed to the reign of the Pallava king Rajasimha (700-728). The Vishnu temple, with an image of a reclining Vishnu discovered after excavations, has been dated to the 7th century.

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holding auspicious jars of water and two large elephant heads; one lifts a water pitcher, and the other is tilting the pitcher to spray water. According to Alice Boner, the characters in the square Gajalakshmi panel are arranged in a circular mandala.

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which transliterates as "Sri Vamankusa". Since no king or Pallava official is known by that name, it probably signifies that the temple was built by a patron (according to Ramaswami, possibly Telugu). Srinivasan dates it to the early Mahendra period.

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This 7th century (or early 8th century) inscription is significant for several reasons. It is the earliest known stone inscription about the ten avatars of Vishnu, and prior to that, they are found in older texts. The stone inscription mentions the

2740:-like architecture. North of the main hill in Mamallapuram, it has been dated to the early 8th century and attributed to King Rajasimha. The temple, with a simple square design, is oriented to the east and its facade is supported by two slender, 1945:. Ramaswamy attributes the cave to King Rajasimha (late 7th or early 8th century), but Srinivasan and Hultzsch date it to the 7th-century King Paramesvara-varman I; other scholars assign it to the Mahendra period, based on its style. 986:; according to George Michell, above this plinth the "walls divide rhythmically into a number of projections and recesses between pilasters" (producing niches). Sculptures are within the niches, and the more-important sculptures have 1326:. Its shikara is round. The monument looks odd from the side, partly because its original pillars were replaced with modern ones which do not fit the texture (or style) of the originals. An elephant stands northwest of Arjuna Ratha. 1548:

is a Sanskrit term for a typically square vestibule, pillared hall or pavilion. It was a space for people to gather socially, usually for ceremonies and rite-of-passage rituals. Cells or sanctums would often be included, creating a

797:) which predate the Mamallapuram cave temples, suggesting that Indian artisans began exploring cave architecture before the Pallava period. The monuments at Mamallapuram are generally dated by scholars to the 7th and 8th centuries. 2513:

bas-relief is the Panchapandava mandapam, the largest (unfinished) cave temple excavated in Mamallapuram. It has six pillars, one of which has been restored, and two pilasters as its facade. Another row of pillars follows in the

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above it. The temple has two rows of four pillars and two pilasters. The front row is considerably simpler than the row near the shrines, which is intricately carved. The pilasters are four-sided and the pillars are cylindrical.

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Mamallapuram became prominent during the Pallava-era reign of Simhavishnu during the late 6th century, a period of political competition with the Pandyas, the Cheras and spiritual ferment with the rise of 6th- to 8th-century

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of the Shore Temple, one of the monuments, after the 2004 tsunami. This has revealed ruins of fallen walls, a large number of rectangular blocks and other structures parallel to the shore, and the forty surviving monuments.

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The temple facade consists of two pillars and two pilasters recessed about 18 inches (46 cm) from the rock front. The pillared platform leads to a mandapa and a sanctum in the rear. The base of the pillar has a molded

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developed the Mamallapuram monuments and coastal region as an archaeological, tourism and pilgrimage site by improving the road network and town infrastructure. In 1984, the site was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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described Pallava architecture, including those found at Mahabalipuram, into four chronological styles: Mahendra (610-640), Mamalla (640-670, under Narsimha Varman I), Rajasimha (674-800) and Nandivarman (800-900).

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horns; the fourth pair appears regal, with conical crowns and garlands as jonapadha . The fifth pair looks angry, with small fang-like tusks. The five nearly-square cells are empty. Scholars have interpreted the

629:, Balbi called it the "Seven Pagodas of China" (a re-interpretation of Henry Yule's reading of Balbi which considered Balbi unreliable, followed by a selective correction that it probably meant Mamallapuram). 776:

1808 map of Mahabalipuram. In the center is the main hill with the cave temples; the Shore Temple is near the protuberance on the coast, and the other monuments are within a few kilometres of the main hill.

2067:, dedicated to Shiva, has five cells (shrines) attached to its main hall and is named for the Koneri-pallam tank in front. Carved into the western side of the main hill in Mamallapuram, its facade has an 1149:

The Somaskanda panel is significant because it dates the temple to the early 7th century. It differs from those created in the Rajasimha period, and resembles those created during the early Pallava era.

