2181:"firefighter", "mailman" to "mail carrier", and so on. At the root of this contentiousness may have been backlash against the English language's shift from "grammatical gender" to "natural gender" during the early Modern era, coinciding with the spread of institutional prescriptive grammar rules in English schools. These theories have been challenged by some researchers, with attention given to additional possible social, ethnic, economic, and cultural influences on language and gender. The impact on mainstream language has been limited, but these theories have led to lasting changes in practice.
35:
585:, remarkably opaque: that is, one often could not know the gender of a noun by its meaning or by the form of the word; this was especially true for nouns referencing inanimate objects. Learners would have had to simply memorize which word has which gender. Although nouns referring to human males were generally masculine and for the most part words for human females were feminine, as Charles Jones noted, "it is with those nouns which show explicit female reference that the sex specifying function of the gender classification system appears to break down,
2130:
in that they are either masculine or feminine. Specifically, if an inanimate count noun denotes a mobile entity, then it is feminine; otherwise such a noun is masculine. Such a gender assignment is similar to but slightly different from that in Wessex
Vernacular English. In Wessex Vernacular English,
1107:
In short, inanimate objects are frequently referred to by gendered pronouns, and, conversely, there exist nouns referring to people having a grammatical gender that does not match their natural gender. Nonetheless, in Old
English, pronouns may follow natural gender rather than grammatical gender in
1819:
refer to inanimate things (and non-human animals). Since these pronouns function on a binary gender system, distinguishing only between animate and inanimate entities, this suggests that
English has a second gender system which contrasts with the primary gender system. Relative and interrogative
1614:
for inanimate objects is not very frequent in
Standard Modern English, it is fairly widespread in some varieties of English. Gender assignment to inanimate nouns in these dialects is sometimes fairly systematic. For example, in some dialects of southwest England, masculine pronouns are used for
2180:
theorists, particularly in France, brought wider attention to gender-neutrality theory, and the concept of supporting gender equality through conscious changes to language. Debates touched on such issues as changing the term "stewardess" to the gender-neutral "flight attendant", "fireman" to
1629:; otherwise, the gender of inanimate objects with proper names tends to match the gender connotation of the name. The origins of this practice are not certain, and it is currently in decline and sometimes considered offensive. In modern English it is advised against by
2404:, p. 86: "rammatical gender remained healthy in the personal pronouns through late Old English; it is not until early Middle English that the balance of gender concord in the pronouns tips towards natural gender, at least in the written language."
589:..." Most words referencing human females were feminine, but there was a sizable number of words that were either neuter or even masculine. Here are the discrepant nouns referring specifically to human females as listed by Jones:
1277:, as daughters are always female and people named Jane are overwhelmingly likely to be female. Moreover, if a person named Jane is a man, there is nothing grammatically incorrect with saying "Jane is bringing his friends over."
1241:
referring to ships, machines, and countries (see below). Another manifestation of natural gender that continues to function in
English is the use of certain nouns to refer specifically to persons or animals of a particular sex:
1494:
In principle, animals are triple-gender nouns, being able to take masculine, feminine and neuter pronouns. However, animals viewed as less important to humans, also known as ‘lower animals’, are generally referred to using
1370:) is used when the referent is something inanimate or intangible, a non-animal life-form such as a plant, an animal of unknown sex, or, less often, a child when the sex is unspecified or deemed unimportant.
2358:, pp. 84, 86: "he major gender shift for inanimate nouns in written texts occurs in late Old English/early Middle English, but the seeds of change are already present in Old English before 1000 AD."
1226:. Traces of the Old English gender system are found in the system of pronouns. Nonetheless, Modern English assumes a "natural" interpretation of gender affiliation, which is based on the
1206:
Gender loss began in the north of
England; the south-east and the south-west Midlands were the most linguistically conservative regions, and Kent retained traces of gender in the 1340s.
2138:
This feature is stigmatized, widely regarded as a lower class or incorrect way of speaking. Nonetheless, one may find such a gender assignment less counterintuitive as nouns such as
1394:(the antecedent) does not itself have any specific natural gender. Also, pronouns are sometimes used without any explicit antecedent. However, as described above (the example with
1094:, meaning "winsome maid" or attractive woman; as well as the gender-neutral noun meaning "paternal kindred" or member of father's side of the family, but which was grammatically
2821:
1885:
Apart from pronouns, gender can be marked in personal names and certain titles. Many words in modern
English refer specifically to people or animals of a particular sex.
1532:
are usually applied to animals when personification and/or individuation occurs. Personification occurs whenever human attributes are applied to the noun. For example:
1265:
such as "Jane" and words like "daughter", which are normally paired with gendered pronouns even if the speaker does not know the person being referred to. Linguist
1745:, is harmful and can be perceived as an insult or intentional offense if done deliberately, and embarrassing or hurtful if done accidentally. Many people with a
1261:
grammatical category. He argued that gender as a property inherent in nouns (rather than in their referents) is not entirely absent from modern
English, citing
495:
are used by some speakers when referring to ships (and more uncommonly some airplanes and analogous machinery), to churches, and to nation states and islands.
1615:
individuated or countable matter, such as iron tools, while the neuter form is used for non-individuated matter, such as liquids, fire and other substances.
