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degree and had moved to
Greenwood to purchase various land vacancies in the area. After buying these vacant spaces, he would then sell them to African-American residents for redevelopment so that these empty spaces could be transformed into residential houses and profitable businesses. By 1921, Stradford had been considered one of the wealthiest African-Americans in the country as he owned numerous properties in Greenwood and even had his hotel named after him: Stratford Hotel. In addition to Mr. Stradford, there were also investments and reinvestments into the community. One executive of the local YMCA recalled that there were several barbershops, several grocery stores, and even a funeral home service. Greenwood was known to be an active religious community as there were numerous black-owned churches, Christian youth services, and other religious organizations. In addition to Tulsa, there are stories of other "Black Wall Street" across the country. On May 29, 2021,
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African-Americans, had moved to
Oklahoma in hopes of gaining a shot at quick economic gains through the mining and oil industries. Even though African-Americans constituted a small percentage of the overall population in Oklahoma, the percentage of African-Americans in Tulsa had significantly increased to around 12.3 percent during the oil boom. Many African-Americans had come from the Deep South and Kansas because of the opportunity to strike gold because of the rich oil fields. During the Jim Crow era, African-Americans were not allowed to make purchases or services in predominantly white areas. In particular, Oklahoma was known to have some of the harshest and most unjust Jim Crow laws in the country. Some economists theorize this forced many African-Americans to spend their money where they would feel welcomed, effectively insulating cash flow to within the black community and allowing Greenwood to flourish and prosper.
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business leaders and punitive rezoning laws enacted to prevent reconstruction. There were over 240 black businesses in
Greenwood in 1941. It continued as a vital black community until segregation was overturned by the federal government during the 1950s and 1960s. Desegregation encouraged black citizens to live and shop elsewhere in the city, causing Greenwood to lose much of its original vitality. Since then, city leaders have attempted to encourage other economic development activity nearby. Some residents attempted to sue the city and filed insurance claims against it, but all of those claims were denied by the city government. People within the African-American community after the Tulsa Race Massacre rarely discussed the historic significance of Greenwood after the Tulsa Race Massacre because of fear that it might occur again.
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to the sheriff's reports, "all hell broke loose." The two groups shot at each other until midnight when the group of black men were greatly outnumbered and forced to retreat to
Greenwood. At the end of the exchange of gunfire, 12 people were dead, 10 white and 2 black. Alternatively, another eyewitness account was that the shooting began "down the street from the Courthouse" when black business owners came to the defense of a lone black man being attacked by a group of around six white men. It is possible that the eyewitness did not recognize the fact that this incident was occurring as a part of a rolling gunfight that was already underway. As news of the violence spread throughout the city, mob violence exploded. White rioters invaded Greenwood that night and the next morning, killing men and burning and
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369:. In a matter of moments, the terrorist mob destroyed all he had built. During the race massacre, The Gurley Hotel at 112 N. Greenwood, the street's first commercial enterprise, valued at $ 55,000, was destroyed, and with it Brunswick Billiard Parlor and Dock Eastmand & Hughes Cafe. Gurley also owned a two-story building at 119 N. Greenwood. It housed Carter's Barbershop, Hardy Rooms, a pool hall, and cigar store. All were reduced to ruins. By his account and court records, the mob destroyed nearly $ 2.7 million in real estate (in 2018 dollars), and much of his life's work.
263:. When these tribes came to Oklahoma, Africans held enslaved or living among them as tribal members (notably in the case of the Seminoles) were forced to move with them. This proved problematic as rules concerning the freedom of African Americans differed between tribes. Others later traveled to Oklahoma for the land rushes in 1889 through 1891 and continued in the years leading to 1907, the year Oklahoma became a state, hoping that a majority-black population could build a firewall against further extension of the system of racial degradation and segregation known as
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tracts of real estate in the northeastern part of Tulsa, which he had subdivided and sold exclusively to other blacks. Gurley and a number of other blacks soon followed suit. Stradford later built the
Stradford Hotel on Greenwood, where blacks could enjoy the amenities of the downtown hotels who served only whites. It was said to be the largest black-owned hotel in the United States.
726:, son of B. C. Franklin and a notable historian, attended the groundbreaking ceremony. After his death in 2009, the park was renamed John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park. Attractions include two sculptures and a dozen bronze informational plaques. It is a park primarily designed for education and reflection, and does not contain facilities for sports or other recreation.
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neighborhoods. According to several newspapers and articles at the time, there were reports of hateful letters sent to prominent business leaders within "Black Wall Street," which demanded that they stop overstepping their boundaries into the white segregated portion of Tulsa. White residents grew increasingly resentful about the wealth of the
Greenwood community. The
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scholar, outlined four specific reasons why survivors and their descendants should receive full compensation: the damage affected
African-American families, the city was culpable, and city leaders acknowledged that they had a moral responsibility to help rebuild the infrastructure after the race massacre.