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as an avatar of Vishnu in a Hindu temple. It also does not mention Krishna, but Balarama consistent with old Hindu and Jain texts of South India, the former equating Krishna to be identical to Vishnu.

1122:(Shiva) and two other obscure forms of Shiva. The upper-mid level has carvings of aspects of Shiva and Vishnu, suggesting that the artists revered both Hindu traditions. Included on this level are 2853:

it doubtful that it is single story, although scenes of Arjuna's penance and the descent of the Ganges are affirmed. The granite reliefs, from the early or middle 7th century, are considered by

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has a square floor plan within a rectangular frame (26.75 ft x 20.67 ft), and is 35.67 feet high. It has an open porch supported by pillars. The temple's pyramidal tower consists of a

2194: 1338:; three images are on the outer walls, and one is on an interior wall. The east-facing Durga is her Mahishasuramardini form, with the head of buffalo. Depicted elsewhere with her are devotees, 2814:

is considered one of the largest bas-relief works in the world. The relief, consisting of Hindu mythology, is carved on two 27-metre-long (89 ft), 9-metre-high (30 ft) boulders.

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pillars and two pilasters on one side of the main, oblong community hall. Inside are two side pillars, and the temple has one sanctum. It has inscriptions in Tamil, Sanskrit and Telugu.

1318:), and the rest are humans at various stages of life. Arjuna Ratha has a lion and Nandi on each side between it and the adjacent Draupadi Ratha, but their orientation suggests that the 2298:, both have been dated to the 7th-century Narasimha Varman I era. Although it has later inscriptions consecrating the temple, its style suggests that it was built earlier. The famed 2018:

with three square shrines. The side shrines were originally placed about two feet behind the central one, but all three shared a common raised base. The entrance to the shrines had

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and a relief of Dakshinamurti (Shiva as a yoga teacher). Its name is modern, based on the "ollock of oil" per day which was burnt by local residents to keep the temple flame lit.

950: 2520:, and largely-unfinished, deep side halls also contain pillars. Evidence of work in progress suggests that the cave was intended to have a walking path and large wall reliefs. 529:(prosperity) and reflects its being an ancient economic center for South India and Southeast Asia. This theory is partially supported by an 8th-century Tamil text by the early 2493:

hall. The floor level of the side shrines are about a foot higher than the central shrine. In the central shrine is a large rock relief of Somaskanda, with Shiva seated in a

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nor dedicated to the Pandavas; they are temples dedicated to deities and concepts of the Shaivi, (Shiva), Vaishnavi (Vishnu) and Shakti (Durga) traditions of Hinduism. These

6705: 2585:(vehicle), Nandi, surrounding it. The 60-foot (18 m)-high temple has a 50-square-foot (4.6 m) plan. It is a stepped pyramidal tower, arranged in five tiers with 2555:

The structural (free-standing) temples at Mamallapuram have been built with cut stones as building blocks, rather than carved into a rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (

1130:), Gangadhara (Shiva bringing the Ganges from heaven to earth), Vrishbhantika (Shiva with Nandi), Kankalamurti, Chandesa and Vishnu. The uppermost level has carvings of 1773:– and an antelope, medieval iconography common in South India. The Gajalakshmi is shown seated in a yoga asana on a lotus, holding two lotus buds. Jeweled, Durga wears 2531:

The Mamallapuram site includes a number of other unfinished cave temples. Among them are the Trimurti temple, dedicated to Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu; the Panchapandava

1555:. Mandapas also refer to rock-cut cave temples or shrines, built according to the same concept, and Mamallapuram has many mandapas dated to the 7th and 8th centuries. 698:, contained sketches of the monuments and impressions of the inscriptions. Some stories and speculation in Western literature, nevertheless, continued to be unusual. 9714: 6016: 2247:

is a later channel to drain water offerings over the linga. On the back wall of the sanctum is a square Somaskanda bas-relief panel of Shiva, Parvati and the infant

4713: 4687: 1290:, adjacent to Bhima Ratha, is also incomplete. One of the larger monuments, it is about six times smaller in area than the Dharmaraja Ratha. The square, two-level 1453:

at its top (similar to a cross on a church). The temple facade has two pillars and two pilasters. The column bases are shaped like seated lions and the middle is

