Government of the Han dynasty

850: 1203:. During Western Han, the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's office was located within the walls of the palace. He had the authority to investigate attendants and eunuchs of the palace and to reject improperly written memorials before submission to the Imperial Counselor. The Masters of Writing under the Minister Steward then processed these memorials before they were sent to the throne. The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's proximity to the emperor during Eastern Han allowed him to surpass the authority of his nominal superior, the Excellency of Works, yet his Western-Han-era power to inspect local provincial authorities was removed. The Minister Steward—who was supervised by the Imperial Counselor (and later Excellency of Works)—became the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk's new superior by early Eastern Han. The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk also managed the Imperial Library in both Western and Eastern Han, this duty being transferred to a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies in 159 AD. 5861: 1619:宗正), also known as the Director of the Imperial Clan, was always occupied by a member of the imperial family. He oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as granting fiefs and titles. His ministry was responsible for record-keeping of all nobles, a register being updated at the beginning of each year. When a serious infraction was committed by a member of the imperial family, the Minister of the Imperial Clan was the first high official to be notified before the emperor, who made the ultimate decision about any possible legal action. This minister's subordinates heard grievances of imperial family members and informed them about new ordinances. Unlike kings and marquesses, who were not responsible to any of the Nine Ministers, imperial princesses and their fiefs were kept under surveillance by the Minister of the Imperial Clan. 728: 754: 745: 1607:, before passing them on to the Excellencies. His subordinates acted as seating guides and ushers for officials, nobles, and foreign delegates at imperial ceremonies and sacrifices. One of his subordinates maintained living quarters for officials in the commanderies and kingdoms who were traveling to the capital. While the Minister Herald had always conducted the formal reception of foreign envoys and enlisted the aid of interpreters, his powers in matters of foreign affairs were expanded further when the post of Director of Dependent States was abolished in 28 BC. However, by Eastern Han his duties involving the affairs of Dependent States were transferred to local administrations along the borders. 813:(d. 193 BC) integrated much of the statutes of the Qin law code into the newly compiled Han law code. Yet Gaozu's establishment of central control over only a third of the empire—the other two-thirds of territory was controlled by semi-autonomous kingdoms—strayed from Qin's imperial model which gave the emperor direct control over all of China. However, a series of reforms eventually stripped away any vestiges of the kingdoms' independence. Han emperors thereafter enjoyed full and direct control over China, as had the first Qin emperor. The Han court's gradual move towards reestablishing central control can also be seen in its monetary policy. While the Qin regime installed a nationwide standard 2614: 2459:, to the capital at the end each year during winter; the nominees would then be considered for an appointment to a central or local government office. This followed a system of quotas for each of the commanderies that was first established during Emperor Wu's reign, when two Filial and Incorrupt men from each commandery were sent to the capital. This was changed in 92 AD to one man for every 200,000 households in a commandery. After the Commandants of interior commanderies were abolished, the Administrators assumed their duties, yet they were still not allowed to raise militias, mobilize troops, or send troops outside their commandery without permission from the central government. 967:廷議). Various issues were debated at these gatherings, such as installment of new emperors, enfeoffment of nobles, the establishment of new ancestral temples, reforms to the state religion, the monetary or tax systems, management of government monopolies on salt and iron (when they existed during Western Han), the introduction of new laws or the repeal of old ones, complex lawsuits, or whether or not to declare war on a foreign country or accept peaceful negotiation. Although the emperor could reject the decisions reached by his court conference, he did so at the risk of alienating his leading ministers. More often than not, he was forced to accept the 983:, had the sole right to appoint one of the late emperor's surviving sons or relatives to the position. Most often the successor chosen in this fashion was a minor, thus the empress dowager served as regent over the government. A high-status male relative, usually a father or brother, would assume control of the Imperial Secretariat. Even when an emperor reached his majority and became an active ruler, he often sought the advice and acceptance of the empress dowager on policy decisions; she also had the right to override his decisions. The empress dowager was protected by the Minister of the Guards, yet if her faction—the 1274: 2641:侯國)—typically the size of a county. If the kings' sons were grandsons of the emperor, they were made full marquesses; if not, they were considered commoners. However, this rule was changed in 127 BC so that all the kings' sons were made full marquesses. It is unknown whether early Western-Han marquessates enjoyed the same level of autonomy as early Western-Han kingdoms; by 145 BC, all marquessates' staff were appointed by the central government. The marquess had no administrative role over his marquessate; he merely collected a portion of the tax revenues. His Chancellor was the equivalent of a county Prefect. 1232: 2868: 2504: 1628: 1461: 2727: 6360: 2679:正卒) for one year of training and one year of service; the year of service could be served until the age of fifty-six. Conscripts were trained, and would serve in one of three branches of the military: infantry, cavalry, or naval marine. The year of service could take the form of soldiering at frontier garrisons protecting the borders against nomadic enemies, serving as guards in the courts of kings or as guards under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. By 155 BC, the minimum age for conscription was lowered to twenty. During 2451:. After 30 AD, all Commandants who were not located in distant frontier commanderies were abolished, yet if the commandery was located along borders where raids and armed incursions by hostile nomadic groups were frequent, he was still appointed. A Commandant in an interior commandery could only be appointed temporarily to deal with crises as they arose. Each commandery also had secretaries, a treasurer, and an Official in Charge of Accounts who submitted annual reports to the imperial court on the Administrator's performance. 2605:, and all officials ranked higher than this were appointed directly by the central government. Excluding the kingdom-level Minister Coachman, the kingdoms' Nine Ministers and Imperial Counselors were abolished. The Chancellor, now the equivalent of a commandery Administrator, was retained, although he was still appointed by the central government. After these reforms, the kings were no longer administrative heads and merely took a portion of the taxes collected by the government in their kingdoms as personal income. 2648:, who shared the same rank as kings, or princesses, who shared the same rank as full marquesses; a princess's fief was typically the size of a county. The husband of a princess was ranked as a marquess. The daughters of kings were also princesses, but their fiefs were typically the smaller size of county districts, and could not be inherited by sons. Unlike the fiefs of kings and marquesses, the staffs of the princesses' fiefs answered directly to one of the Nine Ministers: the Minister of the Imperial Clan. 1899: 1975: 1762: 2205: 950: 2073: 1100: 2399: 1265:

budget, although contemporary sources fail to mention this point. Aside from the court conference, the Great Conference of leading officials across the empire was conducted by his ministry. The Chancellor's bureaus were also retained by the Excellency over the Masses, and were nearly identical to that of the new Eastern-Han Grand Commandant's bureaus. He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers: the Minister Coachman, Minister of Justice, and Minister Herald.

1184: 1568: 51: 911:節杖). Roughly 2 m (6 ft) in height and decorated with ribbons, the Staff of Authority was often granted to an official with a specific errand, such as acting on behalf of the emperor as ambassador to a foreign country, appointing civilians to office, or immediately promoting a deserving military officer on the field of battle. Moreover, it granted its bearer the authority to sentence criminals and political rebels with execution without notifying the court first. 1991:

region and seven nearby commanderies. His investigative powers matched those of a provincial Inspector, although his Staff of Authority made him more powerful than the latter. The Colonel Director of Retainers was a personal servant of the emperor, answering only to him, allowing the emperor to greatly enhance his control over the bureaucracy. However, the Staff of Authority was removed from the Colonel in 45 BC, limiting his powers to inspection, investigation, and

2896: 1396: 2687: 1700: 1821: 876: 2013: 1425:郎中令) before 104 BC. He was responsible for the emperor's security within the palace grounds, external imperial parks, and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot. However, to ensure that the emperor's entire safety was not entrusted to a single officer, the subordinates of the Minister of the Guards were given sole right to patrol the palaces' entrances and walls while the eunuchs guarded the emperor's private apartments and 2543: 1023:太傅), although given the highest civil status below the emperor, was not regularly occupied. The role was considered an honorary rather than substantive office. In Western Han, a Grand Tutor was supposedly appointed at the beginning of each emperor's reign, and was not replaced until that emperor's death. However, only four Grand Tutors were appointed between 202 BC – 6 AD. In contrast, during Eastern Han, every emperor, except 27: 1000: 867: 119:

necessary, with the support of the courtiers, she would decide on his successor or his dismissal. Although such a challenge was raised by the empress dowager to the emperor during the emperor's youth or incapacity. The emperor's executive powers could also be practiced by any official upon whom he bestowed the Staff of Authority. These powers included the right to execute criminals without the imperial court's permission.

1812:(r. 49–33). However, the founder of Eastern Han abolished the fourteen salary-ranks in favor of three ranks with no definite salary; instead, the concubines were irregularly granted gifts. The chief concubine of Western Han, the Brilliant Companion, shared the same salary-rank as the Chancellor, while the concubine ranked just below her, the Favorite Beauty, shared the same salary-rank as any one of the Nine Ministers. 1749:太官令), also known as the Prefect Grand Provisioner, was responsible for managing the kitchen, its cooks, and supplying food for the emperor. Other subordinates managed the weaving houses which supplied the clothes for the emperor, the workshops which produced wares, utensils, and funerary items for the emperor, and the imperial parks and gardens where the emperor could hunt and attend outings. The Bureau of Music ( 1931:

57 AD and his duties were transferred to an Internuncio in the Ministry of the Household. However, the post was reinstated in 76 AD with the original salary-rank, yet many of his subordinates remained abolished. Since most buildings were constructed from wood, with ceramic roof tiles, a large workforce was needed to maintain buildings that fell into disrepair. The restoration of the Imperial University during

2882: 1484:, one of whom controlled the gates where nominees for office were received and officials sent memorials to the throne. To control and monitor the flow of traffic through the palace gates, the prefects used a complex passport system involving wooden and metal tallies. During an emergency, the tallies were collected and no-one was allowed to enter unless they breached the gates by force. The guards were 1087:大司徒). On 8 June, 51 AD the prefix "Grand" (大) was removed from the titles of the Excellency over the Masses and Excellency of Works, while the Grand Marshal was reinstated with the original title of Grand Commandant, and would remain so for the rest of Eastern Han. The exact salary figures for the Excellencies before 8 BC are unknown, although from that year forward they were given a 10,000- 2512:

act as judge for all lawsuits brought to the county court. The judicial jurisdictions of the commandery Administrator and county Magistrate overlapped, so it was generally agreed that whoever arrested a criminal first would try him or her. Under Emperor Wu, commanderies and kingdoms operated public schools, and although counties could operate their own public schools, not all of them did.

1243:(9–23 AD), since he did not want an active regent for his regime. This was retained by Eastern Han, while the third Grand Commandant of Eastern Han appointed in 51 AD transformed his ministry into a primarily civilian one. Although the Eastern-Han Grand Commandant shared the same salary-rank as the other two Excellencies who were nominally considered his equals, he was nonetheless given 1429:. Three of the five cadet corps commanded by the Minister of the Household were actually armed civilian nominees serving a period of probation before appointment to a government office; the other two corps were composed of imperial bodyguards who were never appointed to civilian offices. The former were often recommended by commandery-level Administrators as 2245:

treatment of convicts, and any signs of extortion, nepotism, or factionalism. These reports were submitted to the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and Imperial Counselor during Western Han, but by Eastern Han these reports were submitted to each of the Three Excellencies. The reports were then used to promote, demote, dismiss, or prosecute local officials.

829:, although civil officials, representing the competing interests of different state organs, scrutinized his decisions. Although the Grand Commandant had a nominal role as commander-in-chief, the emperor served as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The emperor had the sole right to appoint central government officials whose salary-rank was 600- 1804:, the legal wife of the emperor, also had an area of the palace separate from that of the emperor's private apartments, where the empress was expected to spend every fifth night with the emperor. Both the empress and the heir apparent received an income from the taxes of forty counties. She also had a Supervisor of the Household (ranked 2,000- 1797:. The post of Supervisor of the Household was abolished. Other Western Han staff offices of the heir apparent were abolished during Eastern Han, such as the Chief of the Kitchen and the Household Prison of the Heir Apparent. If he reached adulthood, the heir apparent could be married to a principal wife who led a harem of his concubines. 1172:

to uphold disciplinary procedures for officials; he could investigate even those attached to the chancellery and the imperial palace. Since one of his main functions was to prevent abuse of authority, his jurisdiction over officialdom tended to overlap with that of the Chancellor's. His subordinates included the Imperial Clerks (

946:(r. 141–87 BC) reign onward. The emperor was expected to behave according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, lest he incur the wrath of Heaven and bring an end to his reign. He became the highest priest in the land. By performing certain religious rites and rituals, the emperor acted as a sacred link between Heaven and Earth. 903:令). However, he often accepted the decisions and reforms suggested by his chief judicial minister, the Commandant of Justice. The emperor also acted as the supreme judge. Any lawsuits which a county administration, then commandery administration, and then Minister of Justice could not resolve were deferred to the emperor. 1151:中書官) from Emperor Wu's reign until 29 BC, when they were staffed by regular officials. They usurped much of the Chancellor's powers by the end of the Western Han. The position of Chancellor was abolished for much of Eastern Han and replaced by the Excellency over the Masses. However, in 208 AD the Excellency of Works 2750:北軍). The Northern Army's main purpose was to defend the capital, but it was sometimes required to repel foreign invasions. The Northern Army is first mentioned in Han records in about 180 BC, yet little is known of its command structure at that time. Several decades later, Emperor Wu reformed the Northern Army's 2831:

During peacetime and war, the command structure of the Northern Army remained the same. However, during times of great conflict and crisis, the raising of large militias required the appointment of many new officers with various titles, which were often bestowed as honorary titles to officials during

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laborers until this duty was transferred to the ministry of the newly created Excellency of Works in 8 BC. The Court Architect's subordinates were responsible for gathering timber for carpenters and stone for masons. Although his office existed at the establishment of Eastern Han, it was abolished in

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for nominees aspiring to become subordinate officials for either the Minister Steward or Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk. These nominees were often recommended subordinates of commandery-level Administrators. Other subordinates of the Minister of Ceremonies reported illegal acts at ancestral temples,

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The Excellency of Works, also known as the Minister of Works, was less powerful than his previous counterpart, the Imperial Counselor. This official's advisory and censorial responsibilities coincided with those of two other Excellencies, forming a tripartite cabinet arrangement. Unlike the abolished

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Whenever the emperor was absent from a court conference but sought its advice, he relied on the chancellor to direct it and inform him of the resulting majority opinion. If the attending ministers were split into opposing factions of roughly equal size, the chancellor would listen to the positions of

817:, the early Western Han regime oscillated between abolishing and legalizing private mints, commandery-level mints, and kingdom-level mints issuing various coins. In 113 BC the Han court finally established the central government's monopoly control over the issuance of a standard, nationwide currency. 296:

upon high officials. These gifts, in some generous cases, could equal as much as half the value of the officials' standard annual salary. Aged officials were often retired from service and given a pension. Below is a table outlining salaries measured in coin cash, unhusked grain, and husked grain for

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During Eastern Han, the conscripted army largely gave way to a volunteer army. The conscripted army under the Minister of the Guards was no longer referred to as the Southern Army. The Northern Army was retained, although it was reformed so that there were five Colonels instead of eight. The Eastern

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Many of the Administrators' duties were seasonal, such as inspections of counties every spring to check on agriculture and maintain roads, bridges, dikes and other public works. In the fall he sent subordinates into the counties to report whether local criminal lawsuits had been conducted fairly. He

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There were thirteen commanderies, including the capital region, and ten kingdoms at the beginning of Western Han. Many kingdoms were reduced in size and the empire's territory expanded through conquest. By 2 AD there were eighty-three commanderies and twenty kingdoms containing an aggregate total of

2064:(r. 25–57 AD) abolished the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks and revived his post annually during autumn to conduct a ritual sacrifice. The imperial mint became the responsibility of the Minister of Finance and the imperial park located outside Eastern-Han Luoyang was administered by a prefect. 1264:

The Excellency over the Masses (also known as the Minister over the Masses) shared the same censorial and advisory roles as the other two Excellencies, the Excellency of Works and Grand Commandant. Like his previous counterpart, the Chancellor, he must have been responsible for drawing up the annual

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or below, while he was also able to recommend nominees to the emperor for recruitment to the senior roles in central government. The Chancellor was held responsible for the actions of officials he recommended and appointed, yet he could also punish inadequate officials without the emperor's consent.

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rank. The Grand Tutor was nominally in charge of providing a young emperor with moral guidance, but it is doubtful that this role was ever taken seriously or formally conducted. The post often served to deliberately block someone from obtaining a more important post, such as one of the Excellencies,

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The government also exempted those who presented authorities with a slave, a horse, or grain. In the system of twenty ranks bestowed on commoners and nobles alike, those of the ninth rank and above were exempt from military service. To compensate for the loss of manpower, the Eastern Han government

1551:. Only the emperor, in his role as judge, was superior to this minister. The Minister of Justice was the supreme civil-appointed judge for cases deferred to the capital from provincial lawsuits. His judicial powers, however, were similar to those of the Chancellor. He could recommend changes to the 1171:

During Western Han the Imperial Counselor, also known as the Grandee Secretary and Imperial Secretary, was considered the second-ranking official below the Chancellor. Like the Chancellor, he exercised censorial powers over provincial officials who also sent him annual reports. His primary duty was

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in Liyang County along the Yellow River in 43 AD, while two other reserve units were created in 110 AD; these were headed by a Commandant (the same title used for the commandery-level military officer). The main purpose of these reserve units was to position Han troops at strategic passes to guard

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A county Magistrate was in charge of maintaining law and order, storing grain in case of famine, registering the populace for taxation, mobilizing conscripted commoners for corvée labor projects, supervising public works, renovating schools, and performing rituals. They were also given the duty to

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Following the crisis, the Colonel Director of Retainers retained his privileged possession of the Staff of Authority and was granted the same investigative and censorial powers as the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor over officialdom. He routinely inspected the conduct of officials in the capital

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ditches, dykes and dams, and other structural engineering projects. The Court Architect supervised only imperial building projects. The Excellency of Works made annual reports to the throne about the progress of local administrations' conduct of construction projects. He was given formal powers to

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The number of kingdoms fluctuated between Western and Eastern Han, but there were never fewer than eight nor greater than twenty-five. In the early Western Han, the kingdoms accounted for approximately two-thirds of the empire. The imperial court ruled over the commanderies located in the western

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was transferred from the Minister Steward's ministry to the park managed by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks. In 113 BC the central government closed all commandery-level mints; private minting had previously been outlawed in 144 BC. The Superintendent's imperial mint in the park outside

2048:, provided food for the emperor's household. He also collected taxes from commoners using the park's grounds and transmitted these funds to the Minister Steward, who managed the emperor's finances. One of the Superintendent's subordinates supervised convicted criminals in their care of the park's 1118:

was the chief civil official. The duties of the chancellery were divided between a Right Chancellor (右丞相) and Left Chancellor (左丞相) between 196 and 180 BC. After 180 BC, the Left Chancellor's post was merely titular and its incumbent had no real authority. The Western Han Chancellor oversaw state

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in 220 AD. A key difference between the roles was that an Inspector had no executive powers and only an advisory role, whereas a Governor could execute decisions on his own behalf. There were exceptions to this rule. If banditry or rebellion simultaneously arose in several commanderies under his

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During Western Han, the Minister of Finance's powers were limited to the public treasury, the Minister Steward being responsible for the emperor's private wealth. However, in Eastern Han, the responsibilities for the public treasury and the emperor's private wealth were amalgamated and entrusted

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and he was distinguished from a provincial Inspector only by a higher salary-rank. The office of Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished in 9 BC, and reinstated once more as the Director of Retainers in 7 BC. He was now a subordinate of the new Excellency of Works and supervised convicts in

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privilege as the most senior civil official. However, his censorial jurisdiction now overlapped with the other two Excellencies (i.e. he was able to investigate the same officials in central and local government), who shared an advisory role to the emperor (policy suggestions could be submitted

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According to Eastern Han-era sources, the Northern Army was a relatively small fighting force of between 3,500 and 4,200 professional soldiers, each regiment consisting of approximately 750 soldiers and 150 junior officers. To aid this force, Emperor Guangwu established a 1,000-soldier unit of

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prompted the Han court to reduce the provinces to twelve—excluding the capital region—in 35 AD. In that year, the Inspectors-cum-Governors were still appointed by the central government, but their staffs were recruited from local administrations where they were transferred. By 42 AD, the title

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was assigned to each district by the county Magistrate. A county Magistrate heavily relied on the cooperation of local elders and leaders at the district level; these carried out much of the day-to-day affairs of arbitrating disputes in their communities, collecting taxes, and fighting crime.

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Both the Inspector and Governor were responsible for inspecting commandery-level Administrators and their staffs, as well as the semi-autonomous kingdoms and their staffs. They evaluated officials on criteria of competence, honesty, obedience to the imperial court, adherence to the law, their

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as well as disaster relief efforts during floods and fires. The Bearer of the Mace had a large staff of subordinates during the Western Han, whose posts were abolished or transferred elsewhere during the Eastern Han. This included the abolition of the Captains of the Standard Bearers, and the

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could either be the emperor's actual or symbolic mother, and was in practice more respected than the emperor, as she could override his decisions; she can even make decisions on behalf of the emperor in dilemma matters of the country or for the order and continuation of the dynasty, even if

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A pottery model of a palace from a Han dynasty tomb; the entrances to the emperor's imperial palaces were strictly guarded by the Minister of the Guards, and if it was found that a commoner, official, or noble entered without explicit permission via a tally system, they were liable for

1777:, he was provided living quarters within the palace and a personal staff which was not disbanded until he became the next emperor. During Western Han, the staff had two divisions: one was led by educators of the heir apparent, known as the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent (ranked 2000– 906:

The emperor's role as supreme judge could be temporarily duplicated by any official he designated in times of emergency or in distant borderlands where central government had little influence. This entailed a symbolic conferral of power, which was embodied in the Staff of Authority

1448:謁者僕射), were subordinates of the Minister of the Household who participated in state ceremonies, condoled on behalf of the emperor for recently deceased officials, inspected public works and military camps along the frontiers, and acted as diplomats to the semi-autonomous fiefs and 1440:/议郎) who advised the emperor and engaged in scholarly debates. They were allowed to openly criticize the emperor, participate in provincial inspections, and conduct mourning ceremonies for recently deceased kings and marquesses while installing their successors. Internuncios ( 1753:樂府) was overseen by the Minister Steward and was in charge of musical performances at imperial ceremonies and entertaining the emperor with folk songs gathered from throughout the empire; it was disbanded in 7 BC and its musicians transferred to the Minister of Ceremonies. 184:, modelled largely upon the regular county. Although the central government's monopolies on salt, iron, and liquor eventually failed and were relinquished back to private production, the government successfully nationalized the issuing of coin currency through its imperial 2594:). No kingdom was allowed to have a Grand Commandant, since they were not allowed to initiate war campaigns on their own behalf. Although the kingdoms' Chancellors were appointed by the imperial court, the king had the right to appoint all other officials in his fief. 1738:, and non-Han-Chinese peoples within and outside the empire. Since the Masters of Writing were not eunuchs, and thus not allowed into the imperial harem, Emperor Wu established an all-eunuch office of secretaries for the inner palace, which was abolished in 29 BC. 1211:

The Grand Commandant (also known as the Commander-in-Chief) was the head commander of the military in Western Han, yet his office was irregularly filled (from 205–202 BC, from 196–195 BC, from 189–177 BC, from 154–150 BC, and in 140 BC). After 119 BC, the generals

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or higher. The emperor also appointed the leading officials at the provincial, commandery, and county levels of government. Appointees to office were usually recommended men from the commanderies, family relatives of high officials, or student graduates of the

2040:水衡都尉) was also known as the Chief Commandant of Waterways and Parks, and was once a subordinate of the Minister Steward until 115 BC, when he, and other former subordinates of that ministry, became independent officers. His salary-rank was equivalent to 2000– 962:

Although the emperor held supreme power, he more often sought the advice of his cabinet and other ministers before making decisions and when revoking them. He often assembled leading officials for debates or discussions on policy, known as court conferences

1559:. It is unknown whether he oversaw all of the twenty-six prisons in Western Han Chang'an, which were built to house convicted ex-officials. However, during Eastern Han, the Imperial Prison in Luoyang was the only prison managed by the Minister of Justice. 1722:, valuables and equipment. For this purpose he was given responsibility for the emperor's personal finances during Western Han, yet this responsibility was transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han. Although he was not a castrated 1996:

public works projects, like his early Western Han counterpart. In Eastern Han, the Colonel Director of Retainers was reappointed without the Staff of Authority, with powers to inspect the capital region, but his salary-rank was reduced from 2000–

2123:, to govern the non-Han-Chinese populations of each Dependent State. The Director of Dependent States' title was abolished in 28 BC; his duties and his subordinates, the Commandants, became the responsibilities of the Minister Herald. The 2582:

third of the empire, while kings ruled their fiefs with little or no central government intervention. The administrative staffs of each kingdom paralleled the model of central government, as each kingdom had a Grand Tutor (ranked 2000–

153:, and various metropolitan officials of the capital region. Distinguished salary-ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy, nobles of the imperial family, concubines of the harem, and military officers of the armed forces. 2467:

The nationwide census conducted in 2 AD listed 1,587 counties. The Han county was the smallest political division containing a centrally appointed official. In larger counties of about 10,000 households he was known as the Prefect

2044:. The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed a large imperial hunting park located outside Chang'an, including its palaces, rest stops, granaries, and cultivated patches of fruit and vegetable gardens, which, along with 1808:), and many other subordinates, either male eunuchs or female maids, who took care of domestic needs. The concubines of the harem were subordinates of the empress and were ranked below her in fourteen grades by the reign of 1480:'s reign (r. 157–141 BC) before reverting to the original title. This Minister was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. The duties of his ministry were carried out by 2609:

notes that after this transformation of kingdoms and marquessates into virtual commanderies and counties, respectively, a "... fully centralized government was achieved" for the first time since the Qin dynasty.

1256:, civil law cases, granary storage, and military affairs. He was also given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers: the Minister of Ceremonies, Minister of the Household, and Minister of the Guards. 1248:

independently or jointly by all three cabinet members). His various bureaus handled appointment, promotion, and demotion of officials, population registers and agriculture, the upkeep of transportation facilities,

1599:, at the imperial court. Alongside the Minister of the Imperial Clan, his ministry oversaw the inheritance of titles and fiefs by condoling on behalf of the emperor at kings' funerals and memorializing the 2717:

that nonetheless became prevalent by the end of Han. Militias dismissed members who reached the age of fifty-six. By Eastern Han, the obligation upon retired soldiers to join local militias was removed.