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estate companies refused to compensate them. Many survivors left Tulsa, while residents who chose to stay in the city, regardless of race, largely kept silent about the terror, violence, and resulting losses for decades. The massacre was largely omitted from local, state, and national histories for years.
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had been lynched the previous year. Upon hearing reports that a mob of hundreds of white men had gathered around the jail where
Rowland was being held, a group of 75 black men, some armed, arrived at the jail to protect Rowland. The sheriff persuaded the group to leave the jail, assuring them that he
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In 1914, Gurley's net worth was reported to be $ 150,000 (about $ 3 million in 2018 dollars). And he was made a sheriff's deputy by the city of Tulsa to police
Greenwood's residents, which resulted in some viewing him with suspicion. By 1921, Gurley owned more than one hundred properties in Greenwood
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Within ten years of the massacre, surviving residents who chose to remain in Tulsa rebuilt much of the district. They accomplished this despite the opposition of many white Tulsa political and business leaders and punitive rezoning laws enacted to prevent reconstruction. It continued as a vital black
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In 1996, a commission was established to examine recommendations to compensate and support the descendants of the victims of the 1921 Tulsa Race
Massacre. In 2001, a final report was released that highly recommended that victimsâ descendants receive full reparations. Alfred Brophy, an American legal
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to survivors and their descendants. The state passed legislation to establish scholarships for the descendants of survivors, encourage the economic development of Greenwood, and develop a park in memory of the victims of the massacre in Tulsa. The park was dedicated in 2010. Schools in Oklahoma have
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The most widely reported and corroborated inciting incident occurred as the group of black men left when an elderly white man approached O. B. Mann, a black man, and demanded that he hand over his pistol. Mann refused, and the old man attempted to disarm him. A gunshot went off, and then, according
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On "Black Wall Street", there were African-American attorneys, real estate agents, entrepreneurs, and doctors who offered their services in the neighborhood. One primary example of the black entrepreneurial spirit is illustrated by J.B. Stradford. He had graduated from Indiana University with a law
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to visit in 1905 and encourage residents to continue to build and cooperate among themselves, reinforcing what he called "industrial capacity" and thus securing their ownership and independence. Washington highlighted that he had directed the creation of a 4,000 acre totally black-owned district on
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About 10,000 black people were left homeless, and the cost of the property damage amounted to more than $ 1.5 million in real estate and $ 750,000 in personal property (equivalent to $ 38.43 million in 2023). By the end of 1922, most of the residents' homes had been rebuilt, but the city and real
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Greenwood Avenue in Tulsa was important because it ran north for over a mile from the Frisco Railroad yards, and it was one of the few streets that did not cross through both black and white neighborhoods. Greenwood was home to a thriving Black commercial district, whose many red brick buildings
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for the Greenwood Historic District on September 29, 2011. On August 8, 2012, the Coordinator of the National Register Program wrote the Tulsa Preservation Commission that the proposed District would be renamed as the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. In 2022, Greenwood Historic District was added to the
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After the Tulsa Race Massacre, many residents had promised to rebuild after the massive destruction. Within ten years after the massacre, surviving residents who chose to remain in Tulsa rebuilt much of the district. They accomplished this despite the opposition of many white Tulsa political and
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Revitalization and preservation efforts in the 1990s and 2000s resulted in tourism initiatives and memorials. John Hope Franklin Greenwood Reconciliation Park and the Greenwood Cultural Center honor the victims of the Tulsa Race Massacre, although the Greenwood Chamber of Commerce plans a larger
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Many white residents felt intimidated by the prosperity, growth, and size of "Black Wall StreetGreat Park development (formerly Newhall Ranch)". Not only was Greenwood, Tulsa expanding in population, it was expanding its physical boundaries, which eventually collided with the boundaries of white
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Another black American entrepreneur, J.B. Stradford and his wife Bertie Eleanor Wiley Stradford, arrived in Tulsa in 1899. He believed that black people had a better chance of economic progress if they pooled their resources, worked together and supported each other's businesses. He bought large
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The Greenwood district in Tulsa came to be known as "Black Wall Street", one of the most commercially successful and affluent majority African-American communities in the United States. Booker T. Washington referred to the Greenwood neighborhood as âNegro Wall Street.â Many Americans, including
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The Greenwood Cultural Center sponsors and promotes education and cultural events showcasing African American heritage. It also provides positive images of North Tulsa to the community, and attracts a diversity of visitors to the Center and to the city of Tulsa.