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After a roughly 40-year delay, a master plan to beautify Mahabalipuram was implemented in 2003. The Union Ministry of Tourism and Culture is financing the multi-

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One of the most sophisticated and complete cave temples, Ramanuja had three cells. It was excavated in the center of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its eastern

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The Dharmaraja cave temple, also known as the Atyantakama cave temple, is on the south side of Mamallapuram hill near the Mahishamardini cave. It has a facade,

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is 46 feet (14 m) long, about 25 feet (7.6 m) high and about 25 feet wide. Its incomplete interior was probably intended to house a reclining Vishnu (

9455: 1589:-related cave temple, it is known for its four sculptures depicting Hindu legends: the Vamana-Trivikrama legend, the Varaha legend, the Durga legend and the 2270:

on the north wall. The inscriptions contain a dedication to Shiva, Parvati and Skanda, and the temple and reliefs have been dated to the early 8th century.

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it seems to barely rest on the rocky plinth. Butter well is located 40 metres north of Krishna's Butterball, excavated deep into the eroded rocky plinth.

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are five brothers with a common wife, Draupadi. Although the symbolism and grouping of the temples have led to these popular names, they are neither true

2975:-rupee Integrated Development of Mamallapuram project. The area around the monuments was cleaned up with fencing, lawns, paths, parks and the removal of 2266:

The temple contains an identical, 16-line Sanskrit inscription in two scripts: the South Indian Grantha alphabet on the south wall and the North Indian

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across their chest. The northernmost pair is the most damaged; one figure appears feminine. The second pair, to the south, is slightly inclined and has

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as "Setemelti" and "Santhome", a crude map of Asia but accurate in the relative positions of the two ports; the former is Mamallapuram and the latter

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The Adivaraha cave temple, also known as the Maha Varaha Vishnu temple, is still in use. It is known for sculptures relating the Hindu legends about

965: 3025: 2841:'s efforts to gain the weapon he needed to help good triumph over evil. A portion of the panel shows the help he received from Shiva to defeat the 2700: 1753:. The Trivikrama depiction is again unusual, because the Vamana portion of the legend is not shown (unlike other medieval Hindu temples in India). 254: 3108:

in Hindu texts on temple design, and they are a style of temple roof also found in early medieval temples in Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.

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The three cells were dedicated to Brahma, Shiva (the central cell) and Vishnu, or to three obscure forms of Shiva. The southern panel in the main

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Ancient and medieval texts mention many ports on Indian peninsular coast. The relative role and economic significance of each port is unclear.

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with a square rock platform. Many traditional Hindu-temple architectural elements are found here. Inside, the main excavation begins with an

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panel, different from others found in many of the monuments, depicts the goddess on her lion chasing a demon army led by the shape-shifting

284: 6691: 5665: 5622: 5479: 5362: 5237: 5195: 5136: 5084: 4849: 2752:(pavilions). The superstructure is tiered into squares, topped with an octagonal dome. The inside of the superstructure is cut to create a 6093: 5735: 5722: 5709: 5696: 586: 216: 9956: 9719: 7081: 6863: 3445:

KH Vora and S Sundaresh (2003), Mahabalipuram: A Saga of Glory to Tribulations, Migration & Diffusion, Vol. 4, Issue 16, pages 67-68

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The group has been the subject of archaeological interest since 1990, and excavations have yielded unexpected discoveries. According to

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European sailors and merchants who pioneered trade with Asia after the 16th century mentioned the site. Early reports, such as those by

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is a sophisticated cave, with large panels depicting Hindu mythology and the culture of 7th-century Tamil Nadu. The temple is near the

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to a "great wrestler city" or "city of Mahabali". The latter is related to the mythical Mahabali, the demon king defeated by the dwarf

9448: 7308: 3337: 2944: 2631: 1221:. The two on each side are the same size, and the middle one is larger. There is structural evidence on the top of eighteen original 625:

mentioned the "Seven Pagodas" and "Eight Pleasant Hillocks" in 1582, which Nagaswamy suggests refers to the monuments. According to

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According to Ramaswami, the word "Setemelti" is a Catalan derivative of Italian "Sette Templi" meaning "Seven temples or pagodas".