1734:尚書令). The secretaries were responsible for relaying all written messages to the emperor, official correspondence with Excellencies, senior ministers, provincial authorities, common people who submitted 5480:

Lander, Brian. “State Management of River Dikes in Early China: New Sources on the Environmental History of the Central Yangzi Region.” T’oung Pao 100.4–5 (2014): 325–62. doi:10.1163/15685322-10045P02.

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of a relative to the emperor, including brothers, uncles, nephews, and sons—excluding the heir apparent. The policy of awarding kingdoms only to imperial relatives was gradually adopted by the founder

2099:, was responsible for embassies to foreign countries and nomadic peoples along Han's borders and the annual exchange of hostages—usually foreign princes—submitted to the Han court. Dependent States ( 1918:將作大匠) was in charge of the construction, maintenance, and repair of imperial palace halls, government halls, temples, grave tumuli, buildings in funerary parks, roads leading out of the capital, and 798:(c. 1050 – 256 BC), yet the Zhou kings' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors. The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC. However, following 1027:(r. 146–168 AD), had a new Grand Tutor appointed at the beginning of their reigns. The Grand Tutor's salary-rank was unspecified in literary sources, although it was likely higher than the 10,000- 1710:, 2nd century BC, Western Han; the Minister Steward's ministry managed the workshops producing silk clothes, embroideries, and curtains for the emperor, his royal family, and palatial residences. 1500:太僕), also known as the Grand Coachman, was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables, horses, carriages and coachhouses for the emperor and his palace attendants, and for the supply of 1313:

The Nine Ministers, who were supervised by the Three Excellencies but not direct subordinates of the cabinet, each headed a specialized government ministry and held a salary-rank of Fully 2,000-

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for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces. While the Chancellor drafted the state budget, the Minister of Finance was responsible for funding it. He was in charge of storing the

5860: 2193:, which was entrusted to the Colonel Director of Retainers from 89–9 BC, there were thirteen provinces during Western Han. Eventually, the title of Inspector was changed to Governor ( 2181:

A Han province consisted of a group of commanderies, the administrations of which were subject to scrutiny and inspection by centrally appointed officials. These were the Inspectors (

2766:, whose forces were considered an extension of the Northern Army yet were stationed far outside the capital at strategic passes. Each of the eight Colonels was assisted by a Major ( 2189:. In Western Han they were supervised by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and were subordinates of the Imperial Counselor. Aside from the province-sized capital region, known as 1555:

and the granting of general amnesties to those charged with crimes. His ministry was responsible for maintaining the Imperial Prison, where trials were conducted, and carrying out

1951:司隸). His task was to supervise 1,200 convicts in their construction of roads and canals. In 91 BC, an unsuccessful five-day rebellion in Chang'an was instigated by Crown Prince 1290:

Imperial Counselor, he was given the specialized role of overseeing public works projects throughout the empire. The Excellency of Works was responsible for the construction of

2241:

jurisdiction at once, the Inspector was authorized to raise troops throughout all commanderies under his watch and lead this united force as commander to quell the disruption.

2103:屬國) were first established in 121 BC and composed mostly non-Han-Chinese nomadic tribes and confederations who surrendered after negotiation or armed conflict and accepted Han 2601:

in 154 BC; the number of kingdoms and their sizes were reduced. An imperial edict in 145 BC removed the kings' rights to appoint officials above the salary-rank of 400-

1718:少府), also known as the Privy Treasurer and Small Treasurer, served the emperor exclusively, providing him with entertainment and amusements, proper food and clothing, 1745:太醫令), also known as the Prefect Grand Physician, who checked the emperor's health every morning and accompanied him on imperial hunting trips. The Court Provisioner ( 1683:, which were abolished during Eastern Han and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship. He also managed the government's brief monopoly over 1239:

The Grand Commandant's office witnessed significant changes during the Eastern Han. Wang Mang separated the regent's role from the Grand Commandant's post during the

1285:, Eastern Han period; the Minister of Works oversaw construction projects in the empire, yet the Court Architect continued to oversee imperial construction projects. 1180:御史中丞; also known as the Palace Assistant Secretary). They were often sent out into the provinces to investigate possible wrongdoing on the part of local officials. 2959:(1949). Note that sometimes there is only one variant English title in the parentheses; this means that Bielenstein and Wang used the same English rendition. See 6745: 2633:

Han society below the level of kings was divided into twenty ranks, which awarded certain privileges such as exemption from certain laws, the nineteenth being a

1885:

While his subordinates were on constant patrol, the Bearer of the Mace personally inspected the city three times each month. He was responsible for the military

1824:

A Han ceramic tomb model of a multiple-story residential tower with a first-floor gatehouse and courtyard, mid-floor balcony, windows, and clearly distinguished

1789:). During Eastern Han, the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent lost his administrative role but remained the chief educator and was promoted in rank to Fully 2,000- 1007:

tray with painted designs; rich and wealthy officials could afford luxury items such as lacquerwares, which were also produced for the emperor's dining table by

6010: 126:

rivaled the emperor's authority. This autonomy was greatly diminished when the imperial court enacted reforms following the threats to central control like the

926:

was considered the only legitimate source of imperial authority. This concept was given greater prominence after the state officially sponsored the worship of

7042: 7007: 6803: 6778: 6715: 6705: 6662: 6644: 6629: 6495: 6490: 6039: 2176: 6798: 6793: 6725: 6687: 6672: 6667: 6480: 1687:

from 98–81 BC, before it was returned to private production. Although the Minister Steward and then the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed the

1643:

was the duty of the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, yet this role was transferred to the Minister of Finance by the Eastern Han period (25–220 AD).

6856: 6740: 6730: 6639: 5669: 1870:中尉) before 104 BC, maintained law and order in the capital city —excluding the imperial palaces. During the Western Han, his salary-rank was fully 2,000- 809:

The Han system of imperial government borrowed many of its core features from the regime established by the Qin dynasty. For example, Gaozu's Chancellor

236:, a unit of volume, approximately 35 litres (0.99 US bsh)). However, approximately half an official's salary in grain was made in payments of 141:

The highest officials in the central bureaucracy, who provided advisory, censorial, executive, and judicial roles in governing the empire, consisted of

6788: 6735: 1890:

emperor's entourage became responsible for clearing the roadways when the emperor left the palace and hoisting colored standards to signal his return.

74:(221–207 BC). It was divided into the periods of Western (Former) Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and Eastern (Later) Han (25–220 AD), briefly interrupted by the 6773: 2160: 1680: 1603:

of kings and marquises. The Minister Herald's office received the annual reports from the commanderies and kingdoms when they arrived in the capital

165: 1421:光祿勳), also known as Superintendent of the Household and Supervisor of Attendants, was originally titled the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( 6720: 2909: 1846:

were governed and secured by several officials and officers. The county and municipal divisions of the capital cities were governed by a Prefect (

6710: 6283: 2236:

reinstated the office of Governor, yet some of the provinces were still administered by Inspectors; this arrangement remained in place until the

1343:奉常) from 195 to 144 BC before reverting to the original title. Although his main concern was to link the emperor with the supernatural world and 2500:. The county's head civil servants, usually respected scholars or elders in their local communities, were appointed directly by the Magistrate. 2201:. From 5–1 BC, this post was reverted to Inspector, but was once again re-titled Governor, who was now responsible to all Three Excellencies. 1220:(d. 106 BC) simultaneously held the title until their deaths, but when the post was revived in 87 BC it became politicized when conferred as a 1032:

while Grand Tutors were usually elder statesmen chosen for their age rather than merits (so they would die off quickly after being appointed).

1488:

peasants who served for a year's term as soldiers and were invited to attend a celebratory feast hosted by the emperor before demobilization.

7453: 7314: 7221: 5938: 2432:

salary-rank. The Administrator was the civil and military leader of the commandery. He was not allowed to govern over his native commandery.

2228:

Governor once more became Inspector, who remained the head of provincial authorities until 188 AD. In 188 AD, at the urging of the official

1433:, while others could be relatives of high officials in central government. The Minister of the Household oversaw subordinate court advisors ( 220:

During the Han dynasty, the power a government official exercised was determined by his annual salary-rank, measured in grain units known as

1874:; thus his prestige was similar to that of the Nine Ministers. However, during the Eastern Han his salary-rank was reduced from fully 2,000- 1387:

prepared sacrificial offerings of food and wine at shrines and temples, and arranged for the music and dancing that accompanied ceremonies.

1335:太常) also known as Grand Master of Ceremonies, was the chief official in charge of religious rites, rituals, prayers, and the maintenance of 7553: 7548: 7543: 7478: 5699: 2637:

and the twentieth being a full marquess—the difference being the former was only given a pension while the latter was given a marquessate (

7349: 1691:

for issuing standard coins during Western Han, in Eastern Han the imperial mint was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance.

2709:

After their year of active service, Western Han-era soldiers were demobilized and sent home, where they were obligated to join the local

1854:城門校衛) commanded the garrisons at the twelve city gates, each guarded by a captain, in both Western Han Chang'an and Eastern Han Luoyang. 1547:大理) between 144 BC and 137 BC and again between 1 BC and c. 25 AD. He was the chief official in charge of upholding, administering, and 2730:

Carts and horses going out, 137cm x 201 cm, Eastern Han dynasty; one of 57 murals from the Nei Menggu Helingeer (or Holingor) Tomb in

1505: 7473: 7427: 7035: 6221: 6099: 2738:

The non-professional conscripted soldiers who served a one-year term under the Minister of the Guards belonged to the Southern Army (

1967:. For this event, Emperor Wu prefixed "colonel" to the Director of Retainers' title in 89 BC, promoting him to the salary-rank 2,000- 1671:. In addition to reviewing tax collections, he could implement policies for price control exacted on certain commercial commodities. 1947:司隸校尉), also known as Colonel of Censure and Colonel Director of Convict-Laborers, was originally called the Director of Retainers ( 2694:

Although this system of conscription survived into Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided upon payment of a commutable tax.

7581: 5869: 5828: 5774: 1228:(d. 68 BC). The regent was thus considered one of the Three Excellencies, although he was not technically part of the cabinet. 1163:(r. 189–220 AD). Cao Cao also abolished the Grand Commandant and Excellency of Works while reinstating the Imperial Counselor. 264:

of husked grain was equal to 160 coins, the conversion ratio for unhusked grain to husked grain was 10 to 6 (see table below).

1527:

In Eastern Han—possibly due to the Coachman's influence over the transport of arms—a prefect in charge of manufacturing bows,

918:, the first Qin emperor's legitimacy to rule was ultimately decided by his ability to conquer others. However, by the time of 7586: 6048: 5616: 2683:'s (r. 87–74 BC) reign, the minimum age was raised to twenty-three, but after his reign it was once again reduced to twenty. 727: 1531:, swords, and armor for the military was transferred from the Minister Steward's ministry to that of the Minister Coachman. 1008: 7377: 7362: 7112: 7028: 5803: 1667:, which was gathered as a proportion of farmers' annual crop yields. He was also responsible for setting the standards for 1410:, Kunming; luxury items such as lacquerwares were commonly used by the rich, nobility, and imperial court and often buried 1326: 103: 1850:令). The Prefect was also responsible for a prison and could arrest officials of high rank. The Colonel of the City Gates ( 1504:. His latter duty entailed the supervising of large breeding grounds of frontier pastures, tended by tens of thousands of 1199:

The Imperial Counselor transmitted and received imperial edicts to and from the chancellery and also presented officials'

753: 744: 6276: 6044: 6005: 5793: 2924: 2706:

eventually comprised much of the capital guard, while foreign nomadic tribes were often employed to guard the frontiers.

2124: 1596: 716: 4087:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 43–44; Nishijima (1986), 584; Wagner (2001), 15–17; Wang (1949), 155–156.

1651:大司農) was also called the Grand Minister of Agriculture, and before 144 BC, was known as Clerk of the Capital for Grain ( 825:

The emperor, who enjoyed paramount social status, was the head of the government administration. His rule was virtually

7382: 5540: 931: 5428:. "The Changing Relationship between Local Society and the Central Political Power in Former Han: 206 B.C. – 8 A.D.," 7271: 6054: 5631: 5592: 5570: 5555: 5525: 5510: 5495: 5474: 5459: 5444: 5419: 5404: 5389: 5374: 5359: 5344: 5329: 5314: 5299: 5262: 5247: 2960: 2914: 1299:

supervise three of the Nine Ministers: the Minister of the Imperial Clan, Minister of Finance, and Minister Steward.

1595:大行令) between 144 BC and 104 BC. He was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests, such as nobles and 7372: 5692: 1971:, and granted him the Staff of Authority, allowing him to arrest and punish those allegedly practicing witchcraft. 2562:

was much like a commandery in size and administration, except it was officially, and after 145 BC, nominally, the

106:, and presiding as the chief executive official. He appointed all government officials who earned a salary of 600 6200: 1935:(r. 125–144 AD) reign required 100,000 laborers to work for a year under the supervision of the Court Architect. 244:(五銖) coin measuring 3.2 g (0.11 oz). The other half of an official's salary consisted of unhusked grain and 5292:

The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157

2702:. Many other soldiers in Eastern Han were convicted criminals who commuted their sentences by joining the army. 1675:

solely to the Minister of Finance, which later proved disastrous when handled by irresponsible emperors such as

7558: 7520: 7503: 7254: 6269: 6017: 5888: 2919: 1079:大司馬) in 119 BC. In 8 BC, the post of Imperial Counselor was abolished in favor of a Grand Excellency of Works ( 1516:. Some of the Minister Coachman's subordinates managed stables outside the capital city. These stables housed 971:

of his ministers, whose individual opinions were equally tallied regardless of their standing or salary-rank.

