20:
836:
765:
economic participation, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. It includes measures such as estimated sex selective abortion, number of years the nation had a female head of state, female to male literacy rate, estimated income ratio of female to male in the nation, and several other relative gender statistic measures. It does not include factors such as crime rates against women versus men, domestic violence, honor killings or such factors. Where data is unavailable or difficult to collect, World
Economic Forum uses old data or makes a best estimate to calculate the nation's Global Gap Index (GGI).
847:, or export-based manufacturing operations. The maquiladora labor force is largely made up of women, even though women went from making up 80% of the labor force in the 1980s to only 58.8% by 2006. However, this does vary by region. Due to the declination of wages in the export manufacturing sector over time, maquila industry salaries do not cover the basic basket needs of their workers.
989:
against their will. A study by Arun Kumar
Acharya suggests that because of sex trafficking victims' inability to protect themselves from forced, unprotected sex at the threat of violence by madams, pimps, and others in power positions over them, sex trafficking victims are the most vulnerable to gender-based violence.
904:
As of 2012, the World
Economic Forum ranks Mexico 69th out of 135 countries in terms of gender equality in education attainment. Mexico also ranks 75th in equality in literacy rates, tied for first (at parity) in equality in primary and secondary education enrollment, and 98th in equality in tertiary
988:
The exploitation through sex trafficking and forced prostitution increases the risk that a woman in Mexico will experience gender-based violence. It is thought that about 400 women enter into prostitution in Mexico City every day, and that eighty percent of those women are entering into prostitution
908:
A study conducted by Sonia Frias found that in many
Mexican states, the number of average years of education is at parity for men and women and literacy rates are nearly equal (100 literate men to 98 literate women); the gap, however, increases in college and graduate education, with 78 and 54 women
814:) for 2016 had Mexico ranked 77th out of 188 countries for gender equality. Mexico's ranking on this index had gone down from its 2013 rank of 66th. This rank had gone up from its rank in 2012, which was 72nd. This is an improvement from its ranking in 2010, when it ranked 68th out of 169 countries.
1049:
However, according to Rupert Knox, researcher on Mexico at
Amnesty International, "In the past years, Mexico has approved a number of laws and institutions designed to protect women from discrimination and violence. Much of the problem, however, lies in the lack of effective implementation of these
1001:
Sexual health and STDs are also big issues faced by those who have been forcibly entered into prostitution and sex trafficking. This is usually because sex trafficking and forced prostitution victims are unable to consistently negotiate condom use with their male partners at the threat of violence,
946:
Studies also show that many
Mexicans do not know accurate information about the legality of abortion in their country; often, they believe that abortion is not legal under any circumstance and thus do not know how to receive a safe abortion should they need one. The lack of access to safe and legal
1037:
Mexico's
Supreme Court declared marital rape illegal in November 2005. The Mexican government adopted the General Act on Equality between Women and Men which was intended to establish a connect between the federal and the state level in the creation of policies and legal provisions in relation to
997:
In poorer regions of Mexico with large indigenous communities also experience high levels of STDs and health problems; for example, at least 778 women in the state of Oaxaca, one-third of the population of which is indigenous, died during pregnancy, childbirth or postpartum between 1995 and 2004.
942:
Since 2008, 16 of the 32 states have made abortion illegal. However, the
Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of laws permitting abortion until the 12th week of pregnancy. The only case where the federal government mandates access to abortion and emergency contraception is in the case of
915:
A study of young children in Mexico came to the conclusion that because the young girls tend to be doing work in the home that is not considered a part of the formal labor force, they are not protected by government policies designed to protect their education. Policies and projects like these are
764:
Various groups have ranked gender inequalities around the world. For example, the World
Economic Forum publishes a Global Gender Gap Index score for each nation every year. The index focuses not on empowerment of women, but on the relative gap between men and women in four fundamental categories –
1028:
Researcher
Margarita Valdés noted that while there are few inequalities enforced by law or policy in Mexico, there are gender inequalities perpetuated by social structures and expectations that limit the capabilities of Mexican women; these inequalities are largely maintained by local patriarchal
981:, many women do not seek out legal redress after being victims of domestic violence and sexual assault because "the severity of punishments for some sexual offenses contingent on the "chastity" of the victim" and "those who do report them are generally met with suspicion, apathy, and disrespect."
973:
Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women, also known as femicide, in the world. This rate has been on the rise since 2007. In addition, the state of Mexico has one of the highest rates of domestic violence at 53%. Femicide and gender violence is also more prevalent in
858:
Even though the rural laborer gender ratio is about equal, employment rates for women in the Mexican rural labor market are much lower than those of men. Studies also suggests that many women in rural communities feel that formal paid labor outside the home directly conflicts with the traditional
850:
Because these salaries are insufficient, workers often find it necessary to supplement them with informal work. Maquiladoras also frequently use pregnancy tests in order to ensure they do not hire pregnant women. This fear tactic is also often used to frighten hired workers to not get pregnant in
984:
According to a 1997 study by Kaja Finkler, domestic abuse "is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements." A study
877:
While occupational segregation exists in Mexico, segregation decreased between 1987 and 1993 from an occupational segregation index score of 26.6 to 23.5. This means that 23.5% of women or 76.5% of men would have to move to different career field in order for all occupations to have equal gender
831:
In addition, according to a study conducted by Margarita Valdés, 6% of those women in the workforce are either employed in the informal sector where they do not have a fixed salary or in the home-based industries sector where they receive no salary. More women are employed performing unpaid yet
1601:
Covarrubias, Alex and Gabriela Grijalva. 2004. ‘‘Trabajo, salud y ciudadanía de las trabajadoras de la IME en Sonora’’ , in Gabriela Grijalva and Alex Covarrubias, eds. Las mujeres en la maquila: Trabajo, instituciones de apoyo y organizacio ́n sindical , pp. 21–90. Hermosillo: El Colegio de
1015:
In virtually every level of the Mexican government, women are underrepresented in comparison to the general population. Mexico has had very few female cabinet members throughout its history, and has never had a female head of state. According to a 1998 study, women held only 14.2 percent of
827:
As of 1995, women made up only 29% of Mexico's economically active population and 23% of the wage earning economically active population. Since the 1990s, the number of women in the Mexican workforce has greatly increased while men's participation in the workforce has decreased. The actual
851:
order to retain their employment. In addition, according to a 2004 study by Alex Covarrubias and Gabriela Grijalva that took place in Sonora (northern Mexico), twenty percent of maquiladora workers had been victims of sexual harassment by male co-workers, supervisors, and managers.
854:
Another study found that in professional and technical occupations, there are about 65 women to every 100 men. This study also found that the greatest economic gender inequality exists in business ownership, with 17 businesses owned by women to every 100 businesses owned by men.
873:
Occupational gender segregation takes the form of both horizontal segregation- the unequal gender distribution across occupations- and vertical segregation- the overrepresentation of men in higher positions in both traditionally male and traditionally female fields.
1045:
provides more assistance to families with daughters in order to create more incentives for their families to send them to school. Mexico has also earmarked funds, as of 2010, in order to "incorporate the gender dimension in educational programmes and initiatives."
2178:
González, Ramón. (2003) ‘Violencia contra las mujeres deja un millón de víctimas anuales en México,’ (Violence against Women Generates One Million Victims Yearly in Mexico), Comunicación e Información de la Mujer (CIMAC) (Communication and Information on Woman)
39:. As of 2022, the World Economic Forum ranks Mexico 31st in terms of gender equality out of 146 countries. Structural gender inequality is relatively homogeneous between the Mexican states as there are very few regional differences in the inequalities present.
47:
The following table compares the population wide data for two genders on various inequality statistical measures, according to the most recent data available from The World Bank's Gender Statistics database. Unemployment statistics are calculated based on the
795:. The Human Development Report determines which capabilities are most important in its ranking system by considering whether they are universally valued by large groups of people and whether they are basic, and would therefore hinder the realization of other
896:, the overall wage gap in Mexico as of 2008 is 17.4%. The gap varies by occupation; female teachers in Mexico make 91.2% of the salary of male teachers, while female industrial supervisors make only 66.9% of the wages earned by their male counterparts.
916:
usually conducted and focus on youth with formal employers, so many young girls are unable to attend school or even be contacted by the government to ensure that they are receiving an education because they are completing housework in their homes.
1019:
A 2004 study suggests that girls in Mexico think political participation is as important as boys do, but because of their socialized belief that politics is a masculine career field, these children do not intend to seek a career in politics.
23:
The Gender gap index for Mexico compared to other countries. Gender gap index is one of many multi-dimensional measures of gender inequality. Mexico was scored at 0.69 by World Economic Forum, and ranked 68 out of 136 countries in
2533:
35:. It has been diminishing throughout history, but continues to persist in many forms including the disparity in women's political representation and participation, the gender pay gap, and high rates of domestic violence and
799:. The index tries to put forth a more gender-sensitive public policy agenda by including gender equality and specific types of discrimination that affect the lives of women in developing countries as main focuses.
2282:
Mayer, Jeremy D; Schmidt, Heather M (2004). "Gendered political socialization in four contexts: political interest and values among junior high school students in China, Japan, Mexico, and the United States".
2473:
2523:
909:
to 100 men respectively. This study also found that there were only 31 women to every 100 men in STEM fields of education. In addition, as of 1995, 15% of the female population of Mexico is illiterate.
905:
education enrollment. This disparity is more prevalent for girls in low-income families, as these children are more likely to participate in domestic activities in the home rather than attend school.
2538:
2433:
892:
While the disparity between male and female wages decreased from the 1980s to the early 1990s, the gap began to increase again in 1996 following the Mexican economic crisis. According to the
2528:
2438:
1574:
Rosenbaum, Ruth. 2001. Making the Invisible Visible: A Study of Purchasing Power of Maquila Workers in México – 2000. Hartford, CT: Center for Reflection, Education and Action (CREA).
1612:
Beutelspacher, Austreberta Nazar; Martelo, Emma Zapata; GarcÍa, VerÓnica Vázquez (2003-01-01). "Does Contraception Benefit Women? Structure, Agency, and Well-Being in Rural Mexico".
2458:
2488:
2468:
2443:
2503:
2483:
2518:
2493:
1532:
Domínguez, Edmé; Icaza, Rosalba; Quintero, Cirila; López, Silvia; Stenman, Åsa (2010-10-01). "Women Workers in the Maquiladoras and the Debate on Global Labor Standards".
2463:
780:. It was ranked 113th in economic participation and opportunity, 60th in educational attainment, 15th in political empowerment, and 54th in health and survival.
1002:
which leads to an increase in HIV/AIDS and other STD exposure. This has also contributed to the stigmatization of these women as carriers of HIV/AIDS and STDs.
1768:
POST, D. (1 June 2001). "REGION, POVERTY, SIBSHIP, AND GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICAN EDUCATION: Will Targeted Welfare Policy Make a Difference for Girls?".
1592:
Informe. 2005. ‘‘Situación de los derechos humanos en las maquilas de Ame ́rica Central’’ . Report 428/3, Federación Internacional de los Derechos Humanos.
1401:
985:
released in March, 2018, found that 40.6% of employed women in Mexico City had reported some form of work-related disruption due to domestic violence.
1690:
Brown, Cynthia J.; Pagan, Jose A.; Rodriguez-Oreggia, Eduardo (October 1999). "Occupational Attainment and Gender Earnings Differentials in Mexico".
1754:
1583:
Fussell, Elizabeth. 2000. ‘‘Making Labor Flexible: The Recomposition of Tijuana’s Maquiladora Female Labor Force.’’ Feminist Economics 6(3): 59–79.
2345:
943:
rape. However, many women face barriers to receiving this care including: inaccurate information, undue delays, and intimidation by officials.
1016:
parliamentary seats in Mexico, putting it behind most developed countries (with the exception of the United States) in female representation.
2412:
2370:
1950:
WHO. Abortion: A Tabulation of Available Data on the Frequency and Mortality of Maternal Health and Unsafe Abortion. Geneva7 WHO, 1994.
2319:
2020:
1655:
Charles, Maria (December 2003). "Deciphering Sex Segregation: Vertical and Horizontal Inequalities in Ten National Labor Markets".
2255:
Kenworthy, L.; Malami, M. (1 September 1999). "Gender Inequality in Political Representation: A Worldwide Comparative Analysis".
1519:
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). 2007. Industria maquiladora de exportación. Aguascalientes, México: INEGI.
893:
828:
percentages of employed versus unemployed women averages about 30-35%, while the percentage of employed men averages around 70%.
2543:
2569:
1454:
Pagan, Jose A.; Sanchez, Susana M. (April 2000). "Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions: Evidence from Rural Mexico".
1270:
2584:
2044:
Wright, Melissa W. (March 2011). "Necropolitics, Narcopolitics, and Femicide: Gendered Violence on the Mexico-U.S. Border".
964:
1093:
This group draws from the World Bank's "Latin America & Caribbean" aggregate, labeled as "Latin America" for brevity.
2194:
2230:
791:
and encourage countries to focus more on the individual development of all its people and less on national income and
2405:
379:
49:
1128:
Robeyns, Ingrid (January 2011). "Sen's Capability Approach and Gender Inequality: Selecting Relevant Capabilities".
2478:
960:
2132:"Intimate partner violence against low-income women in Mexico City and associations with work-related disruptions"
1866:
Burra, N. (1989). Out of sight out of mind: working girls in India. International Labour Review, 128(5), 651± 660.
1308:
Fukuda-Parr, Sakiko (2003-01-01). "The Human Development Paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's Ideas on Capabilities".
923:
countries, the others being Switzerland and Turkey, where more men than women have obtained a tertiary education.
19:
2513:
1243:
2498:
1405:
2398:
2371:"State of Women's Rights in Mexico 'Alarming,' Authorities Urged to Stop Escalating Violence Against Women"
1495:
2453:
2448:
968:
31:
refers to disparate freedoms in health, education, and economic and political abilities between men and
2574:
1919:
912:
Mexico is one of the few countries where the government has taken sexual stereotypes out of textbooks.
835:
2589:
1803:
Stromquist, Nelly P. (1990). "Gender Inequality in Education: Accounting for Women's Subordination".
948:
1844:
1830:
Levison, Deborah; Moe, Karine S; Knaul, Felicia Marie (2001). "Youth Education and Work in Mexico".
2579:
1960:
Garcáa, Sandra G.; Tatum, Carrie; Becker, Davida; Swanson, Karen A.; Lockwood, Karin (2004-01-01).
868:
811:
784:
1205:
Frias, Sonia M. (2008). "Measuring Structural Gender Equality in Mexico: A State Level Analysis".
2346:"Concluding comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Mexico"
974:
regions along the Mexico-US border and in areas of high drug trading activity and drug violence.
807:
1839:
1064:
792:
1115:
788:
446:
Ratio of female to male youth unemployment rate (% ages 15–24, modeled ILO estimate) in 2021
769:
1295:
Haq, Mahbub ul. 1995. Reflections on Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press.
1029:
social structures that deny women the possibility of functioning in many different areas.
8:
796:
2343:
1376:
2300:
2211:
2156:
2131:
2077:
2061:
1999:
1785:
1726:
1707:
1672:
1637:
1557:
1471:
1333:
1222:
1145:
1069:
978:
937:
2108:
1978:
1961:
1941:
CONAPO. Cuadernos de salud reproductiva — República Mexicana. México DF7 CONAPO, 2000.
1853:
2390:
2304:
2215:
2161:
2112:
2069:
1991:
1983:
1789:
1748:
1676:
1629:
1561:
1549:
1475:
1325:
1226:
2081:
2003:
1337:
1149:
2292:
2264:
2203:
2151:
2143:
2104:
2053:
2021:"Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence"
1973:
1849:
1812:
1777:
1699:
1664:
1641:
1621:
1541:
1463:
1317:
1214:
1137:
1074:
773:
1274:
1170:
947:
abortions leads to complications from unsafe abortions, which is estimated by the
2564:
2296:
1545:
1059:
777:
32:
1625:
1321:
1141:
414:
Unemployment, youth (% of labor force ages 15–24, modeled ILO estimate) in 2021
2207:
1962:"Policy Implications of a National Public Opinion Survey on Abortion in Mexico"
1781:
887:
803:
2065:
1218:
2558:
2147:
1987:
1891:
1816:
1689:
1668:
1633:
1553:
1329:
1042:
2165:
2073:
1995:
2268:
2116:
2095:
Finkler, Kaja (1997). "Gender, domestic violence and sickness in Mexico".
2192:
Acharya, Arun Kumar (2008-03-01). "Sexual Violence and Proximate Risks".
844:
1892:"Meeting of the OECD Council at Ministerial Level Paris, 25-26 May 2011"
1875:
Black, M. (1993). Street and working children. Florence, Italy: UNICEF.
1711:
1351:
951:
to be either the third or fourth highest cause of maternal mortality.
588:
Cause of death, by non-communicable diseases, ages 15–59, (%) in 2019
1703:
460:
Employment in agriculture, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019
2057:
1467:
634:
Literacy rate, adults (% of that gender ages 15 and above) in 2020
36:
346:
Account ownership at a financial institution, (% age 15+) in 2017
524:
Employment in services, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019
492:
Employment in industry, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019
1374:
776:(GGI) for 2022, Mexico was ranked 31st out of 146 countries for
1265:
1263:
2344:
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.
1434:
Valdés, Margarita M. (1995). Nussbaum M. e Glover J. (ed.).
1260:
1531:
920:
712:
Sex ratio at birth (male births per female births) in 2020
698:
Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) in 2017
666:
Literacy rate, youth (% of that gender ages 15–24) in 2020
1611:
1436:
Inequality in capabilities between men and women in Mexico
186:
Primary completion rate (% of relevant age group) in 2020
1959:
556:
Self-employed, (% of employment of that gender) in 2019
1727:"Frozen in time: Gender pay gap unchanged for 10 years"
1453:
378:
Unemployment, (% of that gender's labor force, modeled
2420:
90:
Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) in 2020
862:
2254:
1111:
1109:
1917:
1176:. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. 2022
620:Fertility rate, total (births per woman) in 2020
2556:
1106:
832:socially important and vital jobs than are men.
1829:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
2136:Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health
1913:
1911:
2406:
2281:
1753:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1442:
1420:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1050:laws and the weakness of the institutions."
250:Lower secondary completion rate (%) in 2020
2015:
2013:
1908:
1402:"Mexico Making Progress in Gender Equality"
1307:
2413:
2399:
2228:
1802:
1010:
314:Secondary education, teachers (%) in 2020
2155:
1977:
1843:
1805:British Journal of Sociology of Education
1187:
1005:
899:
122:Life expectancy at birth (years) in 2020
2320:"Women's advocates make gains in Mexico"
2231:"Mexico: Ethnic and Gender Inequalities"
2010:
1456:Economic Development and Cultural Change
1399:
954:
834:
817:
282:Secondary education, pupils (%) in 2017
218:Primary education, teachers (%) in 2020
18:
2317:
2191:
2094:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1734:International Trade Union Confederation
1654:
1602:Sonora/Instituto Sonorense de la Mujer.
1127:
894:International Trade Union Confederation
726:Seats held in national parliaments (%)
16:Overview of gender inequality in Mexico
2557:
2368:
2043:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1433:
1375:United Nations Development Programme.
1273:. World Economic Forum. Archived from
1041:The government social welfare program
1032:
926:
822:
2394:
2311:
2229:Loewenberg, Samuel (March 23, 2010).
2187:
2185:
2129:
1692:Industrial and Labor Relations Review
1527:
1525:
1204:
2318:BARCLAY, ELIZA (November 26, 2005).
1878:
1767:
1303:
1301:
1238:
1236:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
154:Expected years of schooling in 2020
42:
2421:Gender inequality in North America
1724:
1482:
1118:, World Economic Forum, Switzerland
52:(or ILO)'s method of calculation.
13:
2195:Gender, Technology and Development
2182:
1522:
1496:"Female quality of life in Mexico"
863:Occupational segregation by gender
759:
14:
2601:
2369:Trimel, Suzanne (July 12, 2012).
1918:Human Rights Watch (2013-01-31).
1493:
1298:
1233:
1156:
1116:The Global Gender Gap Report 2013
965:Female homicides in Ciudad Juárez
919:Mexico is also one of only three
50:International Labour Organization
2534:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1889:
1725:Tijdens, K.G., Van Klaveren, M.
1494:Rhoda, Richard and Tony Burton.
961:Violence against women in Mexico
2362:
2337:
2275:
2248:
2222:
2172:
2123:
2088:
2037:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1869:
1860:
1823:
1796:
1761:
1718:
1683:
1648:
1605:
1595:
1586:
1577:
1568:
1513:
1393:
1377:"Human Development Report 2013"
1368:
1344:
1271:"Global Gender Gap Report 2013"
1289:
1244:"Gender Statistics | DataBank"
1121:
1087:
1023:
1:
2109:10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00023-3
2097:Social Science & Medicine
1979:10.1016/s0968-8080(04)24003-4
1854:10.1016/s0305-750x(00)00090-5
1352:"| Human Development Reports"
1100:
859:role of women as homemakers.
839:A Maya woman, souvenir maker.
2570:Gender inequality by country
2297:10.1016/j.soscij.2004.04.024
1546:10.1080/13545701.2010.530603
7:
1966:Reproductive Health Matters
1626:10.1080/1354570022000077971
1322:10.1080/1354570022000077980
1142:10.1080/1354570022000078024
1053:
969:Human trafficking in Mexico
931:
29:Gender inequality in Mexico
10:
2606:
2285:The Social Science Journal
2208:10.1177/097185240701200106
1782:10.1177/089124301015003008
1207:Social Indicators Research
1171:"Global Gender Gap Report"
958:
935:
885:
881:
866:
787:is to change the focus of
2426:
1921:World Report 2013: Mexico
1219:10.1007/s11205-007-9193-4
1038:gender equality in 2006.
949:World Health Organization
720:
717:
714:
706:
703:
700:
628:
625:
622:
454:
451:
448:
58:Gender Statistic Measure
2585:Women's rights in Mexico
2148:10.1136/jech-2017-209681
1817:10.1080/0142569900110202
1669:10.1177/0001699303464001
1080:
869:Occupational segregation
812:Human Development Report
785:Human Development Report
70:Females (Latin America)
1011:Political participation
992:
808:Gender Inequality Index
2130:Gupta, Jhumka (2018).
1248:databank.worldbank.org
1065:Human rights in Mexico
1006:Political inequalities
977:According to the 2013
900:Education inequalities
840:
793:gross domestic product
76:Total (Latin America)
73:Males (Latin America)
25:
2524:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2375:Amnesty International
955:Gender-based violence
838:
818:Economic inequalities
789:development economics
22:
1770:Gender & Society
770:World Economic Forum
2539:Trinidad and Tobago
2434:Antigua and Barbuda
2269:10.1093/sf/78.1.235
2235:The Pulitzer Center
1438:. pp. 426–433.
1033:Government policies
927:Health inequalities
843:Many women work in
823:Labor participation
783:The purpose of the
2474:Dominican Republic
1614:Feminist Economics
1534:Feminist Economics
1310:Feminist Economics
1130:Feminist Economics
1070:Feminism in Mexico
979:Human Rights Watch
938:Abortion in Mexico
841:
382:estimate) in 2021
26:
2575:Society of Mexico
2552:
2551:
2324:Houston Chronicle
1832:World Development
768:According to the
757:
756:
61:Females (Mexico)
43:Gender statistics
2597:
2590:Gender in Mexico
2427:Sovereign states
2415:
2408:
2401:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2350:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2189:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2103:(8): 1147–1160.
2092:
2086:
2085:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2025:
2017:
2008:
2007:
1981:
1972:(sup24): 65–74.
1957:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1896:
1887:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1847:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1752:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1731:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1657:Acta Sociologica
1652:
1646:
1645:
1620:(2–3): 213–238.
1609:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1529:
1520:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1451:
1440:
1439:
1431:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1404:. Archived from
1397:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1381:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1316:(2–3): 301–317.
1305:
1296:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1277:on 31 March 2014
1267:
1258:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1240:
1231:
1230:
1202:
1185:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1175:
1167:
1154:
1153:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1094:
1091:
1075:Chicana Feminism
774:Gender Gap Index
79:Females (World)
55:
54:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2580:Women in Mexico
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2422:
2419:
2389:
2379:
2377:
2367:
2363:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2316:
2312:
2280:
2276:
2253:
2249:
2239:
2237:
2227:
2223:
2190:
2183:
2177:
2173:
2128:
2124:
2093:
2089:
2042:
2038:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2011:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1926:
1924:
1916:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1845:10.1.1.541.1185
1828:
1824:
1801:
1797:
1766:
1762:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1736:
1729:
1723:
1719:
1704:10.2307/2696165
1688:
1684:
1653:
1649:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1492:
1483:
1452:
1443:
1432:
1421:
1411:
1409:
1398:
1394:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1373:
1369:
1360:
1358:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1278:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1252:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1203:
1188:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1157:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1060:Women in Mexico
1056:
1035:
1026:
1013:
1008:
995:
971:
957:
940:
934:
929:
902:
890:
884:
871:
865:
825:
820:
778:gender equality
762:
760:Global rankings
67:Total (Mexico)
64:Males (Mexico)
45:
33:women in Mexico
17:
12:
11:
5:
2603:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2395:
2388:
2387:
2361:
2336:
2310:
2291:(3): 393–407.
2274:
2263:(1): 235–268.
2247:
2221:
2181:
2171:
2142:(7): 605–610.
2122:
2087:
2066:10.1086/657496
2058:10.1086/657496
2052:(3): 707–731.
2036:
2009:
1952:
1943:
1934:
1907:
1877:
1868:
1859:
1838:(1): 167–188.
1822:
1811:(2): 137–153.
1795:
1776:(3): 468–489.
1760:
1717:
1698:(1): 123–135.
1682:
1663:(4): 267–287.
1647:
1604:
1594:
1585:
1576:
1567:
1540:(4): 185–209.
1521:
1512:
1481:
1468:10.1086/452612
1462:(3): 619–637.
1441:
1419:
1408:on 5 June 2019
1400:The Catalist.
1392:
1367:
1343:
1297:
1288:
1259:
1232:
1213:(2): 215–246.
1186:
1155:
1136:(2–3): 61–92.
1120:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
994:
991:
956:
953:
933:
930:
928:
925:
901:
898:
888:Gender pay gap
886:Main article:
883:
880:
867:Main article:
864:
861:
824:
821:
819:
816:
804:United Nations
761:
758:
755:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
723:
722:
719:
716:
713:
709:
708:
705:
702:
699:
695:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
663:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
631:
630:
627:
624:
621:
617:
616:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
585:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
553:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
521:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
493:
489:
488:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
461:
457:
456:
453:
450:
447:
443:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
411:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
375:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
343:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
321:
318:
315:
311:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
279:
278:
275:
272:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
251:
247:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
231:
228:
225:
222:
219:
215:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
183:
182:
179:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
161:
158:
155:
151:
150:
147:
144:
141:
138:
135:
132:
129:
126:
123:
119:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
103:
100:
97:
94:
91:
87:
86:
85:Total (World)
83:
82:Males (World)
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
44:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2602:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2545:
2544:United States
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2416:
2411:
2409:
2404:
2402:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2347:
2340:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2278:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2257:Social Forces
2251:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2188:
2186:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1923:
1922:
1914:
1912:
1893:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1872:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1764:
1756:
1750:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1598:
1589:
1580:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1526:
1516:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1437:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1378:
1371:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1302:
1292:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1237:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1172:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1105:
1090:
1086:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1043:Oportunidades
1039:
1030:
1021:
1017:
1003:
999:
990:
986:
982:
980:
975:
970:
966:
962:
952:
950:
944:
939:
924:
922:
917:
913:
910:
906:
897:
895:
889:
879:
878:composition.
875:
870:
860:
856:
852:
848:
846:
837:
833:
829:
815:
813:
810:(part of the
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
766:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
724:
711:
710:
697:
696:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
664:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
632:
619:
618:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
586:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
554:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
522:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
490:
486:
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
458:
445:
444:
440:
437:
434:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
412:
408:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
377:
376:
372:
369:
366:
363:
360:
357:
354:
351:
348:
345:
344:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
312:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
280:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
248:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:
217:
216:
212:
209:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
184:
180:
177:
174:
171:
168:
165:
162:
159:
156:
153:
152:
148:
145:
142:
139:
136:
133:
130:
127:
124:
121:
120:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
88:
84:
81:
78:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
56:
53:
51:
40:
38:
34:
30:
21:
2508:
2378:. Retrieved
2374:
2364:
2352:. Retrieved
2339:
2327:. Retrieved
2323:
2313:
2288:
2284:
2277:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2238:. Retrieved
2234:
2224:
2202:(1): 77–99.
2199:
2193:
2174:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2027:. Retrieved
1969:
1965:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1925:. Retrieved
1920:
1898:. Retrieved
1871:
1862:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1773:
1769:
1763:
1737:. Retrieved
1733:
1720:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1597:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1537:
1533:
1515:
1503:. Retrieved
1499:
1459:
1455:
1435:
1410:. Retrieved
1406:the original
1395:
1383:. Retrieved
1370:
1359:. Retrieved
1356:hdr.undp.org
1355:
1346:
1313:
1309:
1291:
1279:. Retrieved
1275:the original
1251:. Retrieved
1247:
1210:
1206:
1178:. Retrieved
1133:
1129:
1123:
1089:
1048:
1040:
1036:
1027:
1018:
1014:
1000:
996:
987:
983:
976:
972:
945:
941:
918:
914:
911:
907:
903:
891:
876:
872:
857:
853:
849:
845:maquiladoras
842:
830:
826:
801:
797:capabilities
782:
767:
763:
46:
28:
27:
2529:Saint Lucia
2479:El Salvador
1024:Social life
2559:Categories
2459:Costa Rica
1739:4 November
1505:4 November
1500:MexConnect
1361:2017-10-20
1253:2023-02-01
1180:2023-02-01
1101:References
959:See also:
936:See also:
2514:Nicaragua
2489:Guatemala
2305:144881101
2216:146169775
1988:0968-8080
1840:CiteSeerX
1790:145599866
1677:220174984
1659:. No. 4.
1634:1354-5701
1562:154778338
1554:1354-5701
1476:155063457
1330:1354-5701
1227:144519507
2499:Honduras
2469:Dominica
2444:Barbados
2166:29514921
2082:23461864
2074:21919274
2029:12 March
2004:40327114
1996:15938159
1749:cite web
1385:12 March
1338:18178004
1281:31 March
1150:15946768
1054:See also
932:Abortion
37:femicide
2504:Jamaica
2484:Grenada
2439:Bahamas
2380:6 April
2354:6 April
2329:6 April
2240:6 April
2179:México.
2157:6031258
2117:9381229
1927:6 April
1900:6 April
1712:2696165
1642:2031556
1412:6 April
882:Pay gap
707:211.00
455:114.33
452:138.57
2565:Sexism
2519:Panama
2509:Mexico
2454:Canada
2449:Belize
2303:
2214:
2164:
2154:
2115:
2080:
2072:
2064:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1890:OECD.
1842:
1788:
1710:
1675:
1640:
1632:
1560:
1552:
1474:
1336:
1328:
1225:
1148:
967:, and
753:100.0
750:74.42
747:25.58
744:100.0
741:67.24
738:32.76
735:100.0
721:1.059
718:1.044
715:1.039
704:74.00
693:91.81
690:92.99
687:90.55
684:98.52
681:98.33
678:98.69
661:86.81
658:90.16
655:83.46
652:94.11
649:94.54
646:93.72
615:62.83
612:61.02
609:65.88
606:59.31
603:51.03
600:75.33
583:46.44
580:47.01
577:45.51
574:37.84
571:38.78
568:36.47
551:50.59
548:45.13
545:59.06
542:66.18
539:55.69
536:81.22
519:22.67
516:27.24
513:15.53
510:20.32
507:26.32
504:11.69
487:26.74
484:27.63
481:25.41
478:20.32
475:17.99
449:108.6
441:17.93
438:17.34
435:19.71
432:21.37
429:18.25
426:25.83
400:10.00
394:12.31
373:68.52
370:72.27
367:64.85
364:55.14
361:58.59
358:52.03
341:100.0
338:45.85
335:54.15
332:100.0
329:42.71
326:57.29
323:100.0
309:100.0
306:52.05
303:47.95
300:100.0
297:49.86
294:50.14
291:100.0
277:77.47
274:76.99
271:77.98
268:80.35
265:77.86
262:82.92
245:100.0
242:32.72
239:67.28
236:100.0
233:22.02
230:77.98
227:100.0
213:90.41
210:90.68
207:90.13
204:99.35
201:98.82
198:99.91
195:102.7
192:101.6
189:103.7
181:12.50
178:12.50
175:12.50
172:14.80
169:14.34
166:15.27
149:72.27
146:69.82
143:74.88
140:73.04
137:69.67
134:76.60
2494:Haiti
2349:(PDF)
2301:S2CID
2212:S2CID
2078:S2CID
2062:JSTOR
2046:Signs
2024:(PDF)
2000:S2CID
1895:(PDF)
1786:S2CID
1730:(PDF)
1708:JSTOR
1673:S2CID
1638:S2CID
1558:S2CID
1472:S2CID
1380:(PDF)
1334:S2CID
1223:S2CID
1174:(PDF)
1146:S2CID
1081:Notes
732:51.8
729:48.2
701:33.0
675:99.1
672:99.0
669:99.2
643:95.2
640:96.1
637:94.5
629:2.30
626:1.88
597:65.9
594:58.2
591:81.3
565:32.0
562:31.4
559:32.8
533:62.0
530:51.5
527:79.3
501:25.5
498:30.7
495:17.1
472:7.09
469:12.5
466:17.9
409:6.18
406:6.06
403:6.36
397:8.36
355:36.9
352:41.1
349:33.3
320:48.3
317:51.7
288:48.9
285:51.1
259:90.5
256:88.5
253:92.6
224:30.6
221:69.4
163:14.7
160:14.3
157:15.1
131:70.1
128:66.3
125:74.3
117:27.4
114:29.5
111:25.2
108:13.8
105:15.3
102:12.3
99:11.8
96:12.9
93:10.6
24:2013.
2464:Cuba
2382:2014
2356:2014
2331:2014
2242:2014
2162:PMID
2113:PMID
2070:PMID
2031:2014
1992:PMID
1984:ISSN
1929:2014
1902:2014
1755:link
1741:2013
1630:ISSN
1550:ISSN
1507:2013
1414:2014
1387:2014
1326:ISSN
1283:2014
993:STDs
921:OECD
802:The
623:1.9
463:3.6
423:8.1
420:7.9
417:8.6
391:4.4
388:4.5
385:4.2
2293:doi
2265:doi
2204:doi
2152:PMC
2144:doi
2105:doi
2054:doi
1974:doi
1850:doi
1813:doi
1778:doi
1700:doi
1665:doi
1622:doi
1542:doi
1464:doi
1318:doi
1215:doi
1138:doi
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380:ILO
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