1958: 9815: 2497:(cross-legged) yoga posture and Parvati next to him with the infant Skanda. Behind them are a standing Brahma, Vishnu and Surya. 1585:

The Varaha cave was excavated from a vertical wall on the west face of the main Mamallapuram hill. Its architecture is simple; a

1730:. According to Alice Boner, the panel is a rectangle; the divine characters (except Bhūmi) are set in a square, and the earthly 1681: 10154: 7164: 7018: 6856: 706:'s (1st century BCE) writings about Indians who might have built three ancient Indian temple cities (including Mahabalipuram). 2152: 874:

in sand, carving legends in stone. The best-known are the five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the

10164: 7820: 6879: 6811: 6643: 6622: 6601: 6559: 6538: 6517: 6494: 6473: 6452: 6431: 6375: 6334: 6298: 6256: 6235: 6214: 6193: 5957: 5863: 5831: 5801: 5646: 5597: 5570: 5543: 5503: 5413: 5386: 5296: 5160: 5057: 5025: 4993: 4961: 4929: 4808: 4776: 4381: 4297: 4264: 4231: 4204: 4155: 4121: 4091: 3995: 3892: 3848: 3739: 3712: 3674: 3647: 3600: 3568: 3527: 3469: 3408: 3319: 3292: 3218: 3030: 2795: 2364:

The Fish, the Tortoise, the Boar, the Man-lion, the Dwarf, Parasurama, Dasarathi Rama, Balarama, Buddha and Kalki – thy ten.

2171: 428: 145: 84: 2655: 1790:

Kotikal is a simple, early excavation with two pilasters on its facade. In front of it are sockets, suggesting a structural

497:

The Mahabalipuram temples are in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, about 60 kilometres (37 mi) southwest of

9441: 2294:(Vaishnavism). The temple is at the northern end of the main Mamallapuram hill, on its western side. Similar to the Varaha 9574: 7134: 6367:

Theory and Practice of Temple Architecture in Medieval India: Bhoja's Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra and the Bhojpur Line Drawings

6123: 6020: 4717: 4691: 3035: 9971: 7570: 6580: 6410: 6354: 6277: 5756: 3974:

R. Nagaswamy (1962), "New Light on Mamallapuram", Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, pages 1–50

2845:. Included in the panel are Vishnu, Shiva, other gods and goddesses, sages, human beings, animals, reptiles and birds. 8484: 1934:. Although the cells on the sides were dedicated to Brahma and Vishnu (based on iconography), images are now missing. 9880: 6316: 5335: 4610: 4434: 4349: 3020: 470:); stone-cut temples built between 695 and 722, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. 9316: 2089:(door-guardian sculptures). These pairs are distinct, and all figures have signs of erosion or damage. Each wears a 769:

described it as reflecting three styles and stages of construction, calling the third period the Paramesvara style.

7119: 1520: 1173:(next to the Dharmaraja Ratha) is massive and has a roof resembling a vaulted barrel, reminiscent of woodwork. The 2429: 10179: 10092: 9564: 9304: 8835: 6816: 1044:

walls have carvings and inscriptions, one mentioning Narasimhavarman I. The western side of the top storey has a

97: 54: 2825:

There are two primary interpretations: the effort needed to bring the Ganges from the heavens to earth, and the

2714:

damaged, and its superstructure is missing; what remains is a square building with its west entrance flanked by

10159: 9951: 9835: 9779: 9422: 9133: 6393: 2986: 1987:. The temple was partially renovated centuries after its construction into a shrine for the Vaishnava scholar, 1438: 1186: 1029: 766: 562: 541: 486: 9475: 3767:

Maguire, Paddy. "Tsunami Reveals Ancient Temple Sites." BBC News (Online) 27 Oct. 2005. Retrieval 9 Sep. 2006

10184: 10011: 9991: 9262: 7388: 7053: 6977: 2793:, where a superstructure was added in front of the relief. The best-known rock relief in Mahablipuram is the 2539:; Pulipudar and adjacent cave temples near the Konerippallam tank and the Tiger Cave, also known as the Yali 1262: 510: 442: 140: 4863: 668:

was critical of European racism toward Indians, and theorized that the Mahabalipuram temples were very old.