7468: 7412: 7124: 5909: 5833: 5740: 5282: 2598: 2229: 127: 2613: 1083:大司空), and by 1 BC the Chancellor's post was abolished and replaced by the Grand Excellency Over the Masses ( 7458: 7216: 5778: 1719: 1501: 735:, assembled by 210 BC for the burial of Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BC), the first emperor of the Qin dynasty 67: 1615:

While eight of the Nine Ministers could be of commoner origin, the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan (

6261: 5982: 5798: 5685: 2167:). This model of local government was adopted from the previous government structure of the Qin dynasty. 1684: 7297: 7105: 6064: 5927: 5755: 5717: 2428:太守), also known as Grand Administrator, who was appointed by the central government and earned a 2,000- 2144: 1449: 157: 2713:

that convened every eighth month of the year. This obligation was intended to curb local and regional

7515: 7211: 5745: 5649: 2497: 2185:刺史), also known as the Circuit Inspector, who were first appointed in 106 BC at a salary-rank of 600- 968: 794:. For a time, the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the 281: 2570:(r. 202–195 BC), as many of the early kings were non-relatives who were leading officers during the 1472:衛尉) was also known as Commandant of the Guards), and briefly as the Prefect of the Palace Grandees ( 1063:

during both Western and Eastern Han. For most of Western Han, the Excellencies were the Chancellor (

134:

came about during a time of civil, military and religious upheaval, which resulted in the period of

7249: 7140: 7095: 6034: 5767: 5762: 5729: 4541:

Bielenstein (1980), 109–110; Loewe (1986), 198; Yü (1986), 410–411; de Crespigny (2007), 1235–1236.

2559: 2537: 1407: 953:

A female servant and male advisor dressed in silk robes, ceramic figurines from the Western Han Era

853:

Scholars depicted on Han dynasty pictorial brick, discovered in Chengdu. Scholars wore hats called

123: 2143:

The Han Empire was divided by hierarchical political divisions in the following descending order:

7338: 6077: 5838: 2951:(2007); alternative renditions are provided in parentheses and are taken from Hans Bielenstein's 2845: 2672: 2657: 1735: 1317:. Along with the tripartite cabinet members, these ministers usually attended court conferences. 1200: 814: 237: 205: 111: 6371: 5843: 5783: 5725: 5587:, 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5550:, 545–607. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5505:, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5469:, 747–756. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5454:, 520–544. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5242:, 317–376. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2751: 2237: 2061: 1273: 1120: 1075:太尉). The Great Commandant's post was irregularly filled, and it was retitled to Grand Marshal ( 285: 189: 131: 5735: 3939:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223–1224; Bielenstein (1980), 39–40; Wang (1949), 150–151 & 154–155.

3179: 7357: 7259: 7181: 7145: 6927: 6027: 5995: 5915: 5902: 2017: 1983: 1192: 791: 5626:

Beck, Roger B. (2005). "World History: Patterns of Interaction" 200–207. McDougall Littell.

4577:

Bielenstein (1980), 90; de Crespigny (2007), 1228; Wang (1949), 158–159; Hucker (1975), 152.

180:

included the kingdom, which was modeled largely upon the regular commandery, as well as the

6907: 6841: 6821: 6548: 6543: 6437: 6432: 6379: 6177: 6089: 5932: 5848: 5788: 5027: 5025: 2798:

Han-era Colonels of the Northern Army were also demoted to the rank of Equivalent to 2,000-

2567: 2551: 2503: 2439:都尉) also known as Chief Commandant, who handled all local military affairs such as raising 1903: 1668: 1528: 1231: 1060: 803: 787: 142: 2127:, established in 60 BC, which conducted foreign affairs with the oasis city-states in the 1136:

both sides and count the exact number of ministers who supported either opposing opinion.

8: 7422: 7407: 7201: 6937: 6864: 6836: 6624: 6581: 6576: 6510: 6334: 6137: 6072: 5968: 5750: 3846:

Wang (1949), 150–151 & 153–154; de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 34–35.

3264: 3262: 2943:

Most of the English renditions of the Chinese titles used in this article are taken from

2833: 2680: 2233: 1932: 1809: 1676: 1513: 1477: 1160: 1115: 1024: 5663: 5585:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

5503:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

5452:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

5240:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

5022: 7530: 7073: 6990: 6985: 6917: 6826: 6768: 6634: 6614: 6591: 6553: 6533: 6500: 4012:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223–1224; Wang (1949), 150–151 & 155; Bielenstein (1980), 41.

2762:

and commanded a regiment. Emperor Wu also appointed three other Colonels, ranked 2,000-

2699: 2571: 2152: 1726:, many of his subordinates were, since his ministry managed the imperial harem housing 1627: 1556: 1383: 1176:侍御史; also known as Attending Secretaries), led by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk ( 1041: 799: 265: 161: 146: 99: 55: 4030:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 43; Wang (1949), 150–151 & 155–156.

3956: 3954: 3259: 2424:. A commandery consisted of a group of counties and was governed by an Administrator ( 1679:(r. 168–189 AD). During Western Han, the Minister of Finance managed the government's 7432: 7417: 7367: 7176: 7085: 7068: 6970: 6965: 6957: 6947: 6942: 6932: 6922: 6869: 6846: 6783: 6763: 6677: 6586: 6538: 6452: 6447: 6329: 6142: 5627: 5612: 5588: 5566: 5551: 5536: 5521: 5506: 5491: 5470: 5455: 5440: 5415: 5400: 5385: 5370: 5355: 5340: 5325: 5310: 5295: 5258: 5243: 2944: 2622: 2493: 2398: 1835: 1632: 1509: 1371: 1291: 1124: 943: 923: 826: 770: 5548:

Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

5467:

Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

4997: 4995: 1587:大鴻臚) was also known as the Grand Herald; he was also called the Director of Guests ( 196:

system for commoners as non-professional soldiers was reduced in size in favor of a

19:

This article is about Han dynasty system. For the Tokugawa Japan domain system, see

7166: 7150: 7090: 7060: 6995: 6975: 6884: 6874: 6571: 6515: 6505: 6462: 6442: 6389: 6384: 6324: 6319: 6000: 5576:

Wang, Yu-ch'uan. "An Outline of the Central Government of the Former Han Dynasty,"

5220: 5218: 5181: 5179: 3951: 2726: 2574:(206–202 BC). Kingdoms were usually inherited by the king's eldest son born to his 2516: 1956: 1604: 1460: 1411: 1375: 1336: 1056: 762: 177: 169: 91: 31: 6214: 5607:

Yap, Joseph P. (2009). "Official Titles and Institutional Terms – Qin and Han" in

5060: 5058: 4114:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 47; Wang (1949), 150–151 & 156.

769:

from the tomb of the wife of Liu Xu (劉胥), Prince Li of Guangling (廣陵厲王), a son of

7437: 6980: 6902: 6879: 6831: 6485: 6457: 6427: 6399: 6349: 6344: 6249: 6228: 6167: 4992: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4158: 4156: 4123:

Wang (1949), 155–156; de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 47 & 55.

2901: 2779: 2524: 2523:

grouped together; typically a community of approximately one hundred families. A

2197:牧; literally "Shepherd"), a post with a considerably higher salary-rank of 2,000- 1866:執金吾), also known as the Bearer of the Gilded Mace and Commandant of the Capital ( 1600: 1548: 1543:廷尉), also known as the Commandant of Justice, and was known as the Grand Judge ( 980: 802:, the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as 786:, established China's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the 732: 293: 115: 5215: 5176: 3948:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223–1224; Bielenstein (1980), 39–40; Wang (1949), 154–155.

3765:

de Crespigny (2007), 1222–1223; Bielenstein (1980), 24–27; Wang (1949), 152–153.

3072:

Hulsewé (1986), 525–526; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), 23–24; Hansen (2000), 110–112.

2107:. They served as a buffer between Han territory and hostile tribes, such as the 1437: 1091:

salary-rank, in addition to periodic gifts which further boosted their incomes.

979:

When the emperor died without officially appointing a successor, his widow, the

7327: 7322: 7264: 7196: 7078: 7052: 7020: 6912: 6755: 6619: 6422: 6394: 6207: 6022: 5641: 5055: 4787: 4785: 4783: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3186:进贤冠，古缁布冠也，文儒者之服也。前高七寸，后高三寸，长八寸。公侯三梁，中二千石以下至博士两梁，自博士以下至小史私学弟子，皆一梁。宗室刘氏亦两梁冠，示加服也。 2887: 2731: 2606: 2520: 2216: 2085: 1974: 1761: 1517: 1366:

One of the Minister of Ceremonies' many subordinates was the Court Astronomer (

1308: 1119:

finances, logistics for military campaigns, registers for land and population,

1107: 1012: 292:

rank. Occasionally, emperors bestowed luxurious gifts of wine, foodstuffs, and

273: 197: 150: 135: 35: 5666:(maps, geography, and a list of the Han-era provinces with Chinese characters) 5546:

Nishijima, Sadao. (1986). "The Economic and Social History of Former Han," in

5367:

Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History

5309:. Edited by Jack L. Dull. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. 4914:

Wang (1949), 135; Bielenstein (1980), 105; Loewe (1986), 126; Hsu (1965), 360.

4619: 4544: 4153: 2844:

commanded by a Colonel, and sometimes by a Major. Regiments were divided into

2204: 2072: 1898: 949: 7575: 7402: 7100: 6813: 6682: 6654: 6606: 6596: 6563: 6404: 6311: 6235: 5483: 3917: 3915: 2807: 2743: 2575: 2190: 2060:

Chang'an had the sole right to issue coinage throughout the empire. However,

1919: 1820: 1774: 1379: 1356: 1099: 938:(179–104 BC), which held that a dynasty's rule on earth was bound to greater 935: 843: 779: 201: 4780: 4408: 4406: 4387: 4385: 3361: 2734:

belonging to a prominent official, landowner, and colonel of the Wuhuan Army

1773:-family relative of an emperor—usually a princely son—was designated as his 1183: 233: 7483: 7332: 6894: 6472: 6242: 5814: 4400:

Wang (1949), 156–157; Bielenstein (1980), 84–85; de Crespigny (2007), 1226.

4060:

Wang (1949), 155–156; de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 43–44.

3693:

Wang (1949), 150–151; de Crespigny (2007), 1222; Bielenstein (1980), 17–23.

3134:

de Crespigny (2007), 1216; Bielenstein (1980), 143; Hucker (1975), 149–150.

2873: 2840:將軍) whose rank depended on status; divisions were divided into a number of 2668: 2476:長). Depending on the size of the county, the Prefect's salary-rank was 600- 2413: 2224: 2212: 2209: 2132: 2112: 2081: 2077: 1741:

The Minister Steward had many subordinates, including the Court Physician (

1660: 1567: 1521: 1485: 1360: 1103: 988: 984: 839: 795: 193: 95: 6291: 5465:

Kramers, Robert P. (1986). "The Development of the Confucian Schools," in

3912: 3747:

Wang (1949), 150–153; de Crespigny (2007) 1222; Bielenstein (1980), 23–24.

2667:

Upon reaching the age of twenty-three, male commoners became eligible for

2621:

basketwork box excavated from an Eastern-Han tomb of what was the Chinese

7508: 7292: 7171: 7117: 6697: 6525: 6414: 6359: 6300: 6147: 5961: 5895: 5809: 5708: 5488:

Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220

5425: 5273: 4403: 4382: 3801:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223 & 1227; Beilenstein (1980), 26 & 30–31.

3675:

de Crespigny (2007), 1221–1222; Bielenstein (1980), 17; Wang (1949), 151.

2626: 2618: 2496:

does not differentiate between Prefects and Chiefs, referring to both as

2128: 2056: 2049: 2045: 2029: 2025: 1992: 1964: 1839: 1793:; the Junior Tutor remained an administrator with a salary-rank of 2,000- 1688: 1640: 1403: 1399: 1249: 1240: 1004: 915: 783: 253: 185: 83: 75: 71: 63: 50: 5322:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

5034: 4768:

Hsu (1965), 367–368; de Crespigny (2007), 1230–1231; Hucker (1975), 157.

4430:

Wang (1949), 157–158; de Crespigny (2007), 1226; Bielenstein (1980), 85.

3810:

Wang (1949), 150–153; de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 31.

3015:

de Crespigny (2007) 1221; Bielenstein (1980), 11–17; Hucker (1975), 159.

2895: 1155:(155–220 AD) assumed the revived post of Chancellor while acting as the 987:— was removed from power, he was then responsible for keeping her under 7463: 6162: 6157: 5956: 3506: 3504: 3238:

Loewe (1994), 55; Loewe (1986), 208; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), xxv–xxvi.

2686: 2104: 2024:; a subordinate of the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks cared for 2021: 1960: 1572: 1552: 1395: 1295: 1213: 942:

cycles in the universe, was officially sponsored by the Han court from

892: 212:

were raised and certain officer titles were revived for temporary use.

20: 4677:

Loewe (1968), 34–36; Loewe (1986), 122–123; Nishijima (1986), 595–596.