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The Greenwood Cultural Center, dedicated on October 22, 1995, was created as a tribute to Greenwood's history and as a symbol of hope for the community's future. It has a museum, an African American art gallery, a large banquet hall, and it housed the
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that took place between May 31 and June 1, 1921, when mobs of white residents, some of whom had been appointed as deputies and armed by city government officials, attacked black residents and destroyed homes and businesses of the Greenwood District in
310:, to model Washington's vision; it was named Greenwood and formally organized in 1901. The Tulsa community was formally organized the year after Washington's visit, 1906, with the name Greenwood. By 1921, it was home to about 10,000 black residents.
267:. Oklahoma represented the hope of change and provided a chance for African Americans to not only leave the lands of slavery but oppose the harsh racism of their previous homes. They travelled to Oklahoma by wagons, horses, trains, and even on foot.
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to be constructed in the Greenwood District. The proposed development includes a hotel, baseball stadium, and an expanded mixed-use district. Along with the new stadium, there will be extra development for the city blocks that surround the stadium.
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This implementation of "colored" segregation set the Greenwood boundaries of separation that still exist: Pine Street to the north, Archer Street and the Frisco tracks to the south, Cincinnati Street on the west, and Lansing Street on the east.
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More than 800 people were admitted to hospitals, and as many as 6,000 black residents of Tulsa were interned in large facilities, many of them for several days. The Oklahoma Bureau of Vital Statistics officially recorded 36 dead. The 2001
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belonged to Black Americans and housed thriving businesses, including grocery stores, banks, libraries, and much more; one of the most affluent African-American communities in the country, leading to the nickname, "Black Wall Street".
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In addition to his rooming house, Gurley built three two-story buildings and five residences and bought an 80-acre (32 ha) farm in Rogers County. Gurley also founded what is today Vernon AME Church. He also helped build a black
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mob gathered and attacked the area. Between 75 and 300 Americans were killed, hundreds more were injured, and the homes of 5000 were destroyed, leaving them homeless. The massacre was one of the largest in the history of U.S.
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authorized the formation of the Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. The commission's final report, published in 2001, states that the city had conspired with the racist mob; it recommended a program of
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encouraged black citizens to live and shop elsewhere in the city, causing Greenwood to lose much of its original vitality. Since then, city leaders have attempted to encourage other economic development activity nearby.
342:. The area became very popular among black migrants fleeing the oppression in Mississippi. They would find refuge in Gurley's building, as the racial persecution from the south was non-existent on Greenwood Avenue.
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examination of events identified 39 dead, 26 black and 13 white, based on contemporary autopsy reports, death certificates, and other records. The commission gave several estimates ranging from 75 to 300 dead.
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donated one million dollars to the Greenwood Art Project in 2019 and made the Greenwood Cultural Center his first stop on his campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination on January 19, 2020.
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White residents of Tulsa referred to the area north of the Frisco railroad tracks as "Little AfricaGreat Park development (formerly Newhall Ranch)". The success of Black-owned businesses there led
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474:. The attackers burned and destroyed more than 35 square blocks of the neighborhoodâat the time, one of the wealthiest black communities in the United States, colloquially known as "Black
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Booker T. Washington Builder of a Civilization Emmet J. Scott and Lyman B. Stowe Doubleday, Page & Company (1916) cf. Chapter Eight Booker Washington and the Negro Businessman
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Among Gurley's first businesses was a rooming house which was located on a dusty trail near the railroad tracks. This road was given the name Greenwood Avenue, named for a
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Parshina-Kottas, Yuliya; Singhvi, Anjali; Burch, Audra D. S.; Griggs, Troy; GrĂśndahl, Mika; Huang, Lingdong; Wallace, Tim; White, Jeremy; Williams, Josh (May 24, 2021).
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1668:"White city police officer "deputized" members of the lynch mob and "instructed them to get a gun and get a n-----", according to the Oklahoma Historical Society".
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Around the start of the 20th century, O. W. Gurley, a wealthy black landowner from Arkansas, came to what was then known as Indian Territory to participate in the
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until 2007. The total cost of the Center was almost $ 3 million. The Center plays a key role in the reconstruction and unity of the Greenwood Historic District.
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In 2011, the Greenwood Cultural Center lost all funding from the State of Oklahoma, threatening its existence. The community responded with donations and
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of 1889. The young entrepreneur had just resigned from a presidential appointment under president Grover Cleveland in order to strike out on his own.
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been required to teach students about the massacre since 2002, and in 2020, the massacre officially became a part of the Oklahoma school curriculum.
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More recently, the Greenwood District has called for the removal of the I-244 corridor, which is seen as just as damaging to the community as the
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The Greenwood Rising History Center was completed in 2021 at 21 North Greenwood Avenue on the corner of Greenwood Avenue and Archer Street.
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Gurley's prominence and wealth were short lived, and the authority vested in him as a sheriff's deputy was violently overwhelmed in the
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Ground was broken in 2008 at 415 North Detroit Avenue for a proposed Reconciliation Park to commemorate the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre.
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In 1906, Gurley moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he purchased 40 acres (16 ha) of land which was "only to be sold to colored".
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Greenwood Historic District is slightly smaller, including 100 to 300 N. Greenwood Ave, but also includes 419 North Elgin Ave.
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Originally funded by the State of Oklahoma, the City of Tulsa and private donors, it is now owned by the city and managed by a
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and had an estimated net worth between $ 500,000 and $ 1 million (between $ 6.8 million and $ 13.6 million in 2018 dollars).
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during the early 20th century, it was popularly known as America's "Black Wall Street". It was burned to the ground in the
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2436:"Naming of Historic District." U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 2012. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
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visited the Greenwood Cultural Center during the community's 100-year commemoration of the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre.
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2164:"The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Will Officially Become a Part of the Oklahoma School Curriculum Beginning in the Fall"
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Painting Culture, Painting Nature: Stephen Mopope, Oscar Jacobson, and the Development of Indian Art in Oklahoma
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on the north, Elgin Avenue on the west, Greenwood Avenue on the east and the Frisco tracks on the south. The
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In 2023, a bill was introduced in the U.S. Senate to create Historic Greenwood DistrictâBlack Wall Street
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Greenwood Rising features a replica of railway tracks that demarcated the boundary of Black Wall Street.
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A commemorative plaque in Tulsa's Greenwood district marks the historic location of Black Wall Street.
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Messer, Chris M.; Bell, Patricia A. (July 31, 2008). "Mass Media and Governmental Framing of Riots".
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1752:"'Black Wall Street': The history of the wealthy black community and the massacre perpetrated there"
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2335:"The Destruction of Black Wall Street: Tulsa's 1921 Riot and the Eradication of Accumulated Wealth"
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1463:"The Destruction of Black Wall Street: Tulsa's 1921 Riot and the Eradication of Accumulated Wealth"
1422:"The Destruction of Black Wall Street: Tulsa's 1921 Riot and the Eradication of Accumulated Wealth"
1285:"The Destruction of Black Wall Street: Tulsa's 1921 Riot and the Eradication of Accumulated Wealth"
960:"The Destruction of Black Wall Street: Tulsa's 1921 Riot and the Eradication of Accumulated Wealth"
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community until segregation was overturned by the federal government during the 1950s and 1960s.
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Beyond Greenwood: The Historic Legacies and Overlooked Stories of Americaâs âBlack Wall Streets'
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2583:"Cherokee Nation Supports Community with Donations to Greenwood Cultural Center Summer Program"
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America's Black Holocaust Museum. On this date in history, May 31, 1921: The Tulsa Race Riot."
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2491:"Greenwood investors happy to help city find new home for Greenwood Rising History Center",
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Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Riot of 1921: Race, Reparations, and Reconciliation
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In 2008, Tulsa announced that it sought to move the city's minor league baseball team, the
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Greenwood Historical District neighborhood in Tulsa, Oklahoma (OK), 74120 detailed profile
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455:, also known as the Tulsa race riot or the Black Wall Street massacre, was a two-day-long
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Many of the settlers were relatives of Native Americans who had traveled on foot with the
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1988:"The broad ax. [volume] (Salt Lake City, Utah) 1895â19??, June 18, 1921, Image 1"
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2077:"Black Wall Street: The African American Haven That Burned and Then Rose From the Ashes"
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of 1921 started when police accused a Black shoe shiner of assaulting a white woman.
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282:. Many Black residents were also from the various Muskogee-speaking peoples, such as
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BatesLine. "The 1921 Tulsa Race Riot and the 90 years that followed." May 30, 2011.
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2275:"Former 'Black Wall Street' Aims to Rebuild as Tulsa Comes Into National Spotlight"
1962:"A black Wall Street Legend - The Story of Peg Leg Taylor and the Legacy of Trauma"
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Black Wall Street 100: An American City Grapples With Its Historical Racial Trauma
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Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District
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BatesLine. "Greenwood's streetcar: The Sand Springs Railroad." December 18, 2008.
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The city of Tulsa's Greenwood Historic District comprises an area bounded by the
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2641:"John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park dedicated as national Literary Landmark"
2309:"Greenwood History Center to showcase traumatized but resilient black community"
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2051:""Martial Law Declared", 1921-06-01 | The University of Tulsa Archival Catalog"
1606:"We Can Best Honor Our Past by Not Burying It: The Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921"
1372:"Tulsa's 'Black Wall Street' Flourished as a Self-Contained Hub in Early 1900s"
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Before They Die! The Road to Reparations for the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot Survivors
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Before They Die! The Road to Reparations for the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot Survivors
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1653:"HBO's 'Watchmen' depicts a deadly Tulsa race massacre that was all too real"
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in the nearby Drexel Building. He was arrested and rumors that he was to be
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and ran a small hotel. He was honored in a 2009 documentary film called,
1860:. Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. p. 123.
1572:"Tulsa race massacre at 100: an act of terrorism America tried to forget"
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2026:"Tulsa Race Massacre | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture"
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1503:"Tulsa Race Massacre | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture"
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1109:"The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow . Jim Crow Stories . Tulsa Riot | PBS"
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2248:"Tulsa Race Massacre Sidelined Legacy of Black Wealth in Greenwood"
2195:"Race riot memorial: Councilors might back efforts for designation"
2103:"How did the Tulsa Race Massacre history become hidden, forgotten?"
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The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
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The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
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2448:"Greenwood District added to National Register of Historic Places"
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Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: O-T
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Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Greenwood District
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1171:. New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp. 195, 196, 243, 252, 264.
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In 1996, 75 years after the massacre, a bipartisan group in the
2467:"Senate considers making Black Wall Street a national monument"
2333:
Messer, Chris M.; Shriver, Thomas E.; Adams, Alison E. (2018).
1821:"The Tulsa Riot of 1921: Collective Violence and Racial Frames"
1461:
Messer, Chris M.; Shriver, Thomas E.; Adams, Alison E. (2018).
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Messer, Chris M.; Shriver, Thomas E.; Adams, Alison E. (2018).
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Messer, Chris M.; Shriver, Thomas E.; Adams, Alison E. (2018).
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My Life and an Era, the Autobiography of Buck Colbert Franklin,
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Messer, Chris M.; Shriver, Thomas E.; Adams, Alison E. (2018).
2222:"Tulsa Drillers stadium coming downtown to Greenwood District"
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1627:"Tulsa race massacre of 1921 | Commission, Facts, & Books"
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Populated places in Oklahoma established by African Americans
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Messer, Chris M.; Beamon, Krystal; Bell, Patricia A. (2013).
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Booker T. Washington and the Struggle Against White Supremacy
853:, Tulsa, Oklahoma, archived from the original on June 2, 2018
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2611:"Bloomberg: $ 1M gift to shine light on Tulsa Race Massacre"
502:, was accused of assaulting Sarah Page, a white 21-year-old
2670:"Literary Landmark: John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park"
1979:
1929:
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Making the System Work for You: The Alexander Norton Story,
2375:"Greenwood residents, lawmakers call for removal of I-244"
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Oklahoma, Michelle Charles CNHI News (February 22, 2020).
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2141:"Curriculum being developed to teach Tulsa race massacre"
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were spread throughout the city, where a white man named
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Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy,
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Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
470:. The event is considered one of the worst incidents of
278:. Others were the descendants of people who had fled to
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Lazo, Elizabeth Findell and Alejandro (June 19, 2020).
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National Endowment for the Humanities (June 18, 1921).
290:, while some had been adopted by the tribes after the
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Neighborhood in Tulsa County, Oklahoma, United States
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733:, the John Hope Franklin Center for Reconciliation.
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237:, destroying the once-thriving Greenwood community.
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259:Many African Americans came to Oklahoma during the
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1353:"'Through Art, I Hope That We Can Make One Tulsa'"
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628:The City of Tulsa submitted an application to the
924:"What to Know About the Tulsa Greenwood Massacre"
216:. As one of the most prominent concentrations of
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1690:The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
870:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2639:World, Harrison Grimwood Tulsa (May 31, 2018).
2446:World, Randy Krehbiel Tulsa (October 1, 2022).
1943:. pp. 4, 131â132, 144, 159, 164, 183â184, 249.
557:museum to be built with participation from the
372:According to the memoirs of Greenwood pioneer,
2540:
1003:"Black Wall Street Tulsa's Successful History"
2924:
1749:
921:
523:stores and homes. Around noon on June 1, the
2551:Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
1330:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 13.