637:

about a kilometre offshore, which archaeologists speculate may be the ancient Mahabalipuram. According to a

177: 10006: 9986: 9559: 9311: 7174: 7169: 6923: 6900: 3867:

Descriptive and Historical Papers Relating to the Seven Pagodas on the Coromandel Coast by William Chambers

3818:

Descriptive and Historical Papers Relating to the Seven Pagodas on the Coromandel Coast by William Chambers

3015: 2936: 2140: 711: 687: 209: 3731:

Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial Tamilakam and Īlam: Prologue. The Pre-Pallava and the Pallava period

3503:

Shoreline changes along Tamil Nadu coast: A study based on archaeological and coastal dynamics perspective

2817: 9966: 9754: 9584: 9326: 7124: 6206:

A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture: Treating of Sanskrit Architectural Terms with Illustrative Quotations

6183: 2748:

into pilastered columns. Artisans shaped the roof to resemble timber, and the corners have square, domed

2745: 781:

probable patron of many monuments; many temple inscriptions contain one of his names and his distinctive

1294:

has one shrine and mirrors the Dharmaraja Ratha; the decoration and structure of the cornice, kudus and

1008:. The upper level repeated (at a reduced level) the lower-level design or was capped with curved roofs. 772: 9843: 9825: 9709: 9353: 8845: 8422: 7878: 7851: 7268: 7231: 7071: 7023: 6790: 2406: 1991:. The later artisans added the six crudely-cut, free-standing pillars in front, probably to extend the 27: 1330:

elephants, and the shrine deity is missing. Its design is a simplified Nagara-style Hindu temple. The

9875: 9699: 9678: 9604: 9373: 8299: 7813: 7342: 6795: 5886: 661: 7952: 1016: 577: 9848: 9167: 8825: 8749: 8455: 8237: 8212: 7517: 7108: 6992: 6949: 3424: 2872: 988: 730:-shaped tank, its curved end aligned south towards the middle portion of the Shore Temple" with an 715: 660:, the site was a pilgrimage center and its outside sculpture was "obscene, lewd" as performance in 201: 7987: 5311: 4852:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 141-148 with Figures 29-30 and footnotes 3357: 2981: 1465:

with welcoming, bent heads. The temple wall has an inscription suggesting a 7th-century origin. A

1098:. Each corner has two niches, with carved figures apparently waving to the crowd. The deities are 10016: 9981: 9704: 9599: 9003: 8863: 8534: 8074: 8017: 7429: 7414: 7358: 7194: 7043: 6895: 3210: 2963:

temples. Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram.

2901: 2047:. The inscription's florid font and epithets date it to the 7th century and Parameshvara Varman. 1322:

was not dedicated to Shiva. According to Susan Huntington, the temple may have been dedicated to

695: 632:

Since there are now fewer than seven towers, the name has inspired speculation and argument. The

321: 8898: 5973:

Meister, Michael W. (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples".

2022:, now largely missing. Like other Hindu temples, this was an open structure without evidence of 10174: 10026: 9346: 9299: 8509: 8232: 7439: 7327: 7246: 6987: 6101: 3117:

Alternate versions of this legend is found in many Puranas such as the Agni Purana, as well as

2948: 2741: 993: 691: 552: 7798: 6156: 5793: 5288: 5240:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 134-140 with Figure 28 and footnotes 5047: 4951: 4289: 4111: 3517: 3309: 3282: 2643: 2097:(trident)-like horns above their crowns (possibly symbolic of Nandi). The third pair also has 1765:

himself, and another devotee is on one knee adoring her. In the panel are fleeing, frightened

1413: 9579: 9368: 9321: 9294: 9257: 8514: 7424: 6832: 6748: 6633: 5947: 5853: 5821: 5636: 5403: 5015: 4983: 4798: 4371: 4337: 4256: 4194: 3882: 3865: 3838: 3702: 3664: 3617: 1355: 385:

is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in the coastal resort town of

155: 106: 8830: 5520:

Two Statues of Pallava Kings and Five Pallava Inscriptions in a Rock temple at Mahabalipuram