2507:

Eastern Han bronze chariot and cavalry figurines excavated from a tomb

1730:. His secretaries were headed by a Prefect of the Masters of Writing ( 1699: 1347:, he was also given the task of setting educational standards for the 1127:. The Chancellor could directly appoint officials who were ranked 600- 7206: 7191: 6117: 6084: 5951: 5921: 5882: 5677: 5437:

China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture

5269: 4487:

Loewe (1986), 162; Nishijima (1986), 587–588; Bielenstein (1980), 83.

2812: 2703: 1979: 1727: 1707: 1656: 1512:(r. 141–87 BC) these contained 300,000 warhorses intended for use in 1225: 1188: 939: 919: 79: 39: 4968:

Ch'ü (1972), 16; Bielenstein (1980), 108; de Crespigny (2007), 1219.

4141:

Wang (1949), 156; Crespigny (2007), 1226; Bielenstein (1980), 47–48.

4132:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 47; Wang (1949), 156.

3837:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 31; Wang (1949), 153.

3711:

Wang (1949), 152; de Crespigny (2007), 1222; Bielenstein (1980), 19.

3501: 2406:

ceramic vase with lug handles and decorations of animalistic-faced (

2012: 1927: 1123:, annual provincial reports, high-profile lawsuits, and drafted the 204:

existed throughout Western and Eastern Han. During times of crisis,

7302: 7287: 6339: 6152: 6112: 5990: 5945: 5823: 5031:

Bielenstein (1980), 114; Nishijima (1986), 599; Hucker (1975), 166.

3247:

Ebrey (1999), 79; Loewe (1986), 201; de Crespigny (2007), 496, 592.

2841: 2645: 2634: 2547: 2542: 2456: 1756: 1664: 1430: 1282: 1217: 875: 181: 5520:. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 3277:

Bielenstein (1980), 144; Wang (1949), 174–177; Hucker (1975), 150.

3268:

Wang (1949), 173–174; Bielenstein (1980), 144; Hucker (1975), 150.

2135:, was not the responsibility of the Director of Dependent States. 1277:

Early 20th-century photo of a 2nd-century-AD stone "pillar-gate" (

999: 156:

Local government divisions, in descending order by size, were the

26: 6186: 6127: 6107: 5212:

de Crespigny (2007), 1233; Bielenstein (1980), 116 & 121–122.

2853: 2775: 2714: 2710: 2531: 2440: 2403: 2108: 1907: 1886: 1843: 1826: 1801: 1576: 1481: 1253: 1152: 866: 810: 766: 209: 87: 2119:都尉), also known as Chief Commandant, ranked Equivalent to 2,000- 1785:), the other led by a Supervisor of the Household (ranked 2,000- 1059:") were the foremost officials in central government who formed 7186: 6193: 6132: 6122: 5877: 5339:. Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 2816: 2791: 2444: 2421: 2408: 1952: 1723: 1348: 1221: 1144: 835: 107: 43: 3216: 3214: 3212: 2957:

An Outline of The Central Government of The Former Han Dynasty

7226: 5818: 2820: 2447:

towers. The Commandants' salary-rank was Equivalent to 2,000-

2435:

An Administrator was assisted by one or several Commandants (

2223:

During early Eastern Han, the loss of Han's control over the

1464:

Western-Han ceramic tomb figurines of cavalrymen on horseback

1426: 1235:

A Han painted pottery mounted cavalryman in armor and uniform

838:. This institution was established in 124 BC, and provided a 110:

of grain or more (though these salaries were largely paid in

5565:. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Publishing. 5121: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5064:

de Crespigny (2007), 564–565 & 1234; Hucker (1975), 166.

5004: 3429:

Bielenstein (1980), 8; Wang (1949), 177; Hucker (1975), 150.

2949:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms

2644:

The emperor's sisters and daughters were made either senior

200:

and a substitution tax by Eastern Han. A small professional

7231: 5490:. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 3609: 3280: 3209: 3168:

Ch'ü (1972), 103; Kramers (1986), 754–756; Hucker, 156–157.

2563: 2455:

was responsible for recommending worthy nominees, known as

1703: 1370:太史令; also known as the Prefect Grand Astrologer), who made 1344: 927: 245: 173: 114:) with the help of advisors who reviewed each nominee. The 4799: 4797: 4586:

Bielenstein (1980), 90; Wang (1949), 160; Hsu (1965), 363.

4332: 4330: 4284: 4282: 4224: 4222: 4220: 3960:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223–1224; Bielenstein (1980), 39–40.

2742:南軍). Non-conscripted, professional soldiers belonged to a 1339:. The role's title was changed to Upholder of Ceremonies ( 5533:

The Government of the Qin and Han Empires, 221 BCE-220 CE

5188: 5112: 4944: 3639: 3637: 3563: 3561: 3321: 3319: 3112: 3110: 1770: 297:

the highest to lowest-paid officials in Han officialdom:

16:

Governance during the Chinese Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD)

5609:

Wars With The Xiongnu: A Translation From Zizhi tongjian

5133: 5131: 5078: 5076: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5001:

Bielenstein (1980), 107; de Crespigny (2007), 1220–1221.

4976: 4974: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4811: 4809: 4526: 3485: 3483: 2007: 5352:

100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present

5224:

Bielenstein (1980), 120–121; de Crespigny (2007), 1234.

5185:

de Crespigny (2007), 1234; Bielenstein (1980), 117–118.

5085: 4794: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4740: 4694: 4692: 4664: 4662: 4610: 4603: 4601: 4505:

Bielenstein (1980), 84, 109; de Crespigny (2007), 1229.

4474: 4472: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4373: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4327: 4300: 4291: 4279: 4261: 4245: 4243: 4217: 4208: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4038: 4036: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3891:

Bielenstein (1980), 38; Wang (1949), 150–151 & 154.

3354: 3352: 2617:

Paragons of filial piety, Chinese painted artwork on a

1591:典客) between 202 BC and 144 BC and Prefect Grand Usher ( 3876: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3646: 3634: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3591: 3575: 3573: 3558: 3316: 3289: 3125:

Nishijima (1986), 587–588; Bielenstein (1980), 47, 83.

3107: 3041: 3039: 2690:

Western-Han ceramic statues of cavalrymen on horseback

820: 332:

E. C divided by half-value of B (measured in cash per

5501:

Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in

5197: 5155:

Nishijima (1986), 600–601; de Crespigny (2007), 1234.

5140: 5128: 5067: 5013: 4971: 4935: 4881: 4827: 4806: 4625:

Bielenstein (1980), 91–92; de Crespigny (2007), 1228.

4508: 4421:

Bielenstein (1980), 84–85; de Crespigny (2007), 1226.

4324:

de Crespigny (2007), 1225; Bielenstein (1980), 79–80.

4171:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 50–52.

4162:

de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 50–51.

3855:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 34–35.

3819:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 31–32.

3792:

de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 25–26.

3480: 3333: 3331: 2177:

List of provinces and commanderies of the Han dynasty

1781:) and Junior Tutor of the Heir Apparent (ranked 2000– 149:, heads of large specialized ministries known as the 5414:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 5399:. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company. 5048: 5046: 4737: 4719: 4689: 4659: 4598: 4490: 4467: 4451: 4364: 4348: 4240: 4231: 4183: 4174: 4144: 4033: 3981: 3963: 3696: 3471: 3464: 3462: 3372:

de Crespigny (2007), 1221; Bielenstein (1980), 7–17.

3349: 2863: 2848:

and led by Captains, who ranked Equivalent to 2,000-

2662: 6243:

Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders

5583:Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in 5173:

de Crespigny (2007), 1234; Bielenstein (1980), 117.

4842:

Nishijima (1986), 551–552; Bielenstein (1980), 103.

4523:

Bielenstein (1980), 109; de Crespigny (2007), 1229.

3732: 3655: 3618: 3570: 3036: 3024:

de Crespigny (2007), 1221; Bielenstein (1980), 127.

2988:

Bielenstein (1980), 131; de Crespigny (2007), 1221.

2472:令); in smaller counties he was known as the Chief ( 1765:

A Han-dynasty terracotta statue of a prancing horse

1514:

campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation

895:

and issue new laws in the form of imperial edicts (

5580:, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Jun., 1949): pp. 134–187. 4989:Bielenstein (1980), 108; de Crespigny (2007) 1230. 4716:de Crespigny (2007), 1228; Bielenstein (1980), 94. 4686:de Crespigny (2007), 1228; Bielenstein (1980), 93. 4448:Bielenstein (1980), 85; de Crespigny (2007), 1226. 4345:de Crespigny (2007), 1225; Bielenstein (1980), 80. 4315:de Crespigny (2007), 1225; Bielenstein (1980), 78. 4105:de Crespigny (2007), 1224; Bielenstein (1980), 47. 3921:de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 38. 3828:de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Bielenstein (1980), 33. 3720:de Crespigny (2007), 1222; Bielenstein (1980), 19. 3588:de Crespigny (2007), 1221; Bielenstein (1980), 12. 3513: 3340: 3328: 3091: 3089: 3087: 2721: 2550:in the shape of a kneeling female servant wearing 1655:治粟內史). This minister was the central government's 1191:inlaid with gold and silver, from either the late 934:in 31 BC. Moreover, the philosophy of the scholar 891:The emperor had the exclusive right to modify the 5672:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China 5646:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China 5307:Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure 5043: 3756:de Crespigny (2007) 1222; Bielenstein (1980), 23. 3492: 3459: 3384: 2754:so that its command was shared by five Colonels ( 2420:approximately 58 million people according to the 315:B. Monthly Salary in Unhusked Grain (measured in 260:of unhusked grain was equal to 100 coins and one 7573: 7050: 5450:Hulsewé, A.F.P. (1986). "Ch'in and Han law," in 5094: 4851:Nishijima (1986), 551–552; Bielenstein 1980 103. 4791:de Crespigny (2007), 1230; Bielenstein 1980 100. 4701: 4412:Bielenstein (1980), 84–85; Wang (1949), 157–158. 4391:Wang (1949), 156–157; Bielenstein (1980), 84–85. 4199: 4096:Bielenstein (1980), 43–44; Wagner (2001), 13–14. 3997: 3774:Wang (1949), 152–153; de Crespigny (2007), 1230. 3528:Wang (1949), 148–150; Bielenstein (1980), 58–59. 3416: 3414: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 2910:Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires 1938: 1757:Staffs of the heir apparent, empress, and harems 1639:(五銖) coins; after 115 BC, the management of the 1610: 6215:Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet 5518:Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China 5432:, Vol. 7, No. 4 (Jul., 1965): pp. 358–370. 5040:Bielenstein (1980), 114; Nishijima (1986), 599. 4734:de Crespigny (2007), 1228; Bielenstein 1980 96. 3084: 2826: 2782:, such as those led by the Wu and Ji Colonels ( 2774:. Professional soldiers could also be found in 2067: 1520:that were imported or gathered as tribute from 325:D. Monthly Salary in Husked Grain (measured in 240:, the standard of which, after 119 BC, was the 58:at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty in 219 CE 6296: 5238:Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in 4771: 3027: 2532:Kingdoms, marquisates, and fiefs of princesses 2080:, located below the wide northern bend of the 1444:謁者), led by a Supervisor of the Internuncios ( 1281:闕) from the site of the 'Wu family shrine' in 322:C. Monthly Salary in Coin (standard currency) 7454:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers 7036: 6277: 5939:Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals 5693: 4959:Bielenstein (1980), 106–107; Ch'ü (1972), 76. 4656:Bielenstein (1980), 91; Wang (1949), 159–160. 4595:Bielenstein (1980), 90; Wang (1949), 158 159. 3978:Wang (1949), 154–155; Bielenstein (1980), 40. 3777: 3723: 3678: 3411: 3200: 3146: 1259: 664:Officials Whose Salaries are in Terms of Dou 5563:The State and the Iron Industry in Han China 5535:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. 4078:Wang (1949), 155; de Crespigny (2007), 1224. 3900:de Crespigny (2007), 1223; Wang (1949), 154. 3555:Wang (1949), 150; Bielenstein (1980), 10–11. 3510:Wang (1949), 148–150; Bielenstein (1980), 9. 3408:Bielenstein (1980), 8; Wang (1949), 145–146. 3399:Bielenstein (1980), 7; Wang (1949), 143–144. 2852:, while companies were further divided into 2393: 1571:Western-Han painted ceramic figurines (with 1390: 6292: 5397:The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600 5294:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 4568:Bielenstein (1980), 90; Hucker (1975), 152. 4276:Ch'ü (1972), 75; Bielenstein (1980), 73–74. 3864:Wang (1949), 153–154; Di Cosmo (2002), 232. 2036:The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks ( 7043: 7029: 6284: 6270: 5700: 5686: 5430:Comparative Studies in Society and History 5382:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4932:Bielenstein (1980), 106; Wang (1949), 135. 4439:Wang (1949), 157–158; Bielenstein 1980 85. 2597:The power of the kings declined after the 2443:, suppressing bandit groups, and building 2249:Administrative structure of Han territory 7428:Grand coordinator and provincial governor 6222:The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 5384:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5369:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5257:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4923:Hsu (1965), 360; Bielenstein (1980), 106. 4647:Bielenstein (1980), 91; Wang (1949), 160. 4051:Bielenstein (1980), 43; Wang (1949), 155. 4021:Bielenstein (1980), 41; Wang (1949), 155. 3447:Hucker (1975), 152; Beck (1986), 352–353. 2786:戊己校尉), who were ranked Equivalent to 600- 2170: 1926:. He directed the efforts of conscripted 1455: 1320: 1195:(403–221 BC) or early Western Han dynasty 790:through conquest, bringing to an end the 6364:Han provinces and commanderies in 219 CE 4905:Wang (1949), 135; Loewe (1986), 122–128. 2725: 2685: 2612: 2541: 2502: 2492:. Due to their judicial role, historian 2462: 2397: 2203: 2115:. The Han court appointed a Commandant ( 2111:, and as a means to quell tribes in the 2071: 2011: 1982:, hammered and chiseled with designs of 1973: 1897: 1819: 1760: 1698: 1663:, which were gathered in coin cash, and 1626: 1566: 1459: 1394: 1272: 1230: 1182: 1098: 998: 948: 848: 726: 302: 49: 25: 5439:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 2028:who assisted in the imperial hunts for 1815: 1351:(est. 124 BC) and the academic chairs ( 1011:headed by the Minister Steward, one of 857:(进贤冠) to denominate educational status. 722: 7574: 5829:Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions 5707: 5640: 3054:Ebrey (1999), 60–61; Wang (1949), 139. 2519:, each consisting of at least several 1622: 1534: 1268: 268:in central government earned a 10,000- 7024: 6265: 5681: 5354:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4878:de Crespigny (2007), 1219 & 1229. 2698:favored the recruitment of a largely 2008:Superintendent of Waterways and Parks 1857: 1378:. The Court Astronomer also upheld a 1166: 705: 188:, which lasted from 113 BC until the 86:, and the capital of Eastern Han was 5804:Second Chinese domination of Vietnam 5268: 2515:The county was further divided into 1959:(d. 91 BC), who had been accused of 1491: 1327:Ministry of Ceremonies (Han dynasty) 957: 842:-based education for those entering 7446: 6045:Protectorate of the Western Regions 5794:First Chinese domination of Vietnam 5670:Online version of Charles Hucker's 3537:Bielenstein (1980), 16 & 58–59. 2963:for a list of different renditions. 2925:Political systems of Imperial China 2138: 2125:Protectorate of the Western Regions 2055:In 115 BC the central government's 1943:The Colonel Director of Retainers ( 1694: 1206: 1046: 821:Roles, rights, and responsibilities 717:List of emperors of the Han dynasty 715:For a more comprehensive list, see 122:Near the beginning of the dynasty, 13: 5600: 5578:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5164:Bielenstein (1980), 110 & 116. 3006:Bielenstein (1980), 127 & 131. 2484:, while a Chief was ranked at 300- 2095:典屬國), whose salary-rank was 2,000- 2091:The Director of Dependent States ( 1893: 1681:monopolized salt and iron agencies 1575:) of servants in attendance, from 1562: 974: 272:salary. The officials who oversaw 14: 7598: 5657: 4532:Bielenstein (1980), 84 & 109. 2961:Translation of Han dynasty titles 2915:Translation of Han dynasty titles 2663:Conscripted soldiers and militias 2590:), and Imperial Secretary (2,000- 1922:works. His salary-rank was 2,000- 1302: 1110:, 2nd century BC, Western Han Era 1071:御史大夫), and the Grand Commandant ( 339:F. Ratio of D to half-value of B 82:. The capital of Western Han was 66:(202 BC – 220 AD) was the second 6358: 6055:Translation of government titles 5859: 5335:Csikszentmihalyi, Mark. (2006). 5286:]. Taipei: Dingwen Printing. 5206: 5167: 5158: 5149: 5103: 4983: 4962: 4953: 4926: 4917: 4908: 4899: 4872: 4863: 4854: 4845: 4836: 4818: 4762: 4753: 4728: 4710: 4680: 4671: 4650: 4641: 4628: 4589: 4580: 4571: 4562: 4535: 4517: 4499: 4481: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4415: 4394: 4339: 4318: 4309: 4270: 4258:Bielenstein (1980), 69 & 74. 4252: 4165: 4135: 4126: 4117: 4108: 4099: 4090: 4081: 4072: 4063: 4054: 4045: 4024: 4015: 4006: 3972: 2894: 2880: 2866: 1121:maps of the empire's territories 874: 865: 752: 743: 6201:Book on Numbers and Computation 5337:Readings in Han Chinese Thought 5010:de Crespigny (2007), 1220–1221. 3942: 3933: 3924: 3903: 3894: 3885: 3867: 3858: 3849: 3840: 3831: 3822: 3813: 3804: 3795: 3786: 3768: 3759: 3750: 3741: 3714: 3705: 3687: 3669: 3615:de Crespigny (2007), 1221–1222. 3600: 3582: 3549: 3546:Bielenstein (1980), 9 & 59. 3540: 3531: 3522: 3450: 3441: 3432: 3423: 3402: 3393: 3381:Bielenstein (1980), 7 & 11. 3375: 3307: 3298: 3286:de Crespigny (2007), 1216–1217. 3271: 3250: 3241: 3232: 3223: 3220:de Crespigny (2007), 1227–1228. 3191: 3171: 3162: 3137: 3128: 3119: 3098: 3075: 3066: 3057: 2722:Standing army and army reserves 1417:The Minister of the Household ( 1035: 299: 7255:Three Lords and Nine Ministers 6018:Three Lords and Nine Ministers 5889:Records of the Grand Historian 3048: 3018: 3009: 3000: 2991: 2982: 2937: 2920:Government of the Qing dynasty 2554:, dated to the Western Han Era 2219:, dated to the Western Han Era 1402:in the shape of a man's head, 994: 773:who committed suicide in 53 BC 124:semi-autonomous regional kings 1: 7582:Government of the Han dynasty 7469:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 5910:Records of the Three Kingdoms 5834:Way of the Five Pecks of Rice 5741:Rebellion of the Seven States 5324:. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. 5283:Records of the Three Kingdoms 4636:Records of the Three Kingdoms 2970: 2599:Rebellion of the Seven States 1939:Colonel Director of Retainers 1611:Minister of the Imperial Clan 1094: 1067:丞相), the Imperial Counselor ( 252:(觳, approximately 20 L / 676 208:increased in size, but large 128:Rebellion of the Seven States 98:all written laws, serving as 7587:Government of Imperial China 5320:de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). 5255:The Bureaucracy of Han Times 5125:Bielenstein (1980), 114–115. 4950:Bielenstein (1980), 106–107. 2975: 2955:(1980) and Wang Yu-ch'uan's 2953:The Bureaucracy of Han Times 2827:Wartime militia and officers 2770:司馬) who was ranked at 1,000- 2746:known as the Northern Army ( 2068:Director of Dependent States 1605:at the beginning of the year 1468:The Minister of the Guards ( 1337:ancestral temples and altars 1331:The Minister of Ceremonies ( 1003:A black-and-red Han dynasty 276:each earned the Fully 2,000- 7: 5435:Hucker, Charles O. (1975). 5253:Bielenstein, Hans. (1980). 5194:Bielenstein (1980), 118–119 2859: 2651: 1706:textile from tomb no. 1 at 1502:horses for the armed forces 1355:博士) who specialized in the 1143:中書) were originally palace 1055:, literally translated as " 922:'s (r. 9–23 AD) reign, the 274:nine specialized ministries 215: 34:jar with raised reliefs of 10: 7603: 7298:Bureau of Military Affairs 7222:Territorial administration 7106:Heirloom Seal of the Realm 6356: 6040:Provinces and commanderies 5928:Eight Immortals of Huainan 5756:War of the Heavenly Horses 5561:Wagner, Donald B. (2001). 5365:Di Cosmo, Nicola. (2002). 5231: 5091:de Crespigny (2007), 1234. 4860:Nishijima (1986), 552–553. 4803:de Crespigny (2007), 1230. 4616:Bielenstein (1980), 90–91. 4559:de Crespigny (2007), 1228. 4379:de Crespigny (2007), 1225. 4336:Bielenstein (1980), 79–80. 4306:Bielenstein (1980), 83–84. 4297:de Crespigny (2007), 1226. 4288:Bielenstein (1980), 73–74. 4267:Bielenstein (1980), 69–70. 4228:Bielenstein (1980), 77–78. 4214:Bielenstein (1980), 74–75. 4069:de Crespigny (2007), 1224. 3930:Bielenstein (1980), 38–39. 3882:Bielenstein (1980), 37–38. 3652:Bielenstein (1980), 15–16. 3643:de Crespigny (2007), 1222. 3597:Bielenstein (1980), 11–12. 3567:Bielenstein (1980), 10–11. 3325:de Crespigny (2007), 1221. 3313:de Crespigny (2007), 1218. 3295:de Crespigny (2007), 1217. 3116:Nishijima (1986), 586–587. 2758:校尉) who each ranked 2,000- 2655: 2535: 2174: 1986:, from the Eastern Han Era 1984:mythical animals and birds 1955:(d. 91 BC) and his mother 1720:medicine and physical care 1324: 1306: 1260:Excellency over the Masses 1039: 714: 710: 18: 7529: 7516:Embroidered Uniform Guard 7496: 7395: 7348: 7313: 7280: 7242: 7159: 7133: 7059: 7004: 6956: 6893: 6855: 6812: 6754: 6696: 6653: 6605: 6562: 6524: 6471: 6413: 6370: 6310: 6176: 6098: 6063: 5977: 5868: 5857: 5746:Han dynasty in Inner Asia 5716: 5650:Stanford University Press 5395:Hansen, Valerie. (2000). 5305:Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu. (1972). 5290:Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). 3489:Bielenstein (1980), 9–10. 2394:Commandery administration 2326: 2267: 1647:The Minister of Finance ( 1539:The Minister of Justice ( 1391:Minister of the Household 1372:astronomical observations 1106:pendents in the shape of 1019:The post of Grand Tutor ( 782:, the first ruler of the 266:The most senior officials 68:imperial dynasty of China 7479:Administrative divisions 5799:Trung sisters' rebellion 5763:Han conquest of Gojoseon 5730:Feast at Swan Goose Gate 5611:, 612–620. AuthorHouse. 5531:Loewe, Michael. (2006). 5516:Loewe, Michael. (1994). 5380:Ebrey, Patricia (1999). 5203:Bielenstein (1980), 116. 5146:Bielenstein (1980), 115. 5137:Bielenstein (1980), 118. 5082:Bielenstein (1980), 114. 5019:Bielenstein (1980), 107. 4980:Bielenstein (1980), 108. 4941:Bielenstein (1980), 106. 4896:Bielenstein (1980), 105. 4833:Bielenstein (1980), 101. 4815:Bielenstein (1980), 100. 4514:Bielenstein (1980), 109. 3702:Kramers (1986), 754–756. 3477:Bielenstein (1980), 8–9. 3358:Bielenstein (1980), 5–6. 3045:Bielenstein (1980), 131. 2930: 2538:Kings of the Han dynasty 2312:Grand administrator (太守 1862:The Bearer of the Mace ( 1408:Yunnan Provincial Museum 1159:ruler over the court of 1114:During Western Han, the 7339:Secretariat-Chancellery 6078:Ancient Chinese coinage 5839:Yellow Turban Rebellion 5412:Women in Imperial China 5350:Davis, Paul K. (2001). 4750:Bielenstein (1980), 96. 4725:Bielenstein (1980), 94. 4698:Bielenstein (1980), 93. 4668:Bielenstein (1980), 91. 4607:Bielenstein (1980), 90. 4496:Bielenstein (1980), 84. 4478:Bielenstein (1980), 83. 4464:Bielenstein (1980), 82. 4370:Bielenstein (1980), 80. 4361:Bielenstein (1980), 81. 4249:Bielenstein (1980), 69. 4237:Bielenstein (1980), 77. 4196:Bielenstein (1980), 78. 4180:Bielenstein (1980), 52. 4150:Bielenstein (1980), 49. 4042:Bielenstein (1980), 43. 3994:Bielenstein (1980), 41. 3969:Bielenstein (1980), 40. 3873:Bielenstein (1980), 35. 3738:Bielenstein (1980), 18. 3666:Bielenstein (1980), 15. 3631:Bielenstein (1980), 14. 3606:Bielenstein (1980), 13. 3579:Bielenstein (1980), 12. 2836:were led by a General ( 2658:Army of the Han dynasty 1878:to equivalent to 2,000- 1736:memorials to the throne 1496:The Minister Coachman ( 1450:non-Han-Chinese peoples 1374:and drafted the annual 1201:memorials to the throne 94:headed the government, 6100:Science and technology 5844:End of the Han dynasty 5784:Han conquest of Nanyue 5410:Hinsch, Bret. (2002). 3519:Bielenstein (1980), 9. 3346:Bielenstein (1980), 6. 3337:Bielenstein (1980), 5. 2997:Nishijima (1986), 587. 2832:times of peace. Large 2790:and were based at the 2776:agricultural garrisons 2735: 2691: 2630: 2555: 2508: 2416: 2238:end of the Han dynasty 2220: 2171:Provincial authorities 2088: 2062:Emperor Guangwu of Han 2033: 2016:A Western-Han pottery 2000:to Equivalent to 2000– 1987: 1911: 1831: 1766: 1714:The Minister Steward ( 1711: 1644: 1580: 1465: 1456:Minister of the Guards 1414: 1321:Minister of Ceremonies 1286: 1236: 1196: 1111: 1016: 954: 858: 800:Han's victory over Chu 736: 303:Salary list of 106 AD 132:end of the Han dynasty 59: 47: 30:A Western Han painted 7413:Imperial Commissioner 7358:Ministry of Personnel 7260:Three Ducal Ministers 7182:Imperial examinations 7146:Mandarin (bureaucrat) 6028:Three Ducal Ministers 5916:Flying Horse of Gansu 5903:Book of the Later Han 3498:Wang (1949), 148–149. 3468:Wang (1949), 147–148. 3390:Wang (1949), 143–144. 3143:Wang (1949), 141–142. 2729: 2689: 2616: 2586:), Chancellor (2,000- 2545: 2536:Further information: 2506: 2463:County administration 2402:An Eastern-Han early 2401: 2207: 2175:Further information: 2075: 2015: 1977: 1914:The Court Architect ( 1901: 1823: 1764: 1702: 1630: 1583:The Minister Herald ( 1570: 1463: 1398: 1276: 1234: 1193:Warring States period 1186: 1102: 1002: 952: 852: 792:Warring States period 730: 308:A. Rank (measured in 53: 29: 7521:Qing Imperial Guards 7504:Tang Imperial Guards 6090:Sino-Roman relations 5933:Mawangdui Silk Texts 5849:Battle of Red Cliffs 5789:Han conquest of Dian 5052:Chang (2007), 70–71. 4824:Hulsewé (1986), 528. 3063:Davis (2001), 45–46. 2568:Emperor Gaozu of Han 2457:Filial and Incorrupt 2300:No direct authority 1838:of both Western Han 1816:Metropolitan offices 1669:units of measurement 1549:interpreting the law 1431:Filial and Incorrupt 1139:The Palace Writers ( 1009:government workshops 788:Seven Warring States 723:Qin's imperial model 444:Equivalent to 1,000 404:Equivalent to 2,000 7423:Imperial Clan Court 7408:Remonstrance Bureau 7378:Ministry of Justice 7363:Ministry of Revenue 7217:Historical capitals 7202:Academies (Shuyuan) 5969:Eastern Han Chinese 5870:Society and culture 5775:Southward expansion 5736:Lü Clan disturbance 5109:Hucker (1975), 166. 5100:Hucker (1975), 167. 4759:Lander (2014), 347. 4707:Hucker (1975), 158. 4638:, chapter 31, p 865 4205:Hucker (1985), 484. 4003:Hucker (1975), 150. 3438:Hucker (1975), 151. 3197:Ch'ü (1972), 68–69. 3095:Hucker (1975), 152. 3033:Hucker (1975), 159. 2778:established in the 2681:Emperor Zhao of Han 2257:Administrator title 2254:Administrative unit 2250: 2022:harness for a leash 1810:Emperor Yuan of Han 1623:Minister of Finance 1597:foreign ambassadors 1535:Minister of Justice 1478:Emperor Jing of Han 1452:along the borders. 1349:Imperial University 1269:Excellency of Works 1025:Emperor Huan of Han 836:Imperial University 6187:Balanced Discourse 5726:Chu–Han Contention 3104:Hinsch (2002), 28. 2736: 2692: 2631: 2572:Chu-Han contention 2556: 2509: 2417: 2359:No real authority 2248: 2221: 2089: 2034: 1988: 1912: 1858:Bearer of the Mace 1836:metropolitan areas 1832: 1767: 1712: 1645: 1581: 1508:. By the reign of 1466: 1415: 1376:lunisolar calendar 1287: 1237: 1197: 1167:Imperial Counselor 1112: 1051:The Excellencies ( 1042:Three Excellencies 1017: 969:majority consensus 955: 859: 737: 706:Central government 644:Equivalent to 100 604:Equivalent to 200 564:Equivalent to 300 524:Equivalent to 400 484:Equivalent to 600 248:grain measured in 206:the volunteer army 190:end of the dynasty 100:commander-in-chief 60: 48: 7567: 7566: 7492: 7491: 7433:Viceroys in China 7418:Grand Secretariat 7391: 7390: 7383:Ministry of Works 7368:Ministry of Rites 7315:Three Departments 7272:Translated titles 7177:Five Directorates 7018: 7017: 7013: 7012:(202 BC – 220 AD) 6857:Shuofang Province 6365: 6305: 6259: 6258: 5768:Four Commanderies 5664:Chinaknowledge.de 5617:978-1-4490-0605-1 4777:Loewe (1968), 36. 3909:Wang (1949), 154. 3783:Wang (1949), 153. 3729:Wang (1949), 152. 3684:Wang (1949), 151. 3456:Wang (1949), 147. 3420:Wang (1949), 145. 3229:Loewe (1994), 55. 3206:Wang (1949), 143. 3181:Book of Later Han 3159:Wang (1949), 142. 3081:Wang (1949), 135. 2945:Rafe de Crespigny 2815:against Xiongnu, 2623:Lelang Commandery 2494:Rafe de Crespigny 2391: 2390: 1510:Emperor Wu of Han 1506:government slaves 1492:Minister Coachman 1406:(202 BC - 9 AD), 1294:, towns, canals, 1125:government budget 958:Court conferences 930:over that of the 924:Mandate of Heaven 806:(r. 202–195 BC). 771:Emperor Wu of Han 703: 702: 684:Accessory Clerks 145:members known as 7594: 7444: 7443: 7311: 7310: 7212:Tributary system 7167:Nine-rank system 7151:Scholar-official 7141:Grand Chancellor 7045: 7038: 7031: 7022: 7021: 7011: 6958:Jiaozhi Province 6363: 6362: 6303: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6263: 6262: 5863: 5702: 5695: 5688: 5679: 5678: 5653: 5287: 5225: 5222: 5213: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5186: 5183: 5174: 5171: 5165: 5162: 5156: 5153: 5147: 5144: 5138: 5135: 5126: 5123: 5110: 5107: 5101: 5098: 5092: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5065: 5062: 5053: 5050: 5041: 5038: 5032: 5029: 5020: 5017: 5011: 5008: 5002: 4999: 4990: 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3347: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3326: 3323: 3314: 3311: 3305: 3304:Ch'ü (1972), 72. 3302: 3296: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3257: 3256:Ch'ü (1972), 71. 3254: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3207: 3204: 3198: 3195: 3189: 3188: 3175: 3169: 3166: 3160: 3157: 3144: 3141: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3034: 3031: 3025: 3022: 3016: 3013: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2964: 2941: 2904: 2899: 2898: 2890: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2673:the armed forces 2251: 2247: 2139:Local government 1957:Empress Wei Zifu 1916:Jiangzuo dajiang 1906:tomb chamber at 1852:Chengmen xiaowei 1842:and Eastern Han 1830:support brackets 1695:Minister Steward 1601:posthumous names 1579:, 2nd century BC 1216:(d. 117 BC) and 1207:Grand Commandant 1178:Yushi zhongcheng 1047:Title variations 899:詔) and decrees ( 878: 869: 756: 747: 300: 280:rank, while the 147:the Excellencies 70:, following the 7602: 7601: 7597: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7592: 7591: 7572: 7571: 7568: 7563: 7525: 7497:Imperial guards 7488: 7442: 7438:Mandarin square 7387: 7373:Ministry of War 7344: 7309: 7281:Middle Imperial 7276: 7238: 7155: 7129: 7055: 7049: 7019: 7014: 7000: 6952: 6889: 6851: 6808: 6750: 6692: 6649: 6601: 6558: 6520: 6467: 6409: 6366: 6354: 6306: 6290: 6260: 6255: 6250:Zhoubi Suanjing 6229:Huangdi Neijing 6194:Book of Origins 6172: 6168:Zhang Zhongjing 6094: 6059: 5973: 5864: 5855: 5751:Han–Xiongnu War 5712: 5706: 5660: 5642:Hucker, Charles 5637: 5622: 5603: 5601:Further reading 5598: 5234: 5229: 5228: 5223: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5177: 5172: 5168: 5163: 5159: 5154: 5150: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5129: 5124: 5113: 5108: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5081: 5068: 5063: 5056: 5051: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4900: 4895: 4882: 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5753: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5722: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5705: 5704: 5697: 5690: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5667: 5659: 5658:External links 5656: 5655: 5654: 5652:. p. 436. 5636: 5635: 5623: 5621: 5620: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5596: 5581: 5574: 5559: 5544: 5541:978-0872208193 5529: 5514: 5499: 5484:Loewe, Michael 5481: 5478: 5463: 5448: 5433: 5423: 5408: 5393: 5378: 5363: 5348: 5333: 5318: 5303: 5288: 5266: 5251: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5214: 5205: 5196: 5187: 5175: 5166: 5157: 5148: 5139: 5127: 5111: 5102: 5093: 5084: 5066: 5054: 5042: 5033: 5021: 5012: 5003: 4991: 4982: 4970: 4961: 4952: 4943: 4934: 4925: 4916: 4907: 4898: 4880: 4871: 4862: 4853: 4844: 4835: 4826: 4817: 4805: 4793: 4779: 4770: 4761: 4752: 4736: 4727: 4718: 4709: 4700: 4688: 4679: 4670: 4658: 4649: 4640: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4597: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4561: 4543: 4534: 4525: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4466: 4450: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4414: 4402: 4393: 4381: 4372: 4363: 4347: 4338: 4326: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4278: 4269: 4260: 4251: 4239: 4230: 4216: 4207: 4198: 4182: 4173: 4164: 4152: 4143: 4134: 4125: 4116: 4107: 4098: 4089: 4080: 4071: 4062: 4053: 4044: 4032: 4023: 4014: 4005: 3996: 3980: 3971: 3962: 3950: 3941: 3932: 3923: 3911: 3902: 3893: 3884: 3875: 3866: 3857: 3848: 3839: 3830: 3821: 3812: 3803: 3794: 3785: 3776: 3767: 3758: 3749: 3740: 3731: 3722: 3713: 3704: 3695: 3686: 3677: 3668: 3654: 3645: 3633: 3617: 3608: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3569: 3557: 3548: 3539: 3530: 3521: 3512: 3500: 3491: 3479: 3470: 3458: 3449: 3440: 3431: 3422: 3410: 3401: 3392: 3383: 3374: 3360: 3348: 3339: 3327: 3315: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3258: 3249: 3240: 3231: 3222: 3208: 3199: 3190: 3170: 3161: 3145: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3106: 3097: 3083: 3074: 3065: 3056: 3047: 3035: 3026: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2990: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2965: 2935: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2891: 2888:History portal 2877: 2861: 2858: 2828: 2825: 2732:Inner Mongolia 2723: 2720: 2700:volunteer army 2664: 2661: 2656:Main article: 2653: 2650: 2607:Charles Hucker 2546:A gilt-bronze 2533: 2530: 2464: 2461: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2369: 2361: 2360: 2357: 2354: 2346: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2334:Chancellor (相 2332: 2324: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2310: 2305:Commandery (郡 2302: 2301: 2298: 2295: 2290:Inspector (刺史 2287: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2273: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2172: 2169: 2140: 2137: 2086:Inner Mongolia 2069: 2066: 2038:Shuiheng duwei 2009: 2006: 1940: 1937: 1933:Emperor Shun's 1895: 1892: 1859: 1856: 1817: 1814: 1758: 1755: 1696: 1693: 1624: 1621: 1612: 1609: 1564: 1561: 1536: 1533: 1493: 1490: 1457: 1454: 1423:Lang zhongling 1392: 1389: 1325:Main article: 1322: 1319: 1309:Nine Ministers 1307:Main article: 1304: 1303:Nine Ministers 1301: 1270: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1208: 1205: 1168: 1165: 1096: 1093: 1048: 1045: 1040:Main article: 1037: 1034: 1013:Nine Ministers 996: 993: 976: 973: 959: 956: 883: 882: 873: 872: 864: 863: 862: 861: 860: 855:"Jinxian Guan" 822: 819: 761: 760: 751: 750: 742: 741: 740: 739: 738: 724: 721: 712: 709: 707: 704: 701: 700: 697: 694: 691: 688: 685: 681: 680: 677: 674: 671: 668: 665: 661: 660: 657: 654: 651: 648: 645: 641: 640: 637: 634: 631: 628: 625: 621: 620: 617: 614: 611: 608: 605: 601: 600: 597: 594: 591: 588: 585: 581: 580: 577: 574: 571: 568: 565: 561: 560: 557: 554: 551: 548: 545: 541: 540: 537: 534: 531: 528: 525: 521: 520: 517: 514: 511: 508: 505: 501: 500: 497: 494: 491: 488: 485: 481: 480: 477: 474: 471: 468: 465: 461: 460: 457: 454: 451: 448: 445: 441: 440: 437: 434: 431: 428: 425: 421: 420: 417: 414: 411: 408: 405: 401: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 381: 380: 377: 374: 371: 368: 365: 361: 360: 357: 354: 351: 348: 345: 341: 340: 337: 330: 323: 320: 313: 305: 304: 217: 214: 198:volunteer army 151:Nine Ministers 136:Three Kingdoms 54:Provinces and 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7599: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7577: 7570: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7502: 7501: 7499: 7495: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7459:Grand Council 7457: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7445: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7403:Three Bureaus 7401: 7400: 7398: 7396:Late Imperial 7394: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7355: 7353: 7351: 7347: 7340: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7283: 7279: 7273: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7224: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7158: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7132: 7126: 7123: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7101:Son of Heaven 7099: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7046: 7041: 7039: 7034: 7032: 7027: 7026: 7023: 7010: 7009: 7003: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6963: 6961: 6959: 6955: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6896: 6892: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6815: 6814:Bing Province 6811: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6753: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6695: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6655:Yang Province 6652: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6608: 6607:Jing Province 6604: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6565: 6564:Qing Province 6561: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6531: 6529: 6527: 6523: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6416: 6412: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6369: 6361: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6313: 6309: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6287: 6282: 6280: 6275: 6273: 6268: 6267: 6264: 6252: 6251: 6247: 6245: 6244: 6240: 6238: 6237: 6236:Shuowen Jiezi 6233: 6231: 6230: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6219: 6217: 6216: 6212: 6210: 6209: 6205: 6203: 6202: 6198: 6196: 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5334: 5331: 5330:90-04-15605-4 5327: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5315:0-295-95068-4 5312: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5300:0-472-11534-0 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5263:0-521-22510-8 5260: 5256: 5252: 5249: 5248:0-521-24327-0 5245: 5241: 5237: 5236: 5221: 5219: 5209: 5200: 5191: 5182: 5180: 5170: 5161: 5152: 5143: 5134: 5132: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5106: 5097: 5088: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5061: 5059: 5049: 5047: 5037: 5028: 5026: 5016: 5007: 4998: 4996: 4986: 4977: 4975: 4965: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4911: 4902: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4875: 4866: 4857: 4848: 4839: 4830: 4821: 4812: 4810: 4800: 4798: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4731: 4722: 4713: 4704: 4695: 4693: 4683: 4674: 4665: 4663: 4653: 4644: 4637: 4631: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4602: 4592: 4583: 4574: 4565: 4556: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4538: 4529: 4520: 4511: 4502: 4493: 4484: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4418: 4409: 4407: 4397: 4388: 4386: 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2370: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2355: 2352: 2348: 2347: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2191:Sili Province 2188: 2184: 2178: 2168: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2065: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1994: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1920:flood control 1917: 1910:made of brick 1909: 1905: 1900: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1829: 1828: 1822: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775:heir apparent 1772: 1763: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1732:Shangshu ling 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1692: 1690: 1689:imperial mint 1686: 1682: 1678: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1642: 1641:imperial mint 1638: 1634: 1629: 1620: 1618: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1532: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1522:Central Asian 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1476:中大夫令) during 1475: 1471: 1462: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1380:literacy test 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1357:Five Classics 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1328: 1318: 1316: 1310: 1300: 1297: 1293: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1224:'s title for 1223: 1219: 1215: 1204: 1202: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1149:Zhongshu guan 1147:secretaries ( 1146: 1142: 1137: 1133: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1092: 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382: 378: 375: 372: 369: 366: 363: 362: 358: 355: 352: 349: 346: 343: 342: 338: 335: 331: 328: 324: 321: 318: 314: 311: 307: 306: 301: 298: 295: 291: 288:earned a 600- 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 256:); since one 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 213: 211: 207: 203: 202:standing army 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 154: 152: 148: 144: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 120: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 78:(9–23 AD) of 77: 73: 69: 65: 57: 52: 45: 41: 37: 33: 28: 22: 7569: 7538: 7484:Zongli Yamen 7333:Menxia Sheng 7160:Institutions 7006: 6895:You Province 6473:Yan Province 6297:commanderies 6248: 6241: 6234: 6227: 6220: 6213: 6206: 6199: 6192: 6185: 5978: 5944: 5937: 5920: 5908: 5901: 5894: 5887: 5815:Red Eyebrows 5671: 5645: 5608: 5584: 5577: 5562: 5547: 5532: 5517: 5502: 5487: 5466: 5451: 5436: 5429: 5426:Hsu, Cho-Yun 5411: 5396: 5381: 5366: 5351: 5336: 5321: 5306: 5291: 5281: 5277: 5274:Pei, Songzhi 5254: 5239: 5208: 5199: 5190: 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3011: 3002: 2993: 2984: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2874:China portal 2849: 2837: 2830: 2804: 2799: 2796: 2787: 2784:Wuji xiaowei 2783: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2747: 2739: 2737: 2708: 2696: 2693: 2676: 2669:conscription 2666: 2643: 2638: 2632: 2602: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2557: 2514: 2510: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2453: 2448: 2436: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2407: 2378: 2372: 2365: 2350: 2335: 2328: 2327:Kingdom (王國 2313: 2306: 2291: 2276: 2275:Governor (牧 2269: 2268:Province (州 2243: 2234:Emperor Ling 2225:Ordos Desert 2222: 2213:door knocker 2198: 2194: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2164: 2156: 2153:commanderies 2148: 2142: 2133:Central Asia 2120: 2116: 2113:Ordos Desert 2100: 2096: 2092: 2090: 2082:Yellow River 2078:Ordos Desert 2054: 2050:hunting dogs 2041: 2037: 2035: 2026:hunting dogs 2001: 1997: 1989: 1968: 1948: 1945:Sili xiaowei 1944: 1942: 1923: 1915: 1913: 1884: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1861: 1851: 1847: 1833: 1825: 1805: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1768: 1750: 1747:Taiguan ling 1746: 1742: 1740: 1731: 1715: 1713: 1673: 1653:Zhisu neishi 1652: 1648: 1646: 1636: 1616: 1614: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1582: 1544: 1540: 1538: 1526: 1497: 1495: 1473: 1469: 1467: 1445: 1441: 1434: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1412:in Han tombs 1367: 1365: 1361:Confucianism 1352: 1340: 1332: 1330: 1314: 1312: 1288: 1278: 1263: 1250:post offices 1244: 1238: 1210: 1198: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1161:Emperor Xian 1156: 1148: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1113: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1052: 1050: 1036:Excellencies 1028: 1020: 1018: 989:house arrest 985:consort clan 978: 964: 961: 944:Emperor Wu's 940:cosmological 913: 908: 905: 900: 896: 890: 854: 830: 824: 808: 796:Zhou dynasty 778: 364:Fully 2,000 333: 326: 316: 309: 294:silk clothes 289: 277: 269: 261: 257: 249: 241: 229: 225: 221: 219: 194:conscription 178:the nobility 155: 140: 121: 104:armed forces 96:promulgating 61: 56:commanderies 7509:Shence Army 7293:Jimi system 7172:Nine Courts 7118:Consort kin 6698:Yi Province 6526:Xu Province 6415:Ji Province 6372:Yu Province 6301:Han dynasty 6148:Luoxia Hong 6011:Family tree 5896:Book of Han 5810:Xin dynasty 5709:Han dynasty 4634:Chen Shou, 2704:Mercenaries 2627:North Korea 2560:Han kingdom 2371:Prefect (令 2260:Appointment 2210:jade-carved 2129:Tarim Basin 2093:Dian shuguo 1993:impeachment 1965:black magic 1635:for making 1633:bronze mold 1524:countries. 1486:conscripted 1404:Western Han 1400:Lacquerware 1368:Taishi ling 1241:Xin dynasty 1104:Jade-carved 1061:the cabinet 1005:lacquerware 995:Grand Tutor 932:Five Powers 916:Qin dynasty 914:During the 784:Qin dynasty 182:marquessate 76:Xin dynasty 72:Qin dynasty 64:Han dynasty 7576:Categories 7464:Lifan Yuan 6928:Youbeiping 6163:Zhang Heng 6158:Wang Chong 5979:Government 5957:Han poetry 5486:. (1968). 5270:Chen, Shou 2971:References 2811:the lower 2715:warlordism 2646:princesses 2625:in modern 2552:silk robes 2498:magistrate 2387:Executive 2364:County (縣 2356:Hereditary 2344:Executive 2322:Executive 2285:Executive 2263:Authority 2105:suzerainty 1961:witchcraft 1743:Taiyi ling 1728:concubines 1661:poll taxes 1593:Daxingling 1573:polychrome 1557:executions 1446:Yezhe puye 1419:Guangluxun 1384:characters 1296:irrigation 1292:city walls 1214:Huo Qubing 1116:Chancellor 1095:Chancellor 1069:Yushi dafu 1065:Chengxiang 885:execution. 282:magistrate 238:cash coins 162:commandery 21:Han system 7531:Dynasties 7207:Censorate 7192:Guozijian 7008:Full list 6908:Guangyang 6842:Dingxiang 6822:Shangdang 6746:Yongchang 6549:Guangling 6544:Pengcheng 6438:Zhongshan 6433:Changshan 6380:Yingchuan 6350:Youfufeng 6345:Zuopingyi 6293:Provinces 6138:Liu Xiang 6118:Ding Huan 6085:Silk Road 5952:Old Texts 5922:Huainanzi 5883:Sima Qian 5272:(1977) . 2976:Citations 2846:companies 2842:regiments 2834:divisions 2813:Wei River 2619:lacquered 2517:districts 2480:or 1,000- 2377:Chief (長 2145:provinces 2046:game meat 2030:game meat 1980:belt hook 1978:A golden 1864:Zhi jinwu 1708:Mawangdui 1657:treasurer 1649:Da sinong 1617:Zongzheng 1529:crossbows 1382:of 9,000 1341:Fengchang 1226:Huo Guang 1189:belt hook 1081:da sikong 920:Wang Mang 840:Confucian 112:coin cash 80:Wang Mang 40:phoenixes 7303:Shumishi 7288:Jiedushi 7069:Monarchy 7061:Nobility 6938:Liaodong 6865:Shuofang 6837:Yunzhong 6804:Dunhuang 6779:Jincheng 6716:Guanghan 6706:Hanzhong 6663:Jiujiang 6645:Changsha 6630:Lingling 6625:Jiangxia 6577:Pingyuan 6511:Shanyang 6496:Rencheng 6491:Dongping 6340:Jingzhao 6335:Hongnong 6304:(140 AD) 6153:Sima Tan 6113:Cai Yong 5991:Ban Chao 5983:military 5946:Yiwu Zhi 5824:Chengjia 5644:(1985). 2860:See also 2854:platoons 2838:Jiangjun 2823:tribes. 2652:Military 2635:marquess 2548:oil lamp 2441:militias 2349:King (王 2161:counties 1868:Zhongwei 1840:Chang'an 1665:land tax 1585:Dahonglu 1553:law code 1482:prefects 1333:Taichang 1283:Shandong 1254:couriers 1245:de facto 1218:Wei Qing 1174:Shiyushi 1157:de facto 1141:Zhongshu 909:Jiezhang 893:law code 827:absolute 815:currency 767:chariots 216:Salaries 210:militias 172:. Local 170:district 158:province 84:Chang'an 7134:Offices 7113:Empress 7091:Emperor 7074:Dynasty 6991:Jiuzhen 6986:Jiaozhi 6918:Shanggu 6827:Taiyuan 6799:Jiuquan 6794:Zhangye 6769:Hanyang 6726:Jianwei 6688:Yuzhang 6673:Lujiang 6668:Danyang 6635:Guiyang 6615:Nanyang 6592:Donglai 6554:Linhuai 6534:Donghai 6501:Taishan 6481:Chenliu 6299:of the 6208:Fangyan 6143:Liu Xin 6128:Hua Tuo 6108:Cai Lun 6073:Coinage 6065:Economy 6001:Emperor 5996:Ma Yuan 5718:History 5276:(ed.). 5232:Sources 3178:"120". 2821:Tibetan 2794:oasis. 2756:Xiaowei 2711:militia 2677:zhengzu 2521:hamlets 2488:or 500- 2426:Taishou 2404:celadon 2384:Central 2341:Central 2329:wangguo 2319:Central 2314:taishou 2297:Central 2282:Central 2230:Liu Yan 2217:dragons 2159:), and 2109:Xiongnu 2020:with a 1908:Luoyang 1904:vaulted 1887:arsenal 1844:Luoyang 1827:dougong 1802:empress 1769:When a 1577:Shaanxi 1541:Tingwei 1435:Yi Lang 1153:Cao Cao 1085:da situ 1077:Da sima 811:Xiao He 711:Emperor 350:17,500 344:10,000 143:cabinet 108:bushels 102:of the 92:emperor 88:Luoyang 46:designs 36:dragons 32:ceramic 7187:Taixue 7086:Titles 6971:Cangwu 6966:Nanhai 6948:Lelang 6943:Xuantu 6933:Liaoxi 6923:Yuyang 6870:Wuyuan 6847:Yanmen 6784:Anding 6764:Longxi 6741:Yizhou 6731:Zangke 6678:Kuaiji 6640:Wuling 6587:Beihai 6539:Langya 6458:Handan 6453:Qinghe 6448:Hejian 6330:Hedong 6133:Liu An 6123:Du Shi 5878:Ban Gu 5711:topics 5630: 5615: 5591: 5569: 5554: 5539: 5524: 5509: 5494: 5473: 5458: 5443: 5418: 5403: 5388: 5373: 5358: 5343: 5328: 5313: 5298: 5261: 5246: 2819:, and 2817:Wuhuan 2792:Turpan 2748:Beijun 2740:Nanjun 2639:houguo 2445:beacon 2422:census 2409:taotie 2101:Shuguo 1953:Liu Ju 1928:corvée 1724:eunuch 1716:Shaofu 1685:liquor 1631:A Han 1589:Dianke 1470:Weiwei 1345:Heaven 1252:, and 1222:regent 1145:eunuch 1073:Taiwei 965:tingyi 928:Heaven 610:1,350 590:1,500 570:1,850 550:2,000 530:2,250 510:2,500 490:3,000 470:3,500 450:4,000 430:4,500 424:1,000 410:5,000 390:6,000 384:2,000 370:9,000 286:county 246:husked 192:. The 168:, and 166:county 130:. The 90:. 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Government of the Han dynasty

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