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
668:
3243:African-American history in Tulsa, Oklahoma
2339:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
1467:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
1426:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
1289:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
964:American Journal of Economics and Sociology
416:
2931:
2917:
1775:
2667:
2547:Hannibal B. Johnson, " Greenwood District
2350:
2074:
1679:
1478:
1437:
1300:
1228:
1021:
997:
995:
975:
874:) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
842:Oklahoma Commission (February 28, 2001),
396:Black Wall Street in flames, June 1, 1921
2306:
1718:"What the Tulsa Race Massacre Destroyed"
1235:. Oxford University Press. p. 483.
1198:Louisiana State University Press (1998)
1131:
1129:
672:
656:
619:
584:
447:Homes and businesses burned in Greenwood
442:
391:
103:
70:
2816:
2758:Johnson, Hannibal B. (September 1998).
2757:
1909:
1255:
953:
951:
14:
3235:
2783:
2725:
2219:
2192:
2174:from the original on February 21, 2020
2161:
2138:
1604:II, Herbert G. Ruffin (May 27, 2021).
992:
718:John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park
2912:
2692:
2690:
2663:
2661:
2638:
2634:
2632:
2445:
2100:
2006:from the original on October 23, 2019
1959:
1651:Brown, DeNeen L. (October 22, 2019).
1650:
1531:
1350:
1194:and John Whittington Franklin, eds.,
1166:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1126:
3258:Ethnic enclaves in the United States
2464:
2272:
1874:(...) the official count of 36 (...)
1825:The Western Journal of Black Studies
1532:White, Walter F. (August 23, 2001).
1085:. September 28, 2000. Archived from
948:
917:
915:
701:contributed to its summer programs.
635:National Register of Historic Places
615:National Register of Historic Places
604:
387:
116:Greenwood, Tulsa (the United States)
2075:Luckerson, Victor (June 28, 2018).
1750:Huddleston Jr, Tom (July 4, 2020).
1323:
472:racial violence in American history
24:
2817:Johnson, Hannibal B. (July 2020).
2719:
2687:
2658:
2629:
1864:from the original on June 21, 2020
1835:from the original on June 11, 2020
1697:from the original on June 13, 2020
1603:
1552:from the original on June 12, 2020
1409:from the original on June 6, 2023.
1149:
25:
3294:
2843:
2193:Lassek, P.J. (October 24, 2007).
2139:Miller, Ken (February 20, 2020).
2030:Oklahoma Historical Society | OHS
1857:Report on Tulsa Race Riot of 1921
1369:
912:
736:
624:Tulsa's Black Wall Street in 2023
577:Legacy of the Tulsa Race Massacre
568:, to a new stadium, now known as
515:had the situation under control.
3268:Neighborhoods in Tulsa, Oklahoma
3036:
2940:
1397:"The Baron Of Black Wall Street"
1351:Small, Zachary (June 26, 2020).
779:
765:
435:This section is an excerpt from
429:
350:lodge and an employment agency.
102:
95:
69:
62:
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2094:
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2043:
2018:
1960:Clark, Nia (January 21, 2020).
1910:Hopkins, Randy (July 6, 2023).
1903:
1847:
1812:
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1709:
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1495:
1454:
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1185:
1101:
922:Astor, Maggie (June 20, 2020).
815:Oklahoma State UniversityâTulsa
653:Greenwood Rising History Center
630:U.S. Department of the Interior
551:
317:
2220:Lassek, P.J. (June 25, 2008).
1256:Madigan, Tim (February 2003).
1071:
1062:
1053:
882:
835:
13:
1:
2904:"Women of Black Wall Street."
2224:. Tulsa World. Archived from
2197:. Tulsa World. Archived from
1854:Various (February 21, 2001).
828:
119:Show map of the United States
3248:African-American upper class
2668:TMCFADDEN (August 9, 2018).
2413:"Oklahoma National Register"
2101:Staff, KOCO (May 28, 2021).
1324:Fur, GunlĂśg (May 23, 2019).
647:
611:Crosstown Expressway (I-244)
7:
2588:The Black Wall Street Times
2572:. Retrieved April 19, 2015.
2553:. Retrieved April 19, 2015.
2507:"Greenwood Cultural Center"
1966:Dreams of Black Wall Street
1139:M&B Visionaries (2008)
758:
484:Tulsa Reparations Coalition
306:, under the supervision of
218:African-American businesses
10:
3299:
3263:History of Tulsa, Oklahoma
2568:November 25, 2015, at the
1912:"The Notorious Sarah Page"
1262:. Macmillan. p. 268.
805:History of Tulsa, Oklahoma
684:Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame
494:weekend after 19-year-old
490:The massacre began during
434:
321:
249:
228:of 1921, in which a local
18:Greenwood, Tulsa, Oklahoma
3152:
3045:
3034:
2953:
2862:Greenwood Cultural Center
894:Greenwood Cultural Center
677:Greenwood Cultural Center
669:Greenwood Cultural Center
409:published a story called
292:Emancipation Proclamation
193:
183:
173:
163:
128:
56:
48:
41:
34:
3273:African-American society
2532:"Ruins to Renaissance",
2127:Oklahoma Commission 2001
1898:Oklahoma Commission 2001
1886:Oklahoma Commission 2001
1790:10.1177/0021934708318607
1778:Journal of Black Studies
1229:Finkelman, Paul (2009).
1043:Houghton Mifflin (2002)
795:African American History
417:Foundation of resentment
254:
2741:Oxford University Press
2055:utulsa.as.atlas-sys.com
1167:Wills, Shomari (2018).
531:, ending the massacre.
525:Oklahoma National Guard
261:Native American removal
2874:Greenwood Walking Tour
896:. 2019. Archived from
731:nonprofit organization
678:
662:
625:
590:
448:
397:
2813:(fictional depiction)
2313:Stillwater News Press
1079:"Greenwood Community"
676:
660:
623:
588:
559:National Park Service
446:
395:
272:Five Civilized Tribes
148:36.16166°N 95.98660°W
3055:71st Street Corridor
2823:Marion Koogler McNay
2764:Marion Koogler McNay
2674:United for Libraries
2465:Peterson, Beatrice.
2417:nr2_shpo.okstate.edu
2162:Connor, Jay (2020).
1935:Madigan, Tim. 2001.
1135:Lori Latrice Sykes,
787:United States portal
299:Booker T. Washington
86:Show map of Oklahoma
83:Location in Oklahoma
3283:Tulsa race massacre
3065:Brady Arts District
2513:on January 15, 2021
2279:Wall Street Journal
2252:Wall Street Journal
2201:on October 12, 2012
1089:on October 21, 2019
1009:on October 26, 2008
810:Langston University
747:Tulsa race massacre
697:campaigns, and the
599:Tulsa race massacre
453:Tulsa race massacre
437:Tulsa race massacre
424:Tulsa Race Massacre
340:city in Mississippi
226:Tulsa race massacre
153:36.16166; -95.98660
144: /
3070:Blue Dome District
2867:2021-01-15 at the
2855:2011-08-05 at the
2793:(First ed.).
2617:. January 17, 2019
2536:(October 15, 1995)
2352:10.1111/ajes.12225
2228:on October 7, 2012
2143:. Associated Press
1941:St. Martin's Press
1900:, pp. 13, 23.
1722:The New York Times
1480:10.1111/ajes.12225
1439:10.1111/ajes.12225
1357:The New York Times
1302:10.1111/ajes.12225
1192:John Hope Franklin
977:10.1111/ajes.12225
929:The New York Times
900:on August 22, 2020
745:, survivor of the
724:John Hope Franklin
679:
663:
626:
591:
449:
398:
3230:
3229:
3023:Metropolitan area
2808:978-0-688-16318-1
2727:Brophy, Alfred L.
1685:"Tulsa Race Riot"
1507:www.okhistory.org
1337:978-0-8061-6346-8
1269:978-0-312-30247-4
1242:978-0-19-516779-5
1178:978-0-06-243760-0
1083:The Tuskegee News
705:Michael Bloomberg
642:National Monument
605:Historic district
539:state legislature
504:elevator operator
457:white supremacist
388:Black Wall Street
378:South Los Angeles
330:Oklahoma Land run
203:
202:
51:Black Wall Street
16:(Redirected from
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2702:johnhopefranklin
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2345:(3â4): 789â819.
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1983:
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1681:Ellsworth, Scott
1677:
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1578:. May 31, 2021.
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1482:
1473:(3â4): 789â819.
1458:
1452:
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1432:(3â4): 789â819.
1417:
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1367:
1361:
1360:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1321:
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1295:(3â4): 789â819.
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1113:www.thirteen.org
1105:
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1005:. Archived from
999:
990:
989:
979:
970:(3â4): 789â819.
955:
946:
945:
943:
941:
936:on June 20, 2020
932:. Archived from
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280:Indian Territory
159:
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110:Greenwood, Tulsa
106:
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77:Greenwood, Tulsa
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36:Greenwood, Tulsa
32:
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21:
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3226:
3154:Largest suburbs
3148:
3041:
3032:
2986:Famous citizens
2949:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2889:Tulsapolice.org
2869:Wayback Machine
2857:Wayback Machine
2846:
2836:
2809:
2777:
2751:
2737:Randall Kennedy
2722:
2720:Further reading
2717:
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1657:Washington Post
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773:Oklahoma portal
771:
766:
764:
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754:, R&B Group
739:
720:
712:President Biden
699:Cherokee Nation
671:
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579:
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468:Tulsa, Oklahoma
440:
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3129:Southern Hills
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3057:
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3018:Transportation
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2845:
2844:External links
2842:
2841:
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2807:
2785:Lehane, Dennis
2781:
2775:
2755:
2749:
2735:. foreword by
2721:
2718:
2715:
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2686:
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2628:
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2591:. July 5, 2018
2574:
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2254:. May 28, 2021
2239:
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2119:
2093:
2067:
2042:
2017:
1978:
1952:
1928:
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1890:
1888:, p. 114.
1878:
1846:
1811:
1784:(5): 851â870.
1768:
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1169:Black Fortunes
1148:
1125:
1100:
1070:
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1020:
991:
947:
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881:
844:"Final Report"
833:
832:
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827:
826:
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821:Oklahoma Eagle
817:
812:
807:
802:
800:Ethnic enclave
797:
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743:Viola Fletcher
738:
737:Notable people
735:
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566:Tulsa Drillers
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322:Main article:
319:
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276:Trail of Tears
256:
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235:race relations
210:freedom colony
208:is a historic
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3162:Broken Arrow
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1992:The Broad Ax
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927:
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898:the original
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318:O. W. Gurley
312:
308:C. W. Greene
302:the edge of
296:
269:
258:
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205:
204:
188:Tulsa County
43:Neighborhood
26:
3108:North Tulsa
2645:Tulsa World
2621:January 22,
2534:Tulsa World
2493:Tulsa World
2452:Tulsa World
2129:, p. .
2010:October 23,
1093:October 21,
570:ONEOK Field
544:reparations
529:martial law
476:Wall Street
324:O.W. Gurley
151: /
3237:Categories
3139:West Tulsa
3093:East Tulsa
2981:Government
2879:Okjazz.org
2826:Art Museum
2767:Art Museum
2698:"About Us"
2086:October 5,
2081:The Ringer
1761:August 30,
1631:Britannica
1538:The Nation
890:"About Us"
829:References
512:Roy Belton
500:shoeshiner
498:, a black
274:along the
139:95°59â˛12âłW
136:36°09â˛42âłN
3187:Claremore
3134:Swan Lake
3117:The Pearl
3113:Owen Park
3098:Greenwood
3075:Brookside
2991:Geography
2976:Education
2961:Buildings
2884:Tulsa.com
2384:April 29,
2361:1536-7150
2287:0099-9660
2000:2163-7202
1971:March 24,
1806:146678313
1735:March 16,
1730:0362-4331
1611:April 15,
1589:April 15,
1584:0261-3077
1546:0027-8378
1489:1536-7150
1448:1536-7150
1311:1536-7150
986:1536-7150
904:March 26,
824:newspaper
710:In 2021,
648:Landmarks
460:terrorist
288:Seminoles
206:Greenwood
3202:Glenpool
3121:Red Fork
3088:Downtown
3001:Timeline
2865:Archived
2853:Archived
2795:New York
2787:(2008).
2729:(2002).
2707:June 24,
2679:June 24,
2650:June 24,
2566:Archived
2471:ABC News
2318:June 24,
2292:June 24,
2258:June 11,
2172:Archived
2168:The Root
2004:Archived
1921:April 9,
1868:June 22,
1862:Archived
1839:June 11,
1833:Archived
1798:40648610
1695:Archived
1683:(2009).
1556:June 27,
1550:Archived
1407:Archived
1381:June 24,
1118:June 24,
940:June 21,
866:citation
857:June 20,
759:See also
695:GoFundMe
527:imposed
463:massacre
304:Tuskegee
265:Jim Crow
178:Oklahoma
3217:Catoosa
3212:Wagoner
3172:Sapulpa
3103:Midtown
2996:History
2966:Climate
2954:General
2743:, USA.
2615:AP NEWS
2595:June 5,
2476:May 30,
2422:May 20,
2147:June 7,
2112:May 26,
2060:May 26,
2035:May 26,
1662:July 3,
1512:June 5,
1376:HISTORY
521:looting
508:lynched
348:Masonic
250:History
220:in the
164:Country
3207:Coweta
3177:Owasso
3008:Mayors
2832:
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284:Creeks
184:County
3197:Jenks
3192:Bixby
3013:Media
1802:S2CID
1794:JSTOR
847:(PDF)
255:Roots
230:white
198:Tulsa
174:State
3125:SoBo
3028:Flag
2830:ISBN
2803:ISBN
2771:ISBN
2745:ISBN
2709:2020
2681:2020
2652:2020
2623:2020
2597:2020
2519:2008
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1945:ISBN
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1916:CfPS
1870:2020
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1763:2020
1756:CNBC
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