3816: 2827: 2055: 1822: 1611:) and 2 by 2 feet (0.61 m × 0.61 m) square. Above this are seated lion-faced 9961: 9764: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9252: 8729: 8222: 8207: 7859: 7806: 7610: 7562: 7076: 3951:"World Heritage Sites – Mahabalipuram, Group of Monuments Mahabalipuram (1984), Tamil Nadu" 1508: 1001: 732: 7019:

The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement

6042: 3334: 1802:). The front of the sanctum has mouldings and features similar to a free-standing temple. 1777:– one of five types of golden ear ornament – symbolizing her link to wealth. Near her are 8: 10097: 10082: 9996: 9976: 9789: 9391: 9358: 9237: 9128: 9063: 8913: 8772: 8652: 8524: 8352: 8289: 8242: 7629: 7398: 7393: 7277: 7129: 7086: 7048: 5751:, Eds: Emmanuel Francis & Charlotte Schmid, Paris: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1669: 571: 477:. Known as the Seven Pagodas in many colonial-era publications, they are also called the 401: 8041: 7901: 5949:

Digital Archetypes: Adaptations of Early Temple Architecture in South and Southeast Asia

3908:

Marr, John R. (1991). "Note on the new excavations at the Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram".

467: 10116:

The above list of archaeological sites, inscriptions and temples is grossly incomplete.

9865: 9193: 9152: 8444: 8257: 8202: 7682: 7669: 7645: 7618: 7368: 7322: 6785: 5998: 5885:. Frontline: India’s national Magazine from the publishers of The Hindu. Archived from 4513: 4031: 3925: 3797: 3284:

Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations

3203: 2594: 2267: 2216:, north of Mamallapuram. It has a small facade, with two octagonal pillars with square 1580: 786: 506: 9618: 8417: 8392: 6683: 4014:

Hirsh, Marilyn (1987). "Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Mamallapuram".

1433:, attributed to Parameshvara-varman I (grandson of Mahamalla). One kilometre from the 671: 581:

from the late 19th century to early 20th century may be Mahabalipuram or Kanchipuram.

10128: 10087: 10021: 9569: 9543: 9408: 9402: 9282: 9272: 9138: 9073: 8466: 8407: 8262: 8252: 7373: 6982: 6944: 6639: 6618: 6597: 6576: 6555: 6534: 6513: 6506: 6490: 6469: 6448: 6427: 6406: 6389: 6371: 6350: 6330: 6312: 6294: 6273: 6252: 6231: 6210: 6189: 5990: 5953: 5859: 5827: 5797: 5786: 5752: 5642: 5593: 5566: 5539: 5499: 5409: 5382: 5331: 5292: 5281: 5156: 5053: 5021: 4989: 4957: 4925: 4878: 4804: 4772: 4606: 4462: 4430: 4377: 4345: 4293: 4282: 4260: 4249: 4227: 4200: 4151: 4117: 4087: 3991: 3929: 3888: 3844: 3801: 3735: 3708: 3670: 3643: 3596: 3564: 3523: 3465: 3404: 3315: 3288: 3214: 2744:, round pillars. Its sanctum is surrounded by granite walls, and its outer walls are 2544: 2417: 2225: 1851: 1094:

At ground level, the sides have four pillars; the other two have two pillars and two

723: 639: 534: 514: 466:

inscriptions in a number of Indian languages and scripts; rock reliefs (particularly

8873: 7923: 5678: 3987:

Illustrating India: The Early Colonial Investigations of Colin Mackenzie (1784-1821)

3768: 3502: 1970: 10001: 9918: 9885: 9502: 9143: 9053: 8944: 8544: 8539: 8504: 8479: 8365: 8322: 8009: 7869: 7475: 7465: 7455: 7332: 7224: 6929: 6733: 6659: 6094:"Alphabetical List of Monuments – Tamil Nadu « Archaeological Survey of India" 5982: 4505: 4023: 3950: 3917: 3789: 3381: 2956: 2924: 2461: 2177: 1839: 1817: 1613: 1025: 782: 653: 610: 525:(a Vishnu avatar). According to Nagaswamy, the name is derived from the Tamil word 485:

in contemporary literature. The site, restored after 1960, has been managed by the

405: 8327: 3793: 710:

monuments were covered with sand, and little was done to preserve the site. After