1774:
1672:. One modern source claims that ships were treated as masculine in early English, and that this changed to feminine by the sixteenth century. In the 1640
371:
1741:
rather than their sex assigned at birth. Referring to transgender people using natural gender pronouns according to their sex deduced at birth, known as
1120:
While inflectional reduction seems to have been incipient in the
English language itself, some theories suggest that it was accelerated by contact with
2858:
1692:, well-known women, female family members or objects of affection (though ships have male and non-personal names), the tradition of having a female
562:
with the noun they modified. Also the nouns themselves followed different declension patterns depending on their gender. Moreover, the third-person
1906:, which is derived from a Latin feminine word. Certain foreign expressions used in English exhibit distinctions of grammatical gender, for example
2636:
1378:
Pronoun agreement is generally with the natural gender of the referent (the person or thing denoted) rather than simply the antecedent (a noun or
3044:
1915:
Certain gender-indicative suffixes denoting humans eliminate any practical distinction between natural gender and grammatical gender (examples:
1688:
well, though the name be
Hercules, or Henry, or the Prince." Various folk theories on the origin include the tradition of naming of ships after
1507:, when their sex is known. If the sex of the animal is not known, the masculine pronoun is often used with a sex-neutral meaning. For example:
1155:
of the 13th century was in transition to the loss of a gender system. One element of this process was the change in the functions of the words
1900:
Certain words' spellings are indicative of their original grammatical genders, which may not correspond to their natural genders, for example
2462:
1080:). And even with nouns referring to persons, one could not always determine gender by meaning or form: for example, with two words ending in
2832:
2234:
to distinguish married and unmarried women, respectively) may also be discouraged on similar grounds. For more details and examples, see
2724:
410:
2889:
1637:
2673:
savour, wherewith shall it be salted? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men.
1700:(generally held by women by tradition) and various justifications (many satirical) comparing the attributes of ships with women.
1046:
Old English had multiple generic nouns for "woman" stretching across all three genders: for example, in addition to the neuter
2751:
There are many popular satirical reasons and collections thereof, such as "it takes a lot of paint to keep her good-looking".
2749:
3219:
3196:
2998:
2289:
1892:, with the former being masculine and the latter being feminine. This distinction is retained primarily in British English.
366:
3022:
2713:
3153:
237:
3149:
3080:
2933:
2779:
2690:
2445:
2386:
1195:: both thus ceased to manifest any gender differentiation. The loss of gender classes was part of a general decay of
1344:) is used when the referent is female, or is an object personified as female – this is common with vessels such as
1789:
Other English pronouns are not subject to male/female distinctions, although in some cases a distinction between
315:
2320:
1643:
3013:
403:
303:
2748:
For example, the U.S. Navy history office says it was due to ships giving life and sustenance like a mother.
2235:
2155:
1880:
167:
2866:
2669:), here shewed in the Gospel of St Matthew, v,13: Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost
1124:, especially in northern and midland dialects. This correlates with the geographical extent of the Viking
3239:
2989:
1957:). Some gender-related suffixes are almost never perceived as related to grammatical gender, for example
1631:
1413:, and the pronoun refers to the members of the group denoted rather than the group as a single entity, a
1137:
380:
128:
1563:
These rules also apply to other triple-gender nouns, including ideas, inanimate objects, and words like
452:
3211:
271:
443:
largely does not have grammatical gender. Modern English lacks grammatical gender in the sense of all
3050:
2189:
1656:
1432:
When the referent is a person of unknown or unspecified sex, several different options are possible:
1390:, depending on one's knowledge or assumptions about the sex of the doctor in question, as the phrase
1292:
344:
2725:
https://web.archive.org/web/20100302044714/http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/all/journeys/ships/glossary.html
1100:
3244:
1718:
1286:
1211:
1141:
513:
when referring to a person of unknown gender. Certain traditional feminine forms of nouns (such as
396:
44:
2055:. Female humans and most female animals, as well as all types of vehicles (land, air and sea) are
2252:
2003:
Nouns seem to possess a well defined but covert system of grammatical gender. We may call a noun
1207:
1176:
1151:
By the 11th century, the role of grammatical gender in Old English was beginning to decline: the
1133:
559:
499:
487:) to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other sexes and neuter pronouns (such as
323:
255:
209:
2165:
1623:
1324:) is used when the referent is male, or something to which male characteristics are attributed;
1235:
1200:
1129:
275:
2917:
Pronominal Gender in English. A Study of English Varieties from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective
2620:
Pronominal Gender in English: A Study of English Varieties form a Cross-Linguistic Perspective
2480:
2433:
1988:
may use masculine (rather than neuter) pronouns with non-animate referents, as can be seen in
1888:
An example of an English word that has retained gender-specific spellings is the noun-form of
2374:
2169:
2131:
a non-human count noun (be it animate or not) is regarded as masculine, for example the word
1676:, author Ben Jonson unambiguously documents the neuter gender "under which are comprised all
1402:), the choice of pronoun may also be affected by the particular noun used in the antecedent.
555:
297:
263:
188:
142:
134:
3120:
2161:
2080:
1996:
1985:
1648:
1296:
1258:
1210:
had almost completed the shift away from grammatical gender, and Modern English retains no
1196:
575:
307:
162:
111:
2702:
8:
2661:
Compare the similar Early Modern English formation which is typified in the prose of the
1966:
Many words that retain their feminine endings refer to geographical regions (for example
1693:
1109:
1090:
538:
335:
259:
226:
123:
3188:
2666:
2563:
2257:
2177:
1800:
1669:
1596:
1274:
1266:
582:
567:
551:
424:
232:
182:
158:
146:
92:
2160:
Gender neutrality in English became a growing area of interest among academics during
1772:, use any pronouns, or prefer gender-neutral pronouns (neopronouns) such as xe/xem or
1054:
3215:
3192:
3076:
2929:
2915:
2775:
2763:
2686:
2555:
2441:
2382:
2326:
2316:
2285:
1746:
1722:
1603:
of objects is usually done for poetic effect or to show strong emotional attachment.
1350:
563:
245:
2637:"Metaphorical Gender in English: Feminine Boats, Masculine Tools and Neuter Animals"
1807:) refers to a person or people, and rarely to animals (although the possessive form
34:
2921:
2795:
2737:
2662:
2547:
2495:
2127:
1804:
1374:
is also used in the interrogative for people in some phrases such as, "Who is it?".
571:
218:
213:
178:
173:
115:
107:
1579:
Gendered pronouns are occasionally applied to sexless objects in English, such as
1179:): previously these had been non-neuter and neuter forms respectively of a single
1066:
1060:
2767:
2247:
1738:
1600:
1145:
547:
376:
241:
222:
96:
49:
26:
1811:
can be used as a relative pronoun even when the antecedent is inanimate), while
1696:
on the front of the ship (though men and animals are also used as figureheads),
1072:
1665:
1592:
1270:
1254:
1223:
1171:
1165:
1152:
456:
440:
436:
83:
58:
3046:
Postructuralism and Feminism: The Interplay between Gender, Language and Power
2727:
Glossary of Nautical Terms (As used in the late 18th and early 19th centuries)
2126:
Inanimate count nouns in Newfoundland Vernacular English differ from those in
1354:: "Stand beside her, and guide her through the night with a light from above."
1048:
3233:
2956:
2559:
2481:"The Proof is in the Pronoun: Grammatical and Semantic Gender in Anglo Saxon"
1795:
1750:
1462:
1328:
1192:
503:
204:
192:
150:
119:
69:
2330:
1902:
1108:
some cases. For details of the declension patterns and pronoun systems, see
3157:
2538:
Hall, Robert A. (1951). "Sex Reference and Grammatical Gender in English".
1989:
1742:
1697:
1358:
1308:
340:
267:
2925:
1923:
3015:
Language, gender and sexism: an overview of English and Italian languages
2500:
1908:
1726:
1379:
543:
432:
319:
154:
138:
101:
1963:, a suffix meaning inflammation, which is derived from Greek feminines.
498:
Usage in English has evolved with regards to an emerging preference for
2890:"Sexist Job Titles and the Influence of Language on Gender Stereotypes"
2752:
2438:
Gender across languages: the linguistic representation of women and men
2044:
1953:
1935:
1820:
pronouns do not encode number. This is shown in the following example:
1479:
1262:
1180:
448:
444:
311:
2567:
1959:
1941:
2774:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 488–489.
2173:
2016:
1947:
1689:
1618:
One common use of metaphorical gender is referring to named ships as
1300:
1231:
1121:
1917:
1544:
Specifically named animals are an example of individuation, such as
2551:
2067:. Other count nouns are masculine in that they select the pronouns
1929:
1895:
1234:. Exceptions to this generality are few and debatable, for example
521:) are also increasingly avoided, with the male form of such nouns (
2176:
became better known in academic circles. By the 1960s and 1970s,
1790:
1426:
1125:
1064:. For the gender-neutral nouns for "child", there was the neuter
460:
431:
was treated as either masculine, feminine, or neuter, existed in
88:
2146:
can be referred to by the feminine pronoun in Standard English.
1499:; higher (domestic) animals may more often be referred to using
2440:. Vol. 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 107.
1968:
1414:
1382:
which the pronoun replaces). For example, one might say either
352:
292:
287:
64:
53:
2284:, 3rd Ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, p. 598.
1552:. In these instances, it is more likely that animate pronouns
1348:
and airplanes, and sometimes with countries. An example is in
3073:
Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition
1889:
1588:
1475:(normally only considered when the referent is a young child)
546:
had a system of grammatical gender similar to that of modern
348:
2831:. University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Archived from
2184:
Features of gender-neutral language in English may include:
2015:
depending on the pronouns which it selects in the singular.
1622:. This is the case even for ships named after men, such as
1584:
1580:
1345:
574:, were chosen according to the grammatical gender of their
428:
384:
251:
509:
as a third-person singular instead of the default generic
2218:
when referring to a person of unspecified sex (see under
1227:
1840:
Other pronouns which show a similar distinction include
1668:
period), in materials translated from French, which has
1230:, or perceived sexual characteristics, of the pronoun's
2521:
Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1945). 'Grammatical Categories',
1793:
and inanimate referents is made. For example, the word
2756:
1591:. This is known as metaphorical gender (as opposed to
1485:(traditional, but not recommended by modern grammars)
1713:
1295:
are chosen according to the natural gender of their
1187:
came to be used generally as a definite article and
1136:
centuries: for almost a century Norse constituted a
1405:(When the antecedent is a collective noun, such as
550:, with three genders: masculine, feminine, neuter.
1710:for countries, when viewed as political entities.
2714:Are Ships, Cars, and Nations Always Called 'She'?
2431:
1999:. Harold Paddock observed the following in 1981:
3231:
2865:. Toronto Star. Associated Press. Archived from
2788:
2762:
2416:Unhistorical Gender Assignment in Laʒamon's Brut
1896:Words that retain their gender-related spellings
1222:Gender is no longer an inflectional category in
1115:
581:Old English grammatical gender was, as in other
3101:
2987:
2149:
455:; however, it does retain features relating to
3121:"English Grammar Lessons - Gender Usage - ELC"
3036:
2310:
3143:
3141:
3005:
2772:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language
2463:The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language
2432:Hellinger, Marlis; Bussmann, Hadumod (2001).
2337:
2226:Certain naming practices (such as the use of
1423:the family and their breakfast-time arguments
1257:described grammatical gender in English as a
404:
2991:Gender in English pronouns: Myth and reality
1706:is also sometimes used as an alternative to
1214:agreement of words with grammatical gender.
491:) for sexless objects. Also, in some cases,
3150:"Guidelines for Non-Sexist Use of Language"
2907:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2533:
2531:
2427:
2425:
2377:. In Richard M. Hogg, David Denison (ed.).
3138:
3075:. Cambridge University Press. p. 14.
3042:
2881:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2460:Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum,
2381:. Cambridge University Press. p. 70.
2313:Grammatical gender in English, 950 to 1250
1058:listed above, there was also the feminine
411:
397:
3011:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2631:
2629:
2499:
1863:can be indicated by the feminine pronoun
1269:argued that these are simply examples of
447:requiring masculine, feminine, or neuter
2528:
2422:
2413:
1874:
1660:dates written examples of calling ships
1651:considers the practice "old-fashioned".
1638:New York Times Manual of Style and Usage
1468:(common especially in informal language)
532:
3208:Gender Shifts in the History of English
3182:
3107:
2957:"How to Use Blond vs. blonde Correctly"
2913:
2856:
2617:
2586:
2474:
2472:
2434:"English — Gender in a global language"
2306:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2298:
3232:
3205:
3095:
2974:
2887:
2829:The Office of Intercultural Engagement
2796:"Gender Census 2020: Worldwide Report"
2626:
2580:
2401:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2355:
2343:
2219:
1979:
1574:
492:
3070:
2859:"Pick your own pronoun at university"
2857:Binkley, Collin (19 September 2015).
2537:
2478:
2469:
2372:
2295:
1280:
3187:(2nd ed.). New York, NY:
3043:Wooldridge, Michael (15 May 2015).
2999:Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg
2361:
2059:, in that they select the pronouns
1287:Third-person pronoun § English
372:AmE and BrE grammatical differences
367:African-American Vernacular English
13:
3154:American Philosophical Association
3147:
2888:Cutler, Sylvia (28 January 2015).
1729:people use the standard pronouns (
502:. There is now large-scale use of
14:
3256:
2379:A history of the English language
2079:Examples of "masculine" nouns in
1784:
1714:Transgender and non-binary people
1451:alternation or random mixture of
1217:
435:, but fell out of use during the
276:Transitive and intransitive verbs
3023:Università degli Studi di Padova
2685:, 17th edition, p. 514. 2017.
2039:because they select the pronoun
1560:will be used to represent them.
1208:Late 14th-century London English
1203:by the end of the 14th century.
1084:, there was the female-specific
529:) having become gender-neutral.
33:
3175:
3113:
3089:
3064:
2949:
2914:Siemund, Peter (January 2008).
2850:
2814:
2742:
2730:
2718:
2707:
2696:
2676:
2655:
2574:
2515:
2479:Ryan, John M. (December 2017).
2280:Stevenson, Angus (ed.) (2010).
1417:pronoun may be chosen: compare
3185:Feminism and Linguistic Theory
2988:Wagner, Susanne (2004-07-22).
2454:
2407:
2395:
2349:
2274:
2203:to refer to humans in general;
1644:The Associated Press Stylebook
1536:A widow bird sat mourning for
1511:Person A: Ah, there's a spider
721:"female member of a household"
1:
3125:ELC - English Language Center
2263:
1867:but not the relative pronoun
1116:Decline of grammatical gender
2282:Oxford Dictionary of English
2236:Gender neutrality in English
2156:Gender neutrality in English
2150:Gender neutrality in English
2135:is considered as masculine.
1881:Gender marking in job titles
1140:with regard to the southern
558:showed gender inflection in
7:
2683:The Chicago Manual of Style
2488:Athens Journal of Philology
2241:
1995:A similar case is found in
1632:The Chicago Manual of Style
1388:the doctor and her patients
1384:the doctor and his patients
10:
3261:
3212:Cambridge University Press
3071:Meyer, Charles F. (2010).
2418:. Switzerland: Peter Lang.
2375:"Phonology and morphology"
2192:, or caution in their use;
2190:gender-specific job titles
2153:
1878:
1489:
1419:the family and its origins
1291:The third-person singular
1284:
536:
459:with particular nouns and
3183:Cameron, Deborah (1992).
3051:E-International Relations
3012:Arcangeli, Alice (2020).
2703:Meaning of she in English
2107:; "neuter" nouns include
1972:) and stars (for example
1737:, etc.) that match their
1684:excepted: of whom we say
1664:to at least 1308 (in the
1657:Oxford English Dictionary
1148:dialects of Old English.
3098:, pp. 39, 151, 156.
2414:Shinkawa, Seiji (2012).
2268:
2220:§ Personal pronouns
2206:Avoidance of the use of
2195:Avoidance of the use of
2894:| College of Humanities
2822:"Neopronouns Explained"
2618:Siemund, Peter (2008).
2311:Jones, Charles (1988).
2253:Gender-neutral language
2017:Mass or non-count nouns
1312:(and its related forms
1177:Old English determiners
1099:
1089:
1071:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1047:
500:gender-neutral language
2622:. New York: Routledge.
2315:. London: Croom Helm.
2077:
556:attributive adjectives
3206:Curzan, Anne (2003).
2926:10.4324/9780203455944
2170:Ferdinand de Saussure
2001:
1879:Further information:
1875:Gender-specific words
1303:. As a general rule:
1285:Further information:
1183:, but in this period
820:(of a woman) "virgin"
803:(of a woman) "virgin"
653:(of a woman) "virgin"
537:Further information:
533:Gender in Old English
304:Conditional sentences
3148:Warren, Virginia L.
2373:Lass, Roger (2006).
2172:and his theories on
2162:Second Wave Feminism
2081:Newfoundland English
1997:Newfoundland English
1986:West Country English
1764:, alternate between
1649:Cambridge Dictionary
1606:Although the use of
1201:declensional classes
1197:inflectional endings
2997:(Doctoral thesis).
2838:on 15 November 2020
2164:, when the work of
1980:Regional variations
1575:Metaphorical gender
1516:Person B: Well put
1110:Old English grammar
539:Old English grammar
439:period; therefore,
21:Part of a series on
3240:Grammatical gender
3189:Palgrave Macmillan
2764:Huddleston, Rodney
2667:Authorized Version
2501:10.30958/ajp/4.4.1
2258:History of English
2178:post-structuralist
1842:everyone/everybody
1721:are an element of
1670:grammatical gender
1597:grammatical gender
1275:grammatical gender
1267:Robert A. Hall Jr.
1052:and the masculine
871:"victorious woman"
583:Germanic languages
425:grammatical gender
3221:978-0-521-82007-3
3198:978-0-312-08376-2
2802:. 7 November 2020
2290:978-0-19-957112-3
2099:; "feminine" are
1749:identity use the
1747:non-binary gender
1723:gender expression
1524:Animate pronouns
1351:God Bless America
1293:personal pronouns
1281:Personal pronouns
1248:postman/postwoman
1138:prestige language
1076:(compare English
1044:
1043:
572:relative pronouns
564:personal pronouns
493:feminine pronouns
421:
420:
3252:
3225:
3202:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3165:
3156:. Archived from
3145:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3117:
3111:
3105:
3099:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3020:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2996:
2985:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2837:
2826:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2768:Pullum, Geoffrey
2760:
2754:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2711:
2705:
2700:
2694:
2680:
2674:
2663:King James Bible
2659:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2633:
2624:
2623:
2615:
2584:
2583:, pp. 2, 23
2578:
2572:
2571:
2535:
2526:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2503:
2485:
2476:
2467:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2370:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2308:
2293:
2278:
2128:Standard English
1836:lost their heads
1805:relative pronoun
1756:. Others accept
1035:
1018:
997:
980:
963:
946:
919:
902:
885:
868:
851:
834:
817:
800:
769:
752:
735:
718:
701:
684:
667:
650:
636:"brother's wife"
633:
616:
604:Modern cognates
592:
591:
588:
427:, whereby every
413:
406:
399:
381:Grammar disputes
377:Double negatives
374:
37:
18:
17:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3245:English grammar
3230:
3229:
3228:
3222:
3199:
3178:
3173:
3163:
3161:
3160:on 2 March 2020
3146:
3139:
3130:
3128:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3106:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3083:
3069:
3065:
3055:
3053:
3041:
3037:
3027:
3025:
3018:
3010:
3006:
2994:
2986:
2975:
2966:
2964:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2912:
2908:
2898:
2896:
2886:
2882:
2872:
2870:
2855:
2851:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2803:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2761:
2757:
2747:
2743:
2735:
2731:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2697:
2681:
2677:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2635:
2634:
2627:
2616:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2540:American Speech
2536:
2529:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2504:
2483:
2477:
2470:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2430:
2423:
2412:
2408:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2371:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2342:
2338:
2323:
2309:
2296:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2248:English grammar
2244:
2158:
2152:
1982:
1898:
1883:
1877:
1787:
1781:
1739:gender identity
1719:Chosen pronouns
1716:
1674:English Grammar
1601:personification
1577:
1492:
1289:
1283:
1220:
1118:
1070:and the neuter
1031:
1014:
993:
976:
966:"female friend"
959:
942:
930:
915:
898:
881:
864:
854:"married woman"
847:
830:
813:
796:
784:
765:
748:
731:
714:
697:
680:
663:
646:
629:
619:"married woman"
612:
586:
541:
535:
417:
388:
387:
383:
379:
375:
370:
369:
364:
356:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
328:
327:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
290:
280:
279:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
256:Irregular verbs
254:
250:
231:
212:
210:Auxiliary verbs
207:
197:
196:
195:
191:
187:
172:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
95:
91:
86:
76:
75:
74:
63:
52:
47:
27:English grammar
12:
11:
5:
3258:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3227:
3226:
3220:
3203:
3197:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3137:
3112:
3100:
3088:
3081:
3063:
3035:
3004:
2973:
2963:. 22 June 2011
2961:grammarist.com
2948:
2934:
2906:
2880:
2849:
2813:
2787:
2780:
2755:
2741:
2729:
2717:
2706:
2695:
2675:
2654:
2643:. October 2017
2625:
2585:
2573:
2552:10.2307/453074
2546:(3): 170–172.
2527:
2514:
2468:
2453:
2446:
2421:
2406:
2394:
2387:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2321:
2294:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2243:
2240:
2224:
2223:
2204:
2193:
2154:Main article:
2151:
2148:
1981:
1978:
1897:
1894:
1876:
1873:
1859:Nouns such as
1828:lost his head
1786:
1785:Other pronouns
1783:
1715:
1712:
1666:Middle English
1576:
1573:
1550:Blob the Whale
1491:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1476:
1469:
1459:
1449:
1376:
1375:
1355:
1325:
1282:
1279:
1271:natural gender
1255:Benjamin Whorf
1224:Modern English
1219:
1218:Modern English
1216:
1153:Middle English
1117:
1114:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1021:"winsome maid"
1019:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1001:
998:
991:
987:
986:
984:
981:
974:
970:
969:
967:
964:
957:
953:
952:
950:
949:"female child"
947:
940:
936:
935:
923:
920:
913:
909:
908:
906:
903:
896:
892:
891:
889:
886:
879:
875:
874:
872:
869:
862:
858:
857:
855:
852:
845:
841:
840:
838:
835:
828:
824:
823:
821:
818:
811:
807:
806:
804:
801:
794:
790:
789:
773:
770:
763:
759:
758:
756:
755:"female child"
753:
746:
742:
741:
739:
738:"female pupil"
736:
729:
728:lærningmægden
725:
724:
722:
719:
712:
708:
707:
705:
702:
695:
691:
690:
688:
685:
678:
674:
673:
671:
668:
661:
657:
656:
654:
651:
644:
643:fæmenhadesmon
640:
639:
637:
634:
627:
623:
622:
620:
617:
610:
606:
605:
602:
599:
596:
534:
531:
457:natural gender
441:Modern English
437:Middle English
419:
418:
416:
415:
408:
401:
393:
390:
389:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
345:Capitalization
339:
334:
333:
330:
329:
291:
286:
285:
282:
281:
208:
203:
202:
199:
198:
147:Interrogatives
120:Demonstratives
87:
82:
81:
78:
77:
48:
43:
42:
39:
38:
30:
29:
23:
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3257:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3223:
3217:
3213:
3210:. Cambridge:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3180:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3144:
3142:
3126:
3122:
3116:
3110:, p. 29.
3109:
3104:
3097:
3092:
3084:
3082:9780521152211
3078:
3074:
3067:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3039:
3024:
3017:
3016:
3008:
3000:
2993:
2992:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2937:
2935:9780203455944
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2918:
2910:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2869:on 2017-02-18
2868:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2817:
2801:
2800:Gender Census
2797:
2791:
2783:
2781:0-521-43146-8
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2750:
2745:
2738:
2733:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2699:
2692:
2691:0-226-28705-X
2688:
2684:
2679:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2630:
2621:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2582:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2532:
2524:
2518:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2473:
2465:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2447:90-272-1841-2
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2426:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2398:
2390:
2388:0-521-66227-3
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2357:
2352:
2346:, p. 53.
2345:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2273:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2188:Avoidance of
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2166:structuralist
2163:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2035:) are called
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1850:no one/nobody
1847:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1801:interrogative
1798:
1797:
1792:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1698:ship sponsors
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1627:
1626:King George V
1621:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1244:widow/widower
1240:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1213:
1212:morphological
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:demonstrative
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1050:
1040:
1038:"female heir"
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
989:
988:
985:
982:
979:
975:
972:
971:
968:
965:
962:
958:
955:
954:
951:
948:
945:
941:
938:
937:
934:
928:
924:
921:
918:
914:
911:
910:
907:
904:
901:
897:
894:
893:
890:
887:
884:
880:
877:
876:
873:
870:
867:
863:
860:
859:
856:
853:
850:
846:
843:
842:
839:
836:
833:
829:
826:
825:
822:
819:
816:
812:
809:
808:
805:
802:
799:
795:
792:
791:
788:
782:
778:
774:
771:
768:
764:
761:
760:
757:
754:
751:
747:
744:
743:
740:
737:
734:
730:
727:
726:
723:
720:
717:
713:
710:
709:
706:
703:
700:
696:
693:
692:
689:
686:
683:
679:
676:
675:
672:
669:
666:
662:
659:
658:
655:
652:
649:
645:
642:
641:
638:
635:
632:
628:
625:
624:
621:
618:
615:
611:
608:
607:
603:
600:
597:
594:
593:
590:
584:
579:
577:
573:
569:
568:interrogative
566:, as well as
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
540:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
507:
501:
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
414:
409:
407:
402:
400:
395:
394:
392:
391:
386:
382:
378:
373:
368:
363:Variant usage
360:
359:
354:
350:
346:
342:
341:Abbreviations
337:
332:
331:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
300:
299:
294:
289:
284:
283:
277:
273:
269:
268:Phrasal verbs
265:
264:Passive voice
261:
257:
253:
248:
247:
243:
239:
234:
229:
228:
224:
220:
215:
211:
206:
201:
200:
194:
190:
189:Subordinators
185:
184:
180:
175:
170:
169:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:Interjections
140:
136:
131:
130:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
103:
98:
94:
90:
85:
80:
79:
72:
71:
70:frequentative
66:
61:
60:
55:
51:
46:
41:
40:
36:
32:
31:
28:
25:
24:
20:
19:
16:
3207:
3184:
3176:Bibliography
3162:. Retrieved
3158:the original
3129:. Retrieved
3127:. 2017-06-07
3124:
3115:
3108:Cameron 1992
3103:
3091:
3072:
3066:
3054:. Retrieved
3045:
3038:
3026:. Retrieved
3014:
3007:
2990:
2965:. Retrieved
2960:
2951:
2939:. Retrieved
2916:
2909:
2897:. Retrieved
2893:
2883:
2871:. Retrieved
2867:the original
2863:Toronto Star
2862:
2852:
2840:. Retrieved
2833:the original
2828:
2816:
2804:. Retrieved
2799:
2790:
2771:
2758:
2744:
2732:
2720:
2709:
2698:
2682:
2678:
2670:
2657:
2645:. Retrieved
2640:
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2517:
2505:. Retrieved
2491:
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2048:
2047:divide into
2040:
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2012:
2008:
2004:
2002:
1994:
1990:Thomas Hardy
1984:Speakers of
1983:
1973:
1967:
1965:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
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1907:
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1899:
1890:blond/blonde
1887:
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1743:misgendering
1734:
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1546:Peter Rabbit
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1163:(then spelt
1160:
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1142:Northumbrian
1128:in the late
1119:
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1077:
1045:
1032:
1015:
1004:
994:
977:
960:
943:
932:
926:
916:
899:
888:"noble lady"
882:
865:
848:
837:"handmaiden"
831:
814:
797:
786:
780:
776:
772:"young girl"
766:
749:
732:
715:
711:hiredwifmon
698:
681:
670:"prostitute"
664:
647:
630:
613:
580:
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526:
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518:
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510:
505:
497:
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468:
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445:noun classes
423:A system of
422:
324:Zero-marking
296:
236:
217:
177:
166:
163:Prepositions
155:Portmanteaus
127:
112:Coordinators
100:
68:
57:
15:
3096:Curzan 2003
2806:12 November
2581:Curzan 2003
2402:Curzan 2003
2356:Curzan 2003
2344:Curzan 2003
2045:Count nouns
1909:tabula rasa
1727:transgender
1425:. See also
1380:noun phrase
1263:given names
1175:; see also
787:das Mädchen
704:"freewoman"
660:foligerwif
552:Determiners
544:Old English
433:Old English
336:Orthography
320:Periphrasis
260:Modal verbs
227:subjunctive
219:conditional
159:Possessives
139:Intensifier
124:Determiners
3234:Categories
3131:2017-10-24
3049:(Thesis).
3021:(Thesis).
2967:2019-11-05
2647:6 December
2507:3 November
2494:(4): 257.
2322:0709914768
2264:References
1992:'s works.
1954:dominatrix
1936:stewardess
1846:everything
1694:figurehead
1680:things, a
1392:the doctor
1297:antecedent
1181:determiner
1132:and early
956:wiffreond
905:"mistress"
895:unrihtwif
793:mægdenman
745:mædencild
626:broþorwif
576:antecedent
449:inflection
312:Do-support
298:in English
272:Verb usage
238:continuous
223:imperative
135:Expletives
93:Adjectives
84:Word types
59:in English
45:Morphology
2736:p. 80-81
2560:0003-1283
2525:21: 1–11.
2174:semiotics
2168:linguist
2105:aeroplane
2049:masculine
2019:(such as
2005:masculine
1948:executrix
1751:singular
1690:goddesses
1686:she sails
1678:inanimate
1463:singular
1438:he or she
1253:Linguist
1236:anaphoric
1144:and east
1122:Old Norse
1101:fædernmæg
1028:yrfenuma
983:"heiress"
844:næmenwif
560:agreement
515:authoress
463:(such as
453:agreement
316:Inversion
168:List here
129:List here
116:Compounds
2873:24 April
2770:(2002).
2523:Language
2331:16404179
2242:See also
2057:feminine
2053:feminine
2009:feminine
1930:waitress
1903:abscissa
1832:the men
1824:The man
1599:). This
1480:generic
1400:daughter
1301:referent
1273:and not
1232:referent
1096:feminine
1003:English
990:wifmann
973:wifhand
939:wifcild
933:das Weib
925:English
861:sigewif
827:mennenu
810:mægþman
775:English
694:freowif
687:"matron"
677:forþwif
469:daughter
461:pronouns
242:habitual
174:Pronouns
108:Articles
89:Acronyms
65:Suffixes
54:Prefixes
3164:2 March
3056:2 March
3028:2 March
2941:2 March
2899:2 March
2466:(2002).
2222:above).
2201:mankind
2117:weather
1924:hostess
1856:, etc.
1854:nothing
1799:(as an
1791:animate
1760:and/or
1725:. Many
1647:. The
1593:natural
1520:outside
1490:Animals
1478:use of
1471:use of
1461:use of
1436:use of
1427:synesis
1338:herself
1318:himself
1146:Mercian
1126:Danelaw
1055:wifmann
1011:wynmæg
1000:"woman"
931:German
922:"woman"
878:siþwif
785:German
762:mægden
601:Meaning
519:poetess
504:neuter
473:husband
293:Clauses
246:perfect
97:Adverbs
50:Plurals
3218:
3195:
3079:
2932:
2842:29 May
2778:
2689:
2641:Druide
2568:453074
2566:
2558:
2444:
2385:
2329:
2319:
2288:
2119:, and
2097:pencil
2095:, and
2089:shovel
2037:neuter
2013:neuter
1974:lucida
1969:Africa
1945:as in
1939:; and
1921:as in
1641:, and
1589:robots
1565:infant
1448:, etc.
1442:he/she
1415:plural
1407:family
1364:itself
1259:covert
1091:wynmæg
1086:neuter
781:maiden
598:Gender
587:
548:German
523:author
353:Hyphen
308:Copula
288:Syntax
233:Aspect
183:person
3019:(PDF)
2995:(PDF)
2836:(PDF)
2825:(PDF)
2564:JSTOR
2484:(PDF)
2269:Notes
2109:water
2029:water
2021:frost
1960:-itis
1942:-trix
1933:, or
1813:which
1809:whose
1587:, or
1585:tools
1581:ships
1569:child
1540:love.
1396:child
1362:(and
1346:ships
1332:(and
1250:etc.
1191:as a
1088:noun
1078:child
1067:bearn
1061:frowe
1033:neut.
1016:neut.
1005:woman
995:masc.
978:masc.
961:masc.
944:neut.
917:neut.
900:neut.
883:neut.
866:neut.
849:neut.
832:neut.
815:masc.
798:masc.
767:neut.
750:neut.
733:neut.
716:masc.
699:neut.
682:neut.
665:neut.
648:masc.
631:neut.
614:neut.
477:uncle
465:woman
349:Comma
205:Verbs
193:Verbs
151:Nouns
3216:ISBN
3193:ISBN
3166:2024
3077:ISBN
3058:2023
3030:2023
2943:2024
2930:ISBN
2901:2024
2875:2016
2844:2022
2808:2020
2776:ISBN
2687:ISBN
2665:(or
2649:2019
2556:ISSN
2509:2020
2442:ISBN
2383:ISBN
2327:OCLC
2317:ISBN
2286:ISBN
2232:Miss
2230:and
2214:and
2199:and
2144:boat
2142:and
2140:ship
2121:snow
2101:boat
2093:book
2083:are
2051:and
2033:love
1918:-ess
1861:ship
1852:vs.
1844:vs.
1817:what
1815:and
1768:and
1753:they
1682:ship
1654:The
1624:HMS
1610:and
1567:and
1528:and
1503:and
1465:they
1455:and
1446:s/he
1411:team
1398:and
1342:hers
1199:and
1189:that
1169:and
1161:that
1159:and
1134:10th
1082:-mæg
1073:cild
927:wife
912:wif
777:maid
609:æwe
595:Noun
570:and
554:and
527:poet
525:and
517:and
506:they
483:and
429:noun
385:Thou
252:-ing
214:Mood
179:case
102:flat
2922:doi
2671:his
2548:doi
2496:doi
2228:Mrs
2216:his
2212:him
2197:man
2133:cow
2113:fog
2085:hat
2071:, '
2065:her
2061:she
2025:fog
2011:or
1976:).
1951:or
1869:who
1865:she
1834:who
1830:vs.
1826:who
1803:or
1796:who
1775:zie
1770:she
1762:she
1735:she
1704:She
1662:she
1620:she
1608:she
1595:or
1558:she
1556:or
1548:or
1538:her
1530:she
1518:him
1505:she
1453:she
1429:.)
1409:or
1386:or
1368:its
1334:her
1329:she
1322:his
1314:him
1299:or
1239:she
1228:sex
1185:the
1172:þat
1157:the
1130:9th
1049:wif
485:she
451:or
3236::
3214:.
3191:.
3152:.
3140:^
3123:.
2976:^
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2928:.
2920:.
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2766:;
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2628:^
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2208:he
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1526:he
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1166:þe
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511:he
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