10133: 10069: 9794: 9744: 9673: 9594: 9507: 9412: 9277: 9230: 9212: 9162: 9096: 9078: 9021: 8971: 8790: 8694: 8567: 8529: 8499: 8337: 8227: 8066: 8059: 7906: 7480: 7337: 7184: 7035: 6612: 6591: 6570: 6549: 6528: 6484: 6463: 6442: 6421: 6400: 6365: 6344: 6324: 6288: 6267: 6246: 6225: 6204: 5587: 5560: 5533: 5493: 5376: 5325: 5150: 4919: 4766: 4600: 4424: 4221: 4145: 4110:

Bruyn, Pippa de; Bain, Keith; Allardice, David; Shonar Joshi (18 February 2010).

4081: 3985: 3729: 3637: 3590: 3558: 3459: 3398: 3341: 2469: 1603: 1366:-style temple is 16 feet (4.9 m) high and 18 feet (5.5 m) long. It has 1099: 794: 761: 746: 699: 665: 530: 502: 474: 7992: 6848: 6017:"Animals crowding in to admire Arjuna performing Penance [Mamallapuram]" 5771: 3183: 2026:. The back wall of the central shrine has a five-foot-square panel which held a 9860: 9830: 9820: 9749: 9523: 9247: 9183: 9026: 8370: 8247: 8217: 8052: 7730: 7690: 7567: 7512: 7470: 7434: 7378: 7214: 7114: 6972: 6753: 2976: 2881: 1726:(the moon) and others in the legend. The closest narration of the panel is the 1131: 591: 501:

on the Coromandel Coast. The monuments are reachable by the four-lane, divided

9433: 7916: 6665: 5495:

The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram

4199:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 38, 75–81, 96–106, 132–139, 145–154, 230–239. 3921: 2947:. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in 2782:, is one of the largest rock reliefs in Asia and narrates several Hindu myths. 1070: 10148: 9933: 9870: 9363: 9267: 9046: 8820: 8558: 8449: 8360: 8294: 7768: 7765: 7706: 7653: 7602: 7460: 7251: 7141: 6887: 6770: 6760: 6728: 6227:

Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India

5994: 4466: 2719: 2589:

iconography. The temple includes a path around its main sanctum and a large,

2568: 2213: 1430: 1274: 875: 622: 614: 409: 386: 353: 335: 231: 218: 135: 130: 102: 88: 6677: 3134:

The legend is mentioned in Vedic texts, such as hymns 1.22 and 1.155 of the

702:

suggested in 1809 that the monuments were built in 450 BCE, linking them to

9943: 9928: 9855: 9729: 8918: 8883: 8780: 8397: 7714: 7709: 7597: 7594: 7589: 7536: 7204: 7189: 7159: 7003: 6939: 6837: 6738: 3007: 2916: 2609:

temple walls are carved with Somaskanda bas-relief panels depicting Shiva,

2590: 2577: 2516: 1723: 1315: 1287: 1143: 626: 420: 150: 80: 5139:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 122-125, 107-108 2694:

1921 photo of the Olakkanesvara temple atop the Mahishamardini cave temple

1760:

The Gajalakshmi panel is a square, with a geometric layout of its figures.

1217:(necks, clerestory) carved into the shrine, like a niche flanked by small 1052:

integrates the secular with the divine, where human faces peek out of the

441:

temples with monolithic processional chariots, built between 630 and 668;

9225: 9058: 8986: 8976: 8888: 8878: 8853: 8494: 8489: 8380: 8174: 8158: 8101: 8036: 7972: 7776: 7722: 7701: 7661: 7419: 7241: 7219: 7209: 7063: 6959: 6743: 5747:

Padma Kaimal (2014), Laksmi and the Tigers: A Goddess in the Shadows, in

4226:. Harvard University Press. pp. 54, 122, 134–135, 163–167, 225–226. 3556: 3091: 3086: 2833: 2758: 2345: 2317: 2291: 2260: 2068: 1867:

like the Kotikal cave. Slim, four-sided pillars create space for the two

1735: 1590: 1586: 1470: 1235: 1170: 1049: 880: 831: 517:

MAA). The city is connected to the rest of India through a rail network.

463: 450: 424: 4574: 4054: 3755: 3485: 2002:, marked with a row of pillars. At the side of its facade are two model 805: 9810: 9774: 9528: 9123: 9091: 9036: 8893: 8602: 8439: 8412: 8194: 7967: 7674: 7621: 7554: 7546: 7383: 7363: 7151: 7103: 6915: 6002: 5531: 4561: 4517: 4480: 4067: 4035: 3788:(5720). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 350–350a. 2920: 2849: 2789:

are carved on rocks or boulders. These include the wall of the Krishna

2283: 2027: 1984: 1079: 1045: 606: 390: 357: 110: 65: 6209:. Oxford University Press (Reprinted in 1997 by Motilal Banarsidass). 3255: 2770: 2477: 1756: 575:. Another theory posits that the port of Nirppeyarvu mentioned in the 9242: 9031: 8981: 8954: 8903: 8868: 8858: 8810: 8709: 8677: 8622: 8519: 8474: 8148: 7757: 7685: 7626: 7613: 7586: 7199: 7179: 7013: 6967: 6152: 5522:, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, Volume 26, pages 5-6 3780:

Constance Holden (15 April 2005). "Tsunami Uncovers Indian Shrines".

3506:, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol 43, Issue 7, pages 1167-1176 2855: 2688: 2614: 2494: 2490: 2390: 2335: 2248: 2107: 2090: 1811: 1560: 1491:

feature North Indian Nagara-style architecture, and the other Pidari

1487:(unfinished, two-storey monuments). One Pidari and one Valayankuttai 1383: 1311: 1303: 1210: 1115: 331: 190: 6551:

Imagining Architects: Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India

5986: 5430: 4864:"Mamallapuram: Varaha Cave Temple Tour - Mahabalipuram tour package" 4509: 4027: 2915:

resting on a short incline in the historical coastal resort town of

2762:. There is a square panel in the sanctum, but the image is missing. 597: 43: 9923: 9668: 9642: 9589: 9464: 9287: 9106: 9101: 8991: 8928: 8908: 8739: 8575: 8402: 8375: 8342: 8284: 8184: 8179: 8153: 8078: 7962: 7834: 7784: 7541: 7533: 7008: 6447:. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press). 6426:. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press). 6286: 2952: 2724: 2593:

roof above its doorway. Pilasters on the outer wall divide it into

2351: 2287: 2115: 2111: 2044: 1988: 1938: 1880: 1835: 1450: 1391: 1382:). The deity to whom it may have been dedicated is theorized to be 1379: 1323: 1218: 1123: 1119: 1107: 1095: 1054: 1033: 980:

have common elements. Each is on a moulded plinth, with or without

754: 618: 459: 455: 8116: 6461: 4057:, East and West, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (March–June 1970), pages 108-116 2821:

Inscriptions near the panel with the light house in the background

2597:. The temple is steeper and taller than the Arjuna and Dharmaraja 1898:

has four mouldings. It is unusual in lacking a recessed moulding (

1703: 1593:

legend. Srinivasan and other scholars date it to the 7th century.

1532: 1358:

is an apsidal temple, a relatively-uncommon Hindu design found in

1298:

are similar. However, its shikhara is hexagonal. The walls of the

9538: 9188: 9041: 8959: 8949: 8724: 8714: 8687: 8682: 8672: 8627: 8612: 8607: 8387: 8332: 8317: 8309: 8276: 8143: 8046: 8021: 7997: 7896: 7886: 7787: 7741: 7738: 7664: 6934: 5725:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 161-163 5712:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 164-167 5699:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 156-160 5668:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 164-166 5625:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 148-156 5482:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 166-175 5365:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 125-130 5198:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 175-180 5087:, Archaeology Survey of India, Government of India, pages 107-110 3262:. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 3136: 3067:, Volume 1 calls the site "Mavalipuram" as well as Seven Pagodas. 2912: 2909: 2610: 2305: 2300: 2175:

bas-relief. Its facade consists of four leonine mythical figures

2118:(dissolution and rejuvenation), Tatpuruṣa (concealing grace) and 2072: 1942: 1739: 1545: 1466: 1458: 1454: 1418: 1244: 1223: 1190: 1103: 1059: 1005: 885: 871: 867: 863: 680: 566: 498: 413: 7982: 7838: 6248: