973:
165:
2835:: This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an atomic electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy emitted as a new, lower energy gamma photon whose emission direction is different from that of the incident gamma photon, hence the term "scattering". The probability of Compton scattering decreases with increasing photon energy. It is thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10 MeV. It is relatively independent of the
2276:
2361:
sources are known to fluctuate with durations of a few weeks, suggesting their relatively small size (less than a few light-weeks across). Such sources of gamma and X-rays are the most commonly visible high intensity sources outside the Milky Way galaxy. They shine not in bursts (see illustration), but relatively continuously when viewed with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical quasar is about 10 watts, a small fraction of which is gamma radiation. Much of the rest is emitted as electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including radio waves.
2937:
1590:
3824:
5523:
2464:
1565:
1303:, who named Villard's rays "gamma rays" by analogy with the beta and alpha rays that Rutherford had differentiated in 1899. The "rays" emitted by radioactive elements were named in order of their power to penetrate various materials, using the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha rays as the least penetrating, followed by beta rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating. Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deflected (or at least, not
986:
1332:
2665:
2496:
201:
45:
5346:
2365:
147:
2651:
2642:
182:
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distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by definition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus. Exceptions to this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma decay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but radiation from high energy processes known to involve other radiation sources than radioactive decay is still classed as gamma radiation.
3697:
2928:
nuclei at either the emitting or absorbing end of a gamma transition. Such loss of energy causes gamma ray resonance absorption to fail. However, when emitted gamma rays carry essentially all of the energy of the atomic nuclear de-excitation that produces them, this energy is also sufficient to excite the same energy state in a second immobilized nucleus of the same type.
3157:(or the lethal dose for 50% of exposed population) for an acute exposure to radiation even with standard medical treatment. A dose higher than 5 Sv (5 Gy) brings an increasing chance of death above 50%. Above 7.5–10 Sv (7.5–10 Gy) to the entire body, even extraordinary treatment, such as bone-marrow transplants, will not prevent the death of the individual exposed (see
2199:
3776:, produces gamma radiation of the same energy (140 keV) as that produced by diagnostic X-ray machines, but of significantly lower energy than therapeutic photons from linear particle accelerators. In the medical community today, the convention that radiation produced by nuclear decay is the only type referred to as "gamma" radiation is still respected.
3808:
or particle annihilation, but rather in non-radioactive processes similar to X-rays. Although the gamma rays of astronomy often come from non-radioactive events, a few gamma rays in astronomy are specifically known to originate from gamma decay of nuclei (as demonstrated by their spectra and emission half life). A classic example is that of supernova
2440:. The fusion explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to be pointed toward the Earth, it shines at gamma ray frequencies with such intensity, that it can be detected even at distances of up to 10 billion light years, which is close to the edge of the
1334:
1339:
1337:
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of a nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. Any gamma energy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (totaling at least 1.02 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair and in the recoil of the emitting nucleus. At the
2312:
sources of gamma rays. Pulsars have relatively long-lived magnetic fields that produce focused beams of relativistic speed charged particles, which emit gamma rays (bremsstrahlung) when those strike gas or dust in their nearby medium, and are decelerated. This is a similar mechanism to the production
1310:
Gamma rays were first thought to be particles with mass, like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their failure to be deflected by a magnetic field indicated that they had no charge. In 1914, gamma rays were observed to be reflected
3123:
The natural outdoor exposure in the United
Kingdom ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 μSv/h with significant increase around known nuclear and contaminated sites. Natural exposure to gamma rays is about 1 to 2 mSv per year, and the average total amount of radiation received in one year per inhabitant in the USA
2826:
is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the energy that originally bound the electron to the atom (binding energy). The photoelectric effect is the dominant energy transfer mechanism for X-ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand electronvolts), but it is much
1338:
3807:
Another example is gamma-ray bursts, now known to be produced from processes too powerful to involve simple collections of atoms undergoing radioactive decay. This is part and parcel of the general realization that many gamma rays produced in astronomical processes result not from radioactive decay
2580:
shielding material, such as aluminium, concrete, water, or soil; lead's major advantage is not in lower weight, but rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protective clothing, goggles and respirators can protect from internal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting particles,
2148:
mostly have far shorter wavelengths than atomic nuclei, particle physics gamma rays are generally several orders of magnitude more energetic than nuclear decay gamma rays. Since gamma rays are at the top of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of energy, all extremely high-energy photons are gamma
1298:
in 1896, and alpha rays, discovered as a less penetrating form of radiation by
Rutherford, in 1899. However, Villard did not consider naming them as a different fundamental type. Later, in 1903, Villard's radiation was recognized as being of a type fundamentally different from previously named rays
3803:
In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes that produce them may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed. High-energy photons occur in nature that are known to be produced by processes other than
3752:
However, since current artificial sources are now able to duplicate any electromagnetic radiation that originates in the nucleus, as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths characteristic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other types now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usually
2971:
Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of gamma radiation in refining, mining, chemicals, food, soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses. Gamma-ray sensors are also used for measuring the fluid levels in water and oil
2927:
the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma absorption can be successfully attained by physically immobilizing atomic nuclei in a crystal. The immobilization of nuclei at both ends of a gamma resonance interaction is required so that no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic energy of recoiling
2626:
In a nuclear power plant, shielding can be provided by steel and concrete in the pressure and particle containment vessel, while water provides a radiation shielding of fuel rods during storage or transport into the reactor core. The loss of water or removal of a "hot" fuel assembly into the air
2360:
at the center of such galaxies provides the power source that intermittently destroys stars and focuses the resulting charged particles into beams that emerge from their rotational poles. When those beams interact with gas, dust, and lower energy photons they produce X-rays and gamma rays. These
2241:
as they collide with and are slowed by atoms in the atmosphere. Gamma rays up to 100 MeV can be emitted by terrestrial thunderstorms, and were discovered by space-borne observatories. This raises the possibility of health risks to passengers and crew on aircraft flying in or near thunderclouds.
1536:
that are more easily measurable, and rare nuclear isomers are able to stay in their excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before emitting a gamma ray. The process of isomeric transition is therefore similar to any gamma emission, but differs in that it involves the
2645:
The total absorption coefficient of aluminium (atomic number 13) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. As is usual, the photoelectric effect is largest at low energies, Compton scattering dominates at intermediate energies, and pair production
2403:
The most intense sources of gamma rays, are also the most intense sources of any type of electromagnetic radiation presently known. They are the "long duration burst" sources of gamma rays in astronomy ("long" in this context, meaning a few tens of seconds), and they are rare compared with the
3106:
Studies have shown low-dose gamma radiation may be enough to cause cancer. In a study of mice, they were given human-relevant low-dose gamma radiation, with genotoxic effects 45 days after continuous low-dose gamma radiation, with significant increases of chromosomal damage, DNA lesions and
2328:, in which charged particles (usually electrons) impart energy to low-energy photons boosting them to higher energy photons. Such impacts of photons on relativistic charged particle beams is another possible mechanism of gamma ray production. Neutron stars with a very high magnetic field (
3668:, which indicates the stochastic biological effect of low levels of radiation on human tissue. The radiation weighting conversion factor from absorbed dose to equivalent dose is 1 for gamma, whereas alpha particles have a factor of 20, reflecting their greater ionising effect on tissue.
1336:
2918:
effect) the absorption of gamma rays by a nucleus is especially likely (i.e., peaks in a "resonance") when the energy of the gamma ray is the same as that of an energy transition in the nucleus. In the case of gamma rays, such a resonance is seen in the technique of
3748:
is proportional to their frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength, this past distinction between X-rays and gamma rays can also be thought of in terms of its energy, with gamma rays considered to be higher energy electromagnetic radiation than are X-rays.
3074:
says "In the low dose range, below about 100 mSv, it is scientifically plausible to assume that the incidence of cancer or heritable effects will rise in direct proportion to an increase in the equivalent dose in the relevant organs and tissues" High doses produce
2204:
2203:
2200:
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The higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding made from the same shielding material is required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically measured by the thickness required to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the
2423:
will produce in its entire life-time) but in a period of only 20 to 40 seconds. Gamma rays are approximately 50% of the total energy output. The leading hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these highest-known intensity beams of radiation, are inverse
1505:. When high-energy gamma rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms emit characteristic "secondary" gamma rays, which are products of the creation of excited nuclear states in the bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear gamma
2205:
2174:
Photons from astrophysical sources that carry energy in the gamma radiation range are often explicitly called gamma-radiation. In addition to nuclear emissions, they are often produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-photon interactions. Those include
3779:
Due to this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being accelerated to produce
1375:, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-energy voltages. Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of
3005:
surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues.
1216:, so the terminology for these electromagnetic waves varies between scientific disciplines. In some fields of physics, they are distinguished by their origin: gamma rays are created by nuclear decay while X-rays originate outside the nucleus. In
2654:
The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to
2860:, it combines with a free electron, and the two annihilate, and the entire mass of these two is then converted into two gamma photons of at least 0.51 MeV energy each (or higher according to the kinetic energy of the annihilated particles).
2308:. Pulsars are thought to be neutron stars with magnetic fields that produce focused beams of radiation, and are far less energetic, more common, and much nearer sources (typically seen only in our own galaxy) than are quasars or the rarer
4630:
Graupner, Anne; Eide, Dag M.; Instanes, Christine; Andersen, Jill M.; Brede, Dag A.; Dertinger, Stephen D.; Lind, Ole C.; Brandt-Kjelsen, Anicke; Bjerke, Hans; Salbu, Brit; Oughton, Deborah; Brunborg, Gunnar; Olsen, Ann K. (2016-09-06).
4156:
Gonoskov, A.; Bashinov, A.; Bastrakov, S.; Efimenko, E.; Ilderton, A.; Kim, A.; Marklund, M.; Meyerov, I.; Muraviev, A.; Sergeev, A. (2017). "Ultrabright GeV Photon Source via
Controlled Electromagnetic Cascades in Laser-Dipole Waves".
2266:
Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (either high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordinary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV. Alternatively,
1541:, requiring a change in spin of several units or more with gamma decay, instead of a single unit transition that occurs in only 10 seconds. The rate of gamma decay is also slowed when the energy of excitation of the nucleus is small.
1501:, or nuclear fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of relaxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei following other types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, so long as these states possess the necessary component of nuclear
2948:
Gamma rays provide information about some of the most energetic phenomena in the universe; however, they are largely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Instruments aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such as the
2202:
3025:
that are annihilated by electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter used in medical applications is the
2725:
When a gamma ray passes through matter, the probability for absorption is proportional to the thickness of the layer, the density of the material, and the absorption cross section of the material. The total absorption shows an
3716:
to act as target for cosmic rays, cannot usually be seen at all at these energies, which are too high to emerge from primary nuclear reactions, such as solar nuclear fusion (though occasionally the Sun produces gamma rays by
2271:
are produced at energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray electrons interact with nuclei of sufficiently high atomic number (see gamma ray image of the Moon near the end of this article, for illustration).
1335:
1159:(keV) to approximately 8 megaelectronvolts (MeV), corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. The energy spectrum of gamma rays can be used to identify the decaying
3124:
is 3.6 mSv. There is a small increase in the dose, due to naturally occurring gamma radiation, around small particles of high atomic number materials in the human body caused by the photoelectric effect.
2895:
in the universe: The highest-energy rays interact more readily with the background light photons and thus the density of the background light may be estimated by analyzing the incoming gamma ray spectra.
3827:
In practice, gamma ray energies overlap with the range of X-rays, especially in the higher-frequency region referred to as "hard" X-rays. This depiction follows the older convention of distinguishing by
2822:: This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers its energy to an atomic electron, causing the ejection of that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the resulting
4030:
Fishman, G. J.; Bhat, P. N.; Mallozzi, R.; Horack, J. M.; Koshut, T.; Kouveliotou, C.; Pendleton, G. N.; Meegan, C. A.; Wilson, R. B.; Paciesas, W. S.; Goodman, S. J.; Christian, H. J. (May 27, 1994).
3103:
genetic material, within limits. However, a study of
Rothkamm and Lobrich has shown that this repair process works well after high-dose exposure but is much slower in the case of a low-dose exposure.
3744:. Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m, defined as gamma rays. Since the
3059:
Gamma rays cause damage at a cellular level and are penetrating, causing diffuse damage throughout the body. However, they are less ionising than alpha or beta particles, which are less penetrating.
2851:: This becomes possible with gamma energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, and becomes important as an absorption mechanism at energies over 5 MeV (see illustration at right, for lead). By interaction with the
2218:
In
October 2017, scientists from various European universities proposed a means for sources of GeV photons using lasers as exciters through a controlled interplay between the cascade and anomalous
3640:, now mainly used for instrument calibration purposes but not for received dose effect. The effect of gamma and other ionizing radiation on living tissue is more closely related to the amount of
3800:
referred to as "gamma rays", and never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated.
3107:
phenotypic mutations in blood cells of irradiated animals, covering the three types of genotoxic activity. Another study studied the effects of acute ionizing gamma radiation in rats, up to 10
3150:, and inability to fight infections), and will cause death in a sizable number of cases—about 10% to 35% without medical treatment. A dose of 3–5 Sv (3–5 Gy) is considered approximately the
3804:
nuclear decay but are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is "gamma rays" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mechanism.
3041:). Depending on which molecule has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via
5336:
2792:
2201:
2619:, due to the smaller half-value layer when compared to lead (around 0.6 times the thickness for common gamma ray sources, i.e. Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60) and cheaper cost compared to
4243:
Chupp, E. L.; Forrest, D. J.; Higbie, P. R.; Suri, A. N.; Tsai, C.; Dunphy, P. P. (1973). "Solar Gamma Ray Lines observed during the Solar
Activity of August 2 to August 11, 1972".
4145:. American Health Physics Society Topical Meeting on the Health Physics of Radiation Generating Machines, San José, CA, USA, 5 - 8 Jan 1997. pp. 343–352. CERN-TIS-96-014-RP-CF.
5334:
1254:. Due to their high penetration power, they can damage bone marrow and internal organs. Unlike alpha and beta rays, they easily pass through the body and thus pose a formidable
3172:) increases by 2 percent. For a dose of 100 mSv, the risk increase is 10 percent. By comparison, risk of dying from cancer was increased by 32 percent for the survivors of the
3792:
or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined as "gamma rays" (indeed, this happens for the isomeric transition of the extremely low-energy isomer
1294:. Villard knew that his described radiation was more powerful than previously described types of rays from radium, which included beta rays, first noted as "radioactivity" by
2209:
The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes daily detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space
Telescope through 2010. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.
2408:
of two seconds or less, which are not associated with supernovae, are thought to produce gamma rays during the collision of pairs of neutron stars, or a neutron star and a
2910:
Gamma spectroscopy is the study of the energetic transitions in atomic nuclei, which are generally associated with the absorption or emission of gamma rays. As in optical
4786:
United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation Annex E: Medical radiation exposures – Sources and Effects of Ionizing – 1993, p. 249, New York, UN
1520:
In certain cases, the excited nuclear state that follows the emission of a beta particle or other type of excitation, may be more stable than average, and is termed a
2436:
created during supernova explosion. The beam of particles moving at relativistic speeds are focused for a few tens of seconds by the magnetic field of the exploding
2556:
Due to their penetrating nature, gamma rays require large amounts of shielding mass to reduce them to levels which are not harmful to living cells, in contrast to
1416:, isotope source, or radiation source, though these more general terms also apply to alpha and beta-emitting devices. Gamma sources are usually sealed to prevent
5335:
3206:
3796:). The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is
1486:
that results is usually left in an excited state. It can then decay to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray photon, in a process called gamma decay.
3168:
For low-dose exposure, for example among nuclear workers, who receive an average yearly radiation dose of 19 mSv, the risk of dying from cancer (excluding
4031:
4698:"Acute total body ionizing gamma radiation induces long-term adverse effects and immediate changes in cardiac protein oxidative carbonylation in the rat"
3071:
2380:
converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a
1556:
process, in which a gamma ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a "virtual gamma ray" may be thought to mediate the process).
1524:
excited state, if its decay takes (at least) 100 to 1000 times longer than the average 10 seconds. Such relatively long-lived excited nuclei are termed
5468:
1181:
Natural sources of gamma rays originating on Earth are mostly a result of radioactive decay and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with
2432:
from high-energy charged particles. These processes occur as relativistic charged particles leave the region of the event horizon of a newly formed
1597:
One example of gamma ray production due to radionuclide decay is the decay scheme for cobalt-60, as illustrated in the accompanying diagram. First,
2237:. These gamma rays are thought to be produced by high intensity static electric fields accelerating electrons, which then produce gamma rays by
6643:
1548:, but most probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, causing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally termed the
6628:
5981:
3131:(about 0.06 mSv) is a fraction of the annual naturally occurring background radiation dose. A chest CT delivers 5 to 8 mSv. A whole-body
2300:
The gamma ray sky (see illustration at right) is dominated by the more common and longer-term production of gamma rays that emanate from
4696:
Rosen, Elliot; Kryndushkin, Dmitry; Aryal, Baikuntha; Gonzalez, Yanira; Chehab, Leena; Dickey, Jennifer; Rao, V. Ashutosh (2020-06-04).
1389:. A large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include
4934:
3729:
The conventional distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed over time. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
3199:
4452:
Beigzadeh, A.M. (2019). "Design and improvement of a simple and easy-to-use gamma-ray densitometer for application in wood industry".
3660:, which is the amount of radiation energy deposited in the irradiated material. For gamma radiation this is numerically equivalent to
1017:
931:
4763:
3146:, such as nausea and vomiting; and a dose of 2.0–3.5 Sv (2.0–3.5 Gy) causes more severe symptoms (i.e. nausea, diarrhea, hair loss,
3033:
which emits gamma rays in the same energy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a
3173:
4854:
2864:
The secondary electrons (and/or positrons) produced in any of these three processes frequently have enough energy to produce much
4844:
US National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements – NCRP Report No. 93 – pp 53–55, 1987. Bethesda, Maryland, USA, NCRP
1970:; which is followed by gamma emission. In some cases, the gamma emission spectrum of the daughter nucleus is quite simple, (e.g.
2609:. However, the mass of this much concrete or soil is only 20–30% greater than that of lead with the same absorption capability.
1552:(external gamma rays and ultraviolet rays may also cause this effect). The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the
1412:
A sample of gamma ray-emitting material that is used for irradiating or imaging is known as a gamma source. It is also called a
6597:
5461:
5417:
5381:
2871:
Additionally, gamma rays, particularly high energy ones, can interact with atomic nuclei resulting in ejection of particles in
4358:
Bock, R. K.; et al. (2008-06-27). "Very-High-Energy Gamma Rays from a
Distant Quasar: How Transparent Is the Universe?".
5240:
4552:
3958:
3192:
5426:
6623:
6592:
6537:
1323:, as soon as the latter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was then understood to usually emit a gamma photon.
6256:
1319:, but with shorter wavelengths and thus, higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giving them more energy per
280:
5412:
4495:
Falahati, M. (2018). "Design, modelling and construction of a continuous nuclear gauge for measuring the fluid levels".
109:
6572:
4542:
3111:, and who ended up showing acute oxidative protein damage, DNA damage, cardiac troponin T carbonylation, and long-term
2109:
5217:"Bremsstrahlung radiation" is "braking radiation", but "acceleration" is being used here in the specific sense of the
2486:, is stopped by an aluminium plate, but gamma radiation requires shielding by dense material such as lead or concrete.
81:
6734:
6729:
5454:
5202:
5169:
5142:
5094:
2712:
2543:
2458:
128:
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2525:
1489:
The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nucleus typically requires only 10 seconds. Gamma decay may also follow
6638:
3037:
can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also
1189:, which produce gamma rays from electron action upon the nucleus. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include
584:
972:
5974:
3788:
or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus
3764:
treatment in cancer often have higher energy (4 to 25 MeV) than do most classical gamma rays produced by nuclear
2950:
1348:
776:
88:
5403:
2736:
4088:
2892:
2690:
2521:
2384:. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a long duration
2176:
481:
66:
17:
2994:
from many foods and the prevention of the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor.
2839:
of the absorbing material, which is why very dense materials like lead are only modestly better shields, on a
6704:
3705:
3233:
2976:
1343:
This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and time, from their emission in the jet of a distant
1010:
3644:
deposited in tissue rather than the ionisation of air, and replacement radiometric units and quantities for
3142:
An acute full-body equivalent single exposure dose of 1 Sv (1000 mSv), or 1 Gy, will cause mild symptoms of
1434:
Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay, which normally occurs after other forms of decay occur, such as
1290:, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from
1220:, gamma rays are conventionally defined as having photon energies above 100 keV and are the subject of
3848:
3132:
95:
3161:). (Doses much larger than this may, however, be delivered to selected parts of the body in the course of
1537:
intermediate metastable excited state(s) of the nuclei. Metastable states are often characterized by high
1521:
6460:
5569:
3858:
3757:
2915:
2234:
2097:
1372:
1186:
794:
764:
265:
5295:
4798:"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body"
4286:
3598:
3560:
3521:
3492:
6692:
6547:
6520:
5967:
5564:
4009:
3853:
3843:
3541:
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2616:
2517:
2325:
2255:
1168:
841:
391:
62:
31:
4570:"Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses"
3083:
of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen. These effects are compared to the physical quantity
3013:
in imaging techniques. A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in a
2356:, or bremsstrahlung, are the likely source of the gamma rays from those objects. It is thought that a
1311:
from crystal surfaces, proving that they were electromagnetic radiation. Rutherford and his co-worker
1171:
in the 100–1000 teraelectronvolt (TeV) range have been observed from astronomical sources such as the
77:
6577:
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1263:
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2920:
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6515:
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2080:), the gamma emission spectrum is complex, revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels exist.
1213:
1003:
990:
722:
426:
5390:
5012:"Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: retrospective cohort study in 15 countries"
2254:
emit across the entire EM spectrum, including γ-rays. The first confident observation occurred in
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NASA guide to electromagnetic spectrum showing overlap of frequency between X-rays and gamma rays
55:
2572:) and high density, which contribute to the total stopping power. Because of this, a lead (high
2279:
Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the
6749:
6696:
6607:
6281:
6128:
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2564:, which can be shielded by thin aluminium. Gamma rays are best absorbed by materials with high
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386:
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3100:
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2352:. High energy electrons produced by the quasar, and subjected to inverse Compton scattering,
2192:
2141:
1764:
1386:
1140:; in 1900, he had already named two less penetrating types of decay radiation (discovered by
896:
781:
673:
5224:
5186:
5134:
5126:
4310:
3942:
3904:"Sur la réflexion et la réfraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons déviables du radium"
2986:. Applications of this include the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative to
1544:
An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to any
836:
6557:
6445:
6402:
6352:
6123:
6113:
5874:
5869:
5366:
5269:
4709:
4644:
4581:
4540:
4504:
4461:
4379:
4252:
4217:
4178:
4046:
3812:, which emits an "afterglow" of gamma-ray photons from the decay of newly made radioactive
3645:
3632:
effect of gamma and X-rays in dry air is called the exposure, for which a legacy unit, the
2818:
2349:
2093:
1549:
1255:
906:
881:
698:
4142:
Radiation protection considerations in the design of the LHC, CERN's Large Hadron Collider
2348:
and closer active galaxies are thought to have a gamma ray production source similar to a
8:
6724:
6674:
6552:
6465:
6177:
6068:
6048:
6043:
5909:
5904:
5879:
5859:
5610:
4516:
3881:, however, can produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and much longer half-life.
3878:
3158:
2997:
Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of
2957:
2872:
2419:
gamma-ray bursts produce a total energy output of about 10 joules (as much energy as the
2333:
2162:
1670:
1553:
1529:
1398:
1307:
deflected) by a magnetic field, another property making them unlike alpha and beta rays.
1221:
1198:
1109:
801:
680:
574:
517:
510:
500:
441:
436:
270:
164:
6633:
5273:
4713:
4648:
4585:
4508:
4465:
4383:
4256:
4221:
4182:
4050:
2924:
6744:
6669:
6490:
6470:
6450:
6334:
6242:
5899:
5747:
5720:
5630:
5615:
5351:
5225:
4987:
4960:
4911:
4886:
4861:
4822:
4797:
4740:
4697:
4673:
4632:
4520:
4477:
4411:
4369:
4268:
4194:
4168:
4080:
3327:
3151:
3018:
2936:
2905:
2831:
2425:
2219:
2188:
2180:
2145:
2105:
1514:
1413:
1382:
1251:
1232:
1164:
744:
739:
554:
102:
5036:
5011:
4604:
4569:
4473:
4229:
3139:
of the stomach is much higher, approximately 50 mSv (14 times the annual background).
1517:. Formation of fluorescent gamma rays are a rapid subtype of radioactive gamma decay.
1258:
challenge, requiring shielding made from dense materials such as lead or concrete. On
6562:
6440:
6377:
6342:
6058:
6028:
5998:
5755:
5751:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5236:
5198:
5187:
5165:
5138:
5127:
5090:
5041:
4992:
4916:
4827:
4745:
4727:
4678:
4660:
4609:
4548:
4524:
4481:
4434:
4403:
4395:
4360:
4159:
4072:
3954:
3943:
3299:
3241:
3162:
2727:
2317:
2167:
A few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from gamma decay (see discussion of
1300:
1275:
1129:
1065:
916:
911:
871:
749:
488:
476:
459:
431:
401:
242:
5378:
4961:"Potential for a pluripotent adult stem cell treatment for acute radiation sickness"
4415:
4198:
4084:
1355:
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring
6567:
6088:
6053:
6038:
5990:
5889:
5660:
5635:
5503:
5277:
5031:
5023:
4982:
4972:
4906:
4898:
4817:
4809:
4735:
4717:
4668:
4652:
4599:
4589:
4544:
The 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection
4512:
4469:
4387:
4272:
4260:
4225:
4186:
4062:
4054:
3988:
3784:-type radiation), while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by means of other
3769:
3010:
2972:
industries. Typically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation source.
2612:
2593:
to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by
2586:
2441:
2117:
2101:
2089:
1490:
1483:
1368:
1315:
measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from radium, and found they were similar to
1224:, while radiation below 100 keV is classified as X-rays and is the subject of
936:
926:
856:
609:
527:
495:
315:
247:
27:
Energetic electromagnetic radiation arising from radioactive decay of atomic nuclei
4334:
4058:
6679:
6664:
6480:
6392:
6382:
6234:
6198:
6093:
6063:
5938:
5851:
5693:
5625:
5430:
5423:
5407:
5385:
4722:
3661:
3637:
3633:
3473:
3360:
2847:
2805:
the number of atoms per cm of the material (atomic density) and σ the absorption
2405:
2398:
2385:
2309:
2112:, the usual products are two gamma ray photons. If the annihilating electron and
1510:
1498:
1494:
1394:
1390:
1295:
1225:
1194:
1190:
1141:
921:
901:
876:
806:
693:
621:
567:
532:
192:
171:
5281:
5027:
4541:
Valentin, J.; International Commission on Radiological Protection, eds. (2007).
2979:(CSI). These machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers per hour.
1589:
1266:
protects life from most types of lethal cosmic radiation other than gamma rays.
6527:
6485:
6475:
6397:
6387:
6357:
6219:
6203:
5884:
5668:
5255:
4574:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3785:
3781:
3773:
3741:
3112:
3030:
3027:
2941:
2852:
2557:
2475:
2467:
2377:
2321:
2268:
2238:
2184:
1525:
1502:
1443:
1429:
1406:
1377:
1363:, and also as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric interactions with
1312:
1206:
1145:
1069:
977:
831:
826:
705:
638:
446:
381:
358:
345:
332:
232:
210:
4429:
Domínguez, Alberto; et al. (2015-06-01). "All the Light There Ever Was".
4190:
3992:
3823:
2576:) shield is 20–30% better as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another low-
6718:
6602:
6362:
6347:
6108:
6023:
5894:
5831:
5812:
5716:
5650:
5645:
5640:
4731:
4664:
4438:
4399:
3977:"The magnetic and electric deviation of the easily absorbed rays from radium"
3745:
3713:
3657:
3396:
3084:
3076:
2836:
2823:
2565:
2561:
2150:
2140:
also decay electromagnetically. High energy physics experiments, such as the
1952:
1932:
1618:
1463:
1283:
1160:
1149:
1105:
956:
951:
946:
941:
891:
549:
522:
366:
305:
258:
237:
5522:
4594:
4391:
4067:
2982:
Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called
2956:
Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of
2463:
2336:, are another relatively long-lived star-powered source of gamma radiation.
6582:
6542:
6407:
6182:
5770:
5765:
5743:
5738:
5446:
5045:
4996:
4920:
4831:
4813:
4749:
4682:
4613:
4407:
4076:
3838:
3793:
3270:
3147:
3135:/CT scan can deliver 14 to 32 mSv depending on the protocol. The dose from
3034:
2911:
2888:
2876:
2589:
or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1 cm (0.4 inch) of
2373:
2230:
1821:
1647:
1538:
1506:
1360:
1356:
1287:
1217:
1156:
886:
861:
846:
591:
539:
396:
5395:
5354:
was created from a revision of this article dated 16 August 2019
4977:
4140:
3712:
bombardment of its surface. The Sun, which has no similar surface of high
2812:
As it passes through matter, gamma radiation ionizes via three processes:
6324:
6008:
5943:
5620:
5602:
5498:
4902:
3789:
3765:
3761:
3738:
3722:
3653:
3406:
3368:
3136:
3128:
3108:
3088:
3002:
2983:
2627:
would result in much higher radiation levels than when kept under water.
2314:
2251:
2044:
1564:
1435:
1175:
1155:
Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few kilo
851:
544:
466:
319:
4633:"Gamma radiation at a human relevant low dose rate is genotoxic in mice"
4212:
Smith, Joseph; David M. Smith (August 2012). "Deadly Rays From Clouds".
3768:. One of the most common gamma ray emitting isotopes used in diagnostic
2891:) gamma rays arriving from far-distant quasars are used to estimate the
6372:
6319:
6159:
6013:
5924:
5592:
5587:
5541:
5518:
3734:
3730:
3709:
3672:
3629:
3454:
3184:
The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units:
3063:
2975:
In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the
2965:
2865:
2797:
where x is the thickness of the material from the incident surface, μ=
2433:
2409:
2381:
1439:
1367:
particles. Natural terrestrial sources that produce gamma rays include
1364:
1182:
1172:
1073:
821:
811:
668:
648:
471:
341:
4959:
Rodgerson, D.O.; Reidenberg, B.E.; Harris, A.g.; Pecora, A.L. (2012).
4656:
2581:
but provide no protection from gamma radiation from external sources.
6659:
6532:
6314:
6304:
6265:
6154:
6146:
6138:
6103:
5933:
5780:
5534:
5513:
4264:
3817:
3813:
3718:
3251:
3042:
2987:
2437:
2369:
2116:
are at rest, each of the resulting gamma rays has an energy of ~ 511
1856:
1830:
1712:
1686:
1641:
1622:
1599:
1533:
1121:
1117:
1081:
866:
816:
643:
631:
626:
30:
This article is about the term's use in physics. For other uses, see
5959:
5435:
5400:
5257:
5184:
3820:. Most gamma rays in astronomy, however, arise by other mechanisms.
2664:
2495:
44:
6309:
6294:
5948:
5708:
5508:
5441:
5124:
4173:
3809:
3341:
3169:
3066:
health risk, which for radiation dose assessment is defined as the
3022:
3014:
2991:
2620:
2602:
2483:
2479:
2329:
2113:
1738:
1545:
1239:
4935:"Radiation Exposure - Dose and Dose Rate (the Gray & Sievert)"
4374:
2364:
2304:
within the Milky Way. Sources from the rest of the sky are mostly
1185:
particles. However, there are other rare natural sources, such as
200:
6587:
5817:
5803:
4155:
3665:
3551:
3483:
3337:
3099:
When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell may be able to
3054:
3001:, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure called
2598:
2168:
1113:
328:
301:
293:
225:
215:
5157:
5841:
5836:
5826:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5759:
5688:
5258:"Spontaneous Ultraviolet Emission from Uranium/Thorium Samples"
5060:"CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon"
4958:
4287:"NASA - In a Flash NASA Helps Solve 35-year-old Cosmic Mystery"
3641:
2998:
2471:
2345:
2305:
2301:
2288:
2284:
2133:
1673:) by emitting gamma rays in succession of 1.17 MeV followed by
1344:
1320:
1291:
1243:
1137:
1125:
1101:
220:
181:
5256:
Shaw, R. W.; Young, J. P.; Cooper, S. P.; Webb, O. F. (1999).
4032:"Discovery of Intense Gamma-Ray Flashes of Atmospheric Origin"
3708:, in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by
3648:
have been defined and developed from 1953 onwards. These are:
2650:
2641:
2144:, accordingly employ substantial radiation shielding. Because
146:
6412:
6299:
5683:
5579:
5493:
4695:
3696:
3414:
3038:
2961:
2137:
1442:
decay. A radioactive nucleus can decay by the emission of an
1316:
1286:
nucleus emits a gamma ray almost immediately upon formation.
1259:
1247:
1077:
4629:
5678:
5673:
5420:– Contains information on gamma-ray energies from isotopes.
3701:
2940:
Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with a
2606:
2590:
2280:
2129:
1402:
1202:
5185:
Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh (2005).
4764:"Radioactivity in food and the environment (RIFE) reports"
4315:
Iowa State University Center for Nondestructive Evaluation
1212:
The energy ranges of gamma rays and X-rays overlap in the
5698:
5125:
Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963).
4335:"Answer to Question #8929 Submitted to "Ask the Experts""
4139:
Höfert, Manfred; Huhtinen, M; et al. (17 Oct 1996).
4029:
3684:
3676:
3428:
2420:
1236:
2287:
while those above and below the plane are thought to be
4795:
3725:). Gamma rays typically have higher energy than X-rays.
2953:, provide our only view of the universe in gamma rays.
2283:
spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are
1076:
electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of
4796:
Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).
4242:
2730:
of intensity with distance from the incident surface:
2233:
can produce a brief pulse of gamma radiation called a
4887:"Ionizing radiation: the good, the bad, and the ugly"
2739:
2459:
Radiation protection § Electromagnetic radiation
5109:
4138:
3179:
3009:
Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in
1274:
The first gamma ray source to be discovered was the
1120:, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying
4211:
3756:For example, modern high-energy X-rays produced by
3072:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
2474:nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper.
69:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
6264:
2786:
1423:
2990:or chemical means), the removal of decay-causing
2801:σ is the absorption coefficient, measured in cm,
6716:
5158:L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003).
3949:. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier BV. pp.
3940:
3687:unit of equivalent dose, used mainly in the USA.
3636:, was used from 1928. This has been replaced by
1136:based on their relatively strong penetration of
1092:) and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (
5442:Health Physics Society Public Education Website
4567:
2132:most often decays into two photons. Many other
1235:and are thus hazardous to life. They can cause
5112:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed
5082:
2404:sources discussed above. By contrast, "short"
2372:. Artist's illustration showing the life of a
2339:
6250:
5975:
5462:
5379:Basic reference on several types of radiation
4433:. Vol. 312, no. 6. pp. 38–43.
4216:. Vol. 307, no. 2. pp. 55–59.
4149:
3200:
3127:By comparison, the radiation dose from chest
2560:, which can be stopped by paper or skin, and
2088:Gamma rays are produced in many processes of
1011:
5476:
3094:
3070:of cancer induction and genetic damage. The
2225:
2092:. Typically, gamma rays are the products of
1677:. This path is followed 99.88% of the time:
152:Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray (
4536:
4534:
4023:
3737:than the radiation (gamma rays) emitted by
2693:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2605:, or 9 cm (3.5 inches) of packed
2524:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2344:More powerful gamma rays from very distant
6257:
6243:
5982:
5968:
5538:
5469:
5455:
4855:"PET/CT total radiation dose calculations"
3974:
3691:
3207:
3193:
2875:, or in some cases, even nuclear fission (
2787:{\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-\mu x}}
1108:of any form of electromagnetic radiation.
1018:
1004:
5035:
4986:
4976:
4910:
4821:
4739:
4721:
4672:
4603:
4593:
4451:
4428:
4373:
4172:
4066:
2713:Learn how and when to remove this message
2544:Learn how and when to remove this message
1152:in ascending order of penetrating power.
129:Learn how and when to remove this message
5362:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
5345:
5078:
5076:
4891:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
4531:
4494:
4112:
3822:
3695:
3174:atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
2935:
2649:
2640:
2462:
2452:
2363:
2295:
2274:
2197:
1588:
1563:
1330:
180:
5223:Serway, Raymond A; et al. (2009).
5114:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850.
3973:Rutherford named γ rays on page 177 of
3945:Radioactivity: introduction and history
3917:
3901:
2149:rays; for example, a photon having the
1269:
14:
6717:
6598:Wireless electronic devices and health
5296:"Gamma-Ray Telescopes & Detectors"
5222:
5129:The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1
5009:
4965:World Journal of Experimental Medicine
4952:
4802:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
4561:
4547:. ICRP publication. Oxford: Elsevier.
3188:Ionizing radiation related quantities
2944:(vehicle and container imaging system)
2006:) while in other cases, such as with (
1930:Another example is the alpha decay of
1420:, and transported in heavy shielding.
6238:
5989:
5963:
5450:
5424:Mapping soils with airborne detectors
5073:
4625:
4623:
4004:
4002:
2899:
2843:basis, than are less dense materials.
2630:
2601:rock, 6 cm (2.5 inches) of
2213:
6624:List of civilian radiation accidents
6593:Wireless device radiation and health
6588:Biological dose units and quantities
6538:Electromagnetic radiation and health
5249:
5231:. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole. p.
4884:
4357:
3877:It is now understood that a nuclear
3864:
2960:, and is often used to change white
2882:
2691:adding citations to reliable sources
2658:
2522:adding citations to reliable sources
2489:
1593:Gamma emission spectrum of cobalt-60
67:adding citations to reliable sources
38:
5062:. Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2005-08-01
2615:is sometimes used for shielding in
2392:
2332:), thought to produce astronomical
2083:
24:
6573:Radioactivity in the life sciences
5521:
5332:
5161:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis
4620:
3999:
3118:
2827:less important at higher energies.
25:
6761:
5418:The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search
5313:
4474:10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.017
4230:10.1038/scientificamerican0812-54
4121:. FAMU-FSU College of Engineering
3941:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007).
3180:Units of measurement and exposure
3062:Low levels of gamma rays cause a
3048:
2108:interaction). For example, in an
5436:The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA
5344:
5221:of an electron from its course:
5086:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology
5083:Dendy, P. P.; B. Heaton (1999).
4568:Rothkamm, K; Löbrich, M (2003).
3583:
3506:
3422:
3354:
3264:
2887:High-energy (from 80 GeV to ~10
2663:
2494:
2156:
1669:decays to the ground state (see
1559:
985:
984:
971:
199:
163:
145:
43:
5438:with filter on gamma-ray energy
5288:
5211:
5178:
5151:
5133:. US: Addison-Wesley. pp.
5118:
5103:
5052:
5003:
4927:
4878:
4847:
4838:
4789:
4780:
4756:
4689:
4488:
4445:
4422:
4351:
4327:
4303:
4279:
4236:
4205:
4119:Quantum Mechanics for Engineers
3733:almost invariably had a longer
3679:unit for absorbed dose and the
2951:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
2931:
2245:
1424:Radioactive decay (gamma decay)
1193:, such as that which occurs in
54:needs additional citations for
5164:. Academic Press. p. 58.
4517:10.1088/1748-0221/13/02/P02028
4132:
4106:
3967:
3934:
3920:"Sur le rayonnement du radium"
3895:
3871:
2893:extragalactic background light
2749:
2743:
2261:
2177:electron-positron annihilation
2110:electron–positron annihilation
1528:, and their decays are termed
1250:, and at high doses burns and
1072:. It consists of the shortest
170:Gamma rays are emitted during
13:
1:
5110:Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961).
5089:. US: CRC Press. p. 12.
4059:10.1126/science.264.5163.1313
3888:
3706:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
2977:Container Security Initiative
2447:
1373:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
1187:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
4723:10.1371/journal.pone.0233967
3849:Gaseous ionization detectors
3017:a radiolabeled sugar called
2098:electromagnetic interactions
2096:systems which decay through
1568:Radioactive decay scheme of
1282:. In this type of decay, an
1060:), is a penetrating form of
7:
6461:Cosmic background radiation
5570:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray
5282:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.1109
5028:10.1136/bmj.38499.599861.E0
4012:. Galileo.phys.virginia.edu
3859:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray
3832:
2646:dominates at high energies.
2340:Quasars and active galaxies
2235:terrestrial gamma-ray flash
1681:
1644:emission of an electron of
1351:Large Area Telescope (LAT).
1169:Very-high-energy gamma rays
765:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
6766:
6690:
6548:Lasers and aviation safety
5565:Very-high-energy gamma ray
4497:Journal of Instrumentation
4115:"14.20 Draft: Gamma Decay"
3854:Very-high-energy gamma ray
3844:Galactic Center GeV excess
3052:
2903:
2634:
2617:portable gamma ray sources
2456:
2396:
2326:Inverse Compton scattering
2313:of high-energy photons in
2160:
1427:
1326:
32:Gamma ray (disambiguation)
29:
6688:
6652:
6616:
6578:Radioactive contamination
6503:
6431:Electromagnetic radiation
6421:
6333:
6280:
6273:
6212:
6191:
6168:
6077:
5997:
5923:
5850:
5779:
5707:
5659:
5601:
5578:
5555:
5484:
5010:Cardis, E (9 July 2005).
4191:10.1103/PhysRevX.7.041003
3993:10.1080/14786440309462912
3721:-type mechanisms, during
3540:
3472:
3395:
3326:
3240:
3095:Effects and body response
2226:Terrestrial thunderstorms
1418:radioactive contamination
1062:electromagnetic radiation
6735:IARC Group 1 carcinogens
6730:Electromagnetic spectrum
6691:See also the categories
6629:1996 Costa Rica accident
6290:Acoustic radiation force
5478:Electromagnetic spectrum
3656:(Gy), is the SI unit of
3144:acute radiation sickness
1214:electromagnetic spectrum
1084:above 30 exahertz (
156:) from an atomic nucleus
6603:Radiation heat-transfer
6456:Gravitational radiation
6034:Double electron capture
5262:Physical Review Letters
4595:10.1073/pnas.0830918100
4392:10.1126/science.1157087
3975:Rutherford, E. (1903).
3692:Distinction from X-rays
2637:Gamma ray cross section
2358:supermassive black hole
2128:. Similarly, a neutral
276:Interacting boson model
6644:1990 Zaragoza accident
6639:1984 Moroccan accident
6608:Linear energy transfer
6282:Non-ionizing radiation
5526:
5340:
5320:Listen to this article
4885:Ryan JL (March 2012).
4814:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300
4339:Health Physics Society
3981:Philosophical Magazine
3829:
3726:
3590:röntgen equivalent man
3513:röntgen equivalent man
3079:effects, which is the
2945:
2921:Mössbauer spectroscopy
2856:end of the positron's
2788:
2656:
2647:
2487:
2389:
2292:
2210:
2153:would be a gamma ray.
1594:
1586:
1352:
186:
174:in nuclear explosions.
6634:1987 Goiânia accident
6436:Synchrotron radiation
6426:Earth's energy budget
6408:Radioactive materials
6403:Particle accelerators
5525:
5401:Radiation information
5339:
5189:Astroparticle Physics
4978:10.5493/wjem.v2.i3.37
3826:
3699:
3087:measured by the unit
2939:
2789:
2653:
2644:
2466:
2453:Penetration of matter
2430:synchrotron radiation
2367:
2354:synchrotron radiation
2296:Pulsars and magnetars
2278:
2208:
2193:synchrotron radiation
2142:Large Hadron Collider
1592:
1567:
1401:experiments, such as
1387:synchrotron radiation
1342:
1201:experiments, such as
1132:named this radiation
663:High-energy processes
361:– equal all the above
259:Models of the nucleus
184:
6705:Radiation protection
6558:Radiation protection
6446:Black-body radiation
6353:Background radiation
6268:(physics and health)
5371:More spoken articles
5193:. Springer. p.
4903:10.1038/jid.2011.411
4113:van Dommelen, Leon.
4010:"Rays and Particles"
3918:Villard, P. (1900).
3902:Villard, P. (1900).
3646:radiation protection
2958:semi-precious stones
2819:photoelectric effect
2737:
2728:exponential decrease
2687:improve this section
2518:improve this section
2350:particle accelerator
2334:soft gamma repeaters
2171:), but most do not.
1550:photoelectric effect
1530:isomeric transitions
1393:, such as occurs in
1347:to their arrival in
1270:History of discovery
1256:radiation protection
699:nuclear astrophysics
63:improve this article
6675:Radiation hardening
6617:Radiation incidents
6553:Medical radiography
6512:Radiation syndrome
6466:Cherenkov radiation
6178:Photodisintegration
6099:Proton–proton chain
6069:Spontaneous fission
6049:Isomeric transition
6044:Internal conversion
5611:Extreme ultraviolet
5391:Radiation Q & A
5274:1999PhRvL..82.1109S
4897:(3 Pt 2): 985–993.
4714:2020PLoSO..1533967R
4649:2016NatSR...632977G
4586:2003PNAS..100.5057R
4509:2018JInst..13P2028F
4466:2019Meas..138..157B
4431:Scientific American
4384:2008Sci...320.1752M
4368:(5884): 1752–1754.
4257:1973Natur.241..333C
4222:2012SciAm.307b..54D
4214:Scientific American
4183:2017PhRvX...7d1003G
4051:1994STIN...9611316F
4045:(5163): 1313–1316.
3879:isomeric transition
3758:linear accelerators
3628:The measure of the
3214:
3159:radiation poisoning
2873:photodisintegration
2163:Gamma-ray astronomy
2146:subatomic particles
2120:and frequency of ~
1671:nuclear shell model
1651:. Then the excited
1554:internal conversion
1532:. Such nuclei have
1399:high energy physics
1222:gamma-ray astronomy
1199:high energy physics
681:Photodisintegration
604:Capturing processes
518:Spontaneous fission
511:Internal conversion
442:Valley of stability
437:Island of stability
271:Nuclear shell model
6670:Radioactive source
6491:Radiation exposure
6471:Askaryan radiation
6451:Particle radiation
6335:Ionizing radiation
5616:Vacuum ultraviolet
5527:
5429:2010-11-11 at the
5406:2010-06-11 at the
5384:2018-04-25 at the
5341:
4637:Scientific Reports
4311:"Half-Value Layer"
3830:
3727:
3683:is the deprecated
3675:is the deprecated
3187:
3101:repair the damaged
3019:fluorodeoxyglucose
2946:
2906:Gamma spectroscopy
2900:Gamma spectroscopy
2832:Compton scattering
2784:
2657:
2648:
2631:Matter interaction
2488:
2426:Compton scattering
2390:
2293:
2250:The most effusive
2220:radiative trapping
2214:Laboratory sources
2211:
2189:Compton scattering
2181:neutral pion decay
1595:
1587:
1515:gamma spectroscopy
1509:, form a topic in
1414:radioactive source
1403:neutral pion decay
1383:Compton scattering
1353:
1252:radiation sickness
1233:ionizing radiation
1203:neutral pion decay
1165:gamma spectroscopy
978:Physics portal
772:Quark–gluon plasma
555:Radiogenic nuclide
187:
6712:
6711:
6693:Radiation effects
6563:Radiation therapy
6499:
6498:
6441:Thermal radiation
6378:Neutron radiation
6343:Radioactive decay
6232:
6231:
6228:
6227:
6059:Positron emission
6029:Double beta decay
5991:Nuclear processes
5957:
5956:
5661:Visible (optical)
5337:
5242:978-0-03-023798-0
4657:10.1038/srep32977
4554:978-0-7020-3048-2
4251:(5388): 333–335.
4160:Physical Review X
4094:on March 10, 2012
3960:978-0-444-52715-8
3865:Explanatory notes
3746:energy of photons
3626:
3625:
3597:100 erg⋅g ×
3520:100 erg⋅g ×
3163:radiation therapy
2883:Light interaction
2723:
2722:
2715:
2554:
2553:
2546:
2318:radiation therapy
2206:
1926:
1925:
1491:nuclear reactions
1369:lightning strikes
1340:
1301:Ernest Rutherford
1276:radioactive decay
1130:Ernest Rutherford
1104:have the highest
1066:radioactive decay
1064:arising from the
1028:
1027:
714:
460:Radioactive decay
416:Nuclear stability
243:Nuclear structure
139:
138:
131:
113:
16:(Redirected from
6757:
6653:Related articles
6568:Radiation damage
6393:Nuclear reactors
6278:
6277:
6259:
6252:
6245:
6236:
6235:
6189:
6188:
6089:Deuterium fusion
6054:Neutron emission
6039:Electron capture
5984:
5977:
5970:
5961:
5960:
5548:
5546:
5539:
5532:
5471:
5464:
5457:
5448:
5447:
5413:Gamma-ray bursts
5396:GCSE information
5361:
5359:
5348:
5347:
5338:
5328:
5326:
5321:
5307:
5306:
5304:
5303:
5292:
5286:
5285:
5268:(6): 1109–1111.
5253:
5247:
5246:
5230:
5215:
5209:
5208:
5192:
5182:
5176:
5175:
5155:
5149:
5148:
5132:
5122:
5116:
5115:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5080:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5067:
5056:
5050:
5049:
5039:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4990:
4980:
4956:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4946:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4914:
4882:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4872:
4866:
4860:. Archived from
4859:
4851:
4845:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4825:
4793:
4787:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4774:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4743:
4725:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4676:
4627:
4618:
4617:
4607:
4597:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4538:
4529:
4528:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4426:
4420:
4419:
4377:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4321:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4265:10.1038/241333a0
4240:
4234:
4233:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4176:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4087:. Archived from
4070:
4068:2060/19960001309
4036:
4027:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4006:
3997:
3996:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3948:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3915:
3899:
3882:
3875:
3770:nuclear medicine
3664:measured by the
3449:
3447:
3391:
3389:
3378:
3376:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3293:
3284:
3282:
3215:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3186:
3011:nuclear medicine
2925:Mössbauer effect
2793:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2764:
2763:
2718:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2698:
2667:
2659:
2613:Depleted uranium
2596:
2587:half-value layer
2549:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2529:
2498:
2490:
2478:, consisting of
2442:visible universe
2406:gamma-ray bursts
2393:Gamma-ray bursts
2207:
2127:
2125:
2090:particle physics
2084:Particle physics
2079:
2078:
2077:
2070:
2069:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2051:
2050:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2013:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1995:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1978:
1977:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1959:
1958:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1938:
1922:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1901:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1863:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1838:
1837:
1824:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1801:
1800:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1745:
1744:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1720:
1719:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1694:
1693:
1682:
1676:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1659:
1658:
1650:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1628:
1616:
1614:
1613:
1606:
1605:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1575:
1484:daughter nucleus
1480:
1479:
1478:
1471:
1470:
1460:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1450:
1395:nuclear reactors
1341:
1195:nuclear reactors
1099:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1047:
1034:, also known as
1020:
1013:
1006:
993:
988:
987:
980:
976:
975:
852:Skłodowska-Curie
712:
528:Neutron emission
296:' classification
248:Nuclear reaction
203:
189:
188:
167:
149:
134:
127:
123:
120:
114:
112:
71:
47:
39:
21:
6765:
6764:
6760:
6759:
6758:
6756:
6755:
6754:
6740:Nuclear physics
6715:
6714:
6713:
6708:
6707:
6684:
6680:Havana syndrome
6665:Nuclear physics
6648:
6612:
6505:
6495:
6481:Unruh radiation
6417:
6398:Nuclear weapons
6383:Nuclear fission
6329:
6269:
6263:
6233:
6224:
6208:
6199:Neutron capture
6187:
6170:
6164:
6081:nucleosynthesis
6080:
6073:
6064:Proton emission
6019:Gamma radiation
6000:
5993:
5988:
5958:
5953:
5919:
5846:
5821:
5807:
5775:
5703:
5655:
5597:
5574:
5551:
5544:
5537:
5530:
5528:
5480:
5475:
5431:Wayback Machine
5408:Wayback Machine
5386:Wayback Machine
5375:
5374:
5363:
5357:
5355:
5352:This audio file
5349:
5342:
5333:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5319:
5316:
5311:
5310:
5301:
5299:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5254:
5250:
5243:
5227:College Physics
5216:
5212:
5205:
5183:
5179:
5172:
5156:
5152:
5145:
5123:
5119:
5108:
5104:
5097:
5081:
5074:
5065:
5063:
5058:
5057:
5053:
5008:
5004:
4957:
4953:
4944:
4942:
4933:
4932:
4928:
4883:
4879:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4808:(45): 603–611.
4794:
4790:
4785:
4781:
4772:
4770:
4762:
4761:
4757:
4708:(6): e0233967.
4694:
4690:
4628:
4621:
4566:
4562:
4555:
4539:
4532:
4493:
4489:
4450:
4446:
4427:
4423:
4356:
4352:
4343:
4341:
4333:
4332:
4328:
4319:
4317:
4309:
4308:
4304:
4295:
4293:
4285:
4284:
4280:
4241:
4237:
4210:
4206:
4154:
4150:
4137:
4133:
4124:
4122:
4111:
4107:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4034:
4028:
4024:
4015:
4013:
4008:
4007:
4000:
3987:(26): 177–187.
3972:
3968:
3961:
3939:
3935:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3885:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3835:
3786:particle decays
3704:as seen by the
3694:
3662:equivalent dose
3615:
3606:
3577:
3568:
3529:
3500:
3474:Equivalent dose
3462:100 erg⋅g
3445:
3443:
3387:
3385:
3374:
3372:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3291:
3280:
3278:
3213:
3182:
3155:
3121:
3119:Risk assessment
3097:
3057:
3051:
2934:
2908:
2902:
2885:
2848:Pair production
2772:
2768:
2759:
2755:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2719:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2684:
2668:
2639:
2633:
2594:
2558:alpha particles
2550:
2539:
2533:
2530:
2515:
2499:
2468:Alpha radiation
2461:
2455:
2450:
2401:
2399:Gamma-ray burst
2395:
2386:gamma-ray burst
2342:
2310:gamma-ray burst
2298:
2264:
2248:
2228:
2216:
2198:
2165:
2159:
2123:
2121:
2100:(rather than a
2086:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1920:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1819:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1700:
1698:
1697:
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1692:
1689:
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1654:
1653:
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1633:
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1631:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1612:
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1608:
1604:
1602:
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1600:
1598:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1526:nuclear isomers
1511:nuclear physics
1499:nuclear fission
1495:neutron capture
1477:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1432:
1426:
1331:
1329:
1296:Henri Becquerel
1278:process called
1272:
1231:Gamma rays are
1226:X-ray astronomy
1142:Henri Becquerel
1095:
1093:
1087:
1085:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1039:
1036:gamma radiation
1024:
983:
970:
969:
962:
961:
797:
787:
786:
767:
757:
756:
701:
697:
694:Nucleosynthesis
686:
685:
664:
656:
655:
605:
597:
596:
570:
568:Nuclear fission
560:
559:
533:Proton emission
462:
452:
451:
417:
409:
408:
310:
297:
286:
285:
261:
193:Nuclear physics
179:
178:
177:
176:
175:
172:nuclear fission
168:
159:
158:
157:
150:
135:
124:
118:
115:
72:
70:
60:
48:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6763:
6753:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6710:
6709:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6656:
6654:
6650:
6649:
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6528:Health physics
6525:
6524:
6523:
6518:
6509:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6497:
6496:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6486:Dark radiation
6483:
6478:
6476:Bremsstrahlung
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6422:
6419:
6418:
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6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6388:Nuclear fusion
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6358:Alpha particle
6355:
6350:
6345:
6339:
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6331:
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6220:(n-p) reaction
6216:
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6209:
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6204:Proton capture
6201:
6195:
6193:
6186:
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6180:
6174:
6172:
6166:
6165:
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6162:
6157:
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5314:External links
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5022:(7508): 77–0.
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3908:Comptes rendus
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3782:bremsstrahlung
3774:technetium-99m
3693:
3690:
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3669:
3624:
3623:
3622:0.010 Sv
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3579:
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3113:cardiomyopathy
3096:
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3049:Health effects
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3031:technetium-99m
3028:nuclear isomer
2933:
2930:
2904:Main article:
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2853:electric field
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2566:atomic numbers
2562:beta particles
2552:
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2502:
2500:
2493:
2476:Beta radiation
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2415:The so-called
2394:
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2378:nuclear fusion
2341:
2338:
2322:bremsstrahlung
2320:machines (see
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2269:bremsstrahlung
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1430:Nuclear isomer
1428:Main article:
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1407:nuclear fusion
1378:bremsstrahlung
1328:
1325:
1313:Edward Andrade
1306:
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1207:nuclear fusion
1100:), gamma ray
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6348:Cluster decay
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6024:Cluster decay
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5220:
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5206:
5204:3-540-25312-2
5200:
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5191:
5190:
5181:
5173:
5171:0-12-436603-1
5167:
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5162:
5154:
5146:
5144:0-201-02116-1
5140:
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5096:0-7503-0591-6
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4867:on 2013-01-23
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3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3825:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3743:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3714:atomic number
3711:
3707:
3703:
3698:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3658:absorbed dose
3655:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3398:
3397:Absorbed dose
3394:
3384:
3381:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3336:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3289:
3286:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3210:
3205:
3203:
3198:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3102:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3085:absorbed dose
3082:
3078:
3077:deterministic
3073:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2952:
2943:
2938:
2929:
2926:
2922:
2917:
2916:Franck–Condon
2913:
2907:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2867:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2837:atomic number
2834:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2824:photoelectron
2821:
2820:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:cross section
2804:
2800:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2717:
2714:
2706:
2703:November 2022
2696:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2672:This section
2670:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2652:
2643:
2638:
2628:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2548:
2545:
2537:
2534:November 2022
2527:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2503:This section
2501:
2497:
2492:
2491:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2417:long-duration
2413:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2231:Thunderstorms
2223:
2221:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2170:
2164:
2157:Other sources
2154:
2152:
2151:Planck energy
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2081:
2060:
1968:
1948:
1921:1.33 MeV
1919:
1916:
1911:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1810:
1791:
1788:
1783:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1684:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1675:1.33 MeV
1672:
1649:
1643:
1638:
1620:
1615:
1591:
1566:
1560:Decay schemes
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1461:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1397:, as well as
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1357:radioisotopes
1350:
1346:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1265:
1264:magnetosphere
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1161:radionuclides
1158:
1157:electronvolts
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:photon energy
1103:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1070:atomic nuclei
1067:
1063:
1057:
1037:
1033:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1002:
1001:
999:
998:
992:
982:
979:
974:
968:
967:
966:
965:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
796:
791:
790:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
766:
761:
760:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
737:
735:
734:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
715:
711:
710:
707:
704:
703:
700:
695:
690:
689:
682:
679:
675:
674:by cosmic ray
672:
671:
670:
667:
666:
660:
659:
650:
647:
645:
642:
641:
640:
637:
633:
630:
628:
625:
624:
623:
620:
616:
613:
612:
611:
608:
607:
601:
600:
593:
590:
586:
585:pair breaking
583:
582:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
569:
564:
563:
556:
553:
551:
550:Decay product
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
523:Cluster decay
521:
519:
516:
512:
509:
507:
504:
503:
502:
499:
497:
494:
490:
487:
483:
480:
479:
478:
475:
474:
473:
470:
468:
465:
464:
461:
456:
455:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
419:
413:
412:
403:
400:
399:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
379:
376:
372:
368:
367:Mirror nuclei
365:
364:
360:
357:
356:
353:
352:
349: −
348:
343:
340:
339:
336:
335:
330:
327:
326:
323:
322:
317:
314:
313:
309:
308:
303:
300:
299:
295:
290:
289:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
260:
255:
254:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
238:Nuclear force
236:
234:
231:
227:
224:
222:
219:
218:
217:
214:
212:
209:
208:
207:
206:
202:
198:
197:
194:
191:
190:
183:
173:
166:
155:
148:
133:
130:
122:
111:
108:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
80: –
79:
75:
74:Find sources:
68:
64:
58:
57:
52:This article
50:
46:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
6701:Radiobiology
6583:Radiobiology
6543:Laser safety
6367:
6183:Photofission
6147:
6139:
6018:
5556:
5529:
5488:
5300:. Retrieved
5290:
5265:
5261:
5251:
5226:
5218:
5213:
5188:
5180:
5160:
5153:
5128:
5120:
5111:
5105:
5085:
5064:. Retrieved
5054:
5019:
5015:
5005:
4971:(3): 37–44.
4968:
4964:
4954:
4943:. Retrieved
4941:. 2022-12-13
4938:
4929:
4894:
4890:
4880:
4869:. Retrieved
4862:the original
4849:
4840:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4782:
4771:. Retrieved
4767:
4758:
4705:
4701:
4691:
4643:(1): 32977.
4640:
4636:
4577:
4573:
4563:
4543:
4503:(2): 02028.
4500:
4496:
4490:
4457:
4453:
4447:
4430:
4424:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4342:. Retrieved
4338:
4329:
4318:. Retrieved
4314:
4305:
4294:. Retrieved
4291:www.nasa.gov
4290:
4281:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4213:
4207:
4164:
4158:
4151:
4141:
4134:
4123:. Retrieved
4118:
4108:
4096:. Retrieved
4089:the original
4042:
4038:
4025:
4014:. Retrieved
3984:
3980:
3969:
3944:
3936:
3930:: 1178–1179.
3927:
3923:
3914:: 1010–1012.
3911:
3907:
3897:
3873:
3839:Annihilation
3806:
3802:
3797:
3778:
3755:
3751:
3728:
3723:solar flares
3627:
3612:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3545:
3526:
3522:
3497:
3493:
3477:
3400:
3390:10 C/kg
3349:C⋅kg of air
3331:
3245:
3183:
3167:
3148:hemorrhaging
3141:
3126:
3122:
3105:
3098:
3080:
3067:
3061:
3058:
3035:gamma camera
3008:
2996:
2981:
2974:
2970:
2955:
2947:
2932:Applications
2912:spectroscopy
2909:
2886:
2877:photofission
2870:
2868:themselves.
2863:
2846:
2840:
2830:
2816:
2811:
2802:
2798:
2796:
2724:
2709:
2700:
2685:Please help
2673:
2625:
2611:
2583:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2555:
2540:
2531:
2516:Please help
2504:
2470:consists of
2416:
2414:
2402:
2374:massive star
2343:
2299:
2265:
2252:solar flares
2249:
2246:Solar flares
2229:
2217:
2173:
2166:
2136:and massive
2087:
1929:
1895:
1794:
1596:
1543:
1539:nuclear spin
1519:
1507:fluorescence
1488:
1433:
1411:
1376:
1361:potassium-40
1354:
1309:
1288:Paul Villard
1279:
1273:
1230:
1218:astrophysics
1211:
1180:
1154:
1133:
1110:Paul Villard
1041:
1035:
1031:
1029:
592:Photofission
540:Decay energy
505:
467:Alpha α
374:
370:
350:
346:
333:
320:
306:
153:
125:
119:January 2024
116:
106:
99:
92:
85:
73:
61:Please help
56:verification
53:
36:
6325:Ultraviolet
6320:Radio waves
6009:Alpha decay
5999:Radioactive
5944:Medium wave
5621:Lyman-alpha
5603:Ultraviolet
5542:wavelengths
5535:frequencies
5499:Ultraviolet
5298:. NASA GSFC
4460:: 157–161.
4454:Measurement
3828:wavelength.
3790:ultraviolet
3766:gamma decay
3762:megavoltage
3739:radioactive
3731:X-ray tubes
3294:10 Bq
3236:equivalent
3227:Derivation
3137:fluoroscopy
3129:radiography
3068:probability
3003:gamma-knife
2984:irradiation
2315:megavoltage
2262:Cosmic rays
1280:gamma decay
1176:microquasar
1128:. In 1903,
1124:emitted by
1112:, a French
1082:frequencies
897:Oppenheimer
575:Spontaneous
545:Decay chain
496:K/L capture
472:Beta β
342:Isodiaphers
266:Liquid drop
78:"Gamma ray"
6725:Gamma rays
6719:Categories
6506:and health
6504:Radiation
6373:Cosmic ray
6160:rp-process
6134:Si burning
6124:Ne burning
6094:Li burning
6014:Beta decay
5925:Wavelength
5781:Microwaves
5593:Hard X-ray
5588:Soft X-ray
5557:Gamma rays
5489:Gamma rays
5367:Audio help
5358:2019-08-16
5302:2011-11-22
5219:deflection
5066:2011-11-08
4945:2024-07-27
4871:2011-11-08
4773:2023-02-19
4344:2024-05-10
4320:2024-05-10
4296:2023-02-19
4174:1610.06404
4125:2023-02-19
4098:August 28,
4016:2013-08-27
3916:See also:
3889:References
3735:wavelength
3710:cosmic ray
3448:10 Gy
3307:10 s
3300:rutherford
3064:stochastic
3053:See also:
2988:autoclaves
2966:blue topaz
2866:ionization
2841:per weight
2635:See also:
2457:See also:
2448:Properties
2434:black hole
2410:black hole
2397:See also:
2382:black hole
2187:, inverse
2126:10 Hz
1820:1.17
1646:0.31
1642:beta decay
1617:decays to
1534:half-lifes
1522:metastable
1381:, inverse
1365:cosmic ray
1183:cosmic ray
1173:Cygnus X-3
1146:alpha rays
1134:gamma rays
1090:10 Hz
1074:wavelength
927:Strassmann
917:Rutherford
795:Scientists
750:Artificial
745:Cosmogenic
740:Primordial
736:Nuclides:
713:Processes:
669:Spallation
89:newspapers
6745:Radiation
6660:Half-life
6533:Dosimetry
6368:Gamma ray
6315:Microwave
6305:Starlight
6266:Radiation
6171:processes
6155:p-process
6129:O burning
6119:C burning
6109:α process
6104:CNO cycle
5939:Shortwave
5934:Microwave
5514:Microwave
4939:Ionactive
4732:1932-6203
4665:2045-2322
4525:125779702
4482:115945689
4439:0036-8075
4400:0036-8075
4375:0807.2822
3818:cobalt-56
3814:nickel-56
3719:cyclotron
3431:per gram
3322: Bq
3283:10 s
3252:becquerel
3218:Quantity
3043:bone scan
3023:positrons
2923:. In the
2777:μ
2774:−
2766:⋅
2674:does not
2655:dominate.
2505:does not
2484:positrons
2480:electrons
2438:hypernova
2370:hypernova
2330:magnetars
1546:electrons
1240:mutations
1150:beta rays
1122:radiation
1118:physicist
1098:10 m
1032:gamma ray
932:Świątecki
847:Pi. Curie
842:Fr. Curie
837:Ir. Curie
832:Cockcroft
807:Becquerel
728:Supernova
432:Drip line
427:p–n ratio
402:Borromean
281:Ab initio
6310:Sunlight
6295:Infrared
6213:Exchange
6150:-process
6142:-process
6114:Triple-α
5949:Longwave
5709:Infrared
5509:Infrared
5427:Archived
5404:Archived
5382:Archived
5369: ·
5046:15987704
4997:24520532
4921:22217743
4832:19776147
4750:32497067
4702:PLOS ONE
4683:27596356
4614:12679524
4416:16886668
4408:18583607
4199:55569348
4085:20848006
4077:17780850
3833:See also
3810:SN 1987A
3630:ionizing
3584:SI unit
3507:SI unit
3423:SI unit
3355:SI unit
3342:kilogram
3328:Exposure
3265:SI unit
3242:Activity
3170:leukemia
3081:severity
3015:PET scan
2992:bacteria
2621:tungsten
2603:concrete
2114:positron
1950:to form
1493:such as
1359:such as
1038:(symbol
991:Category
892:Oliphant
877:Lawrence
857:Davisson
827:Chadwick
723:Big Bang
610:electron
580:Products
501:Isomeric
392:Even/odd
369: –
344:– equal
331:– equal
329:Isotones
318:– equal
304:– equal
302:Isotopes
294:Nuclides
216:Nucleons
6521:chronic
6192:Capture
6079:Stellar
5540:longer
5533:higher
5504:Visible
5356: (
5327:minutes
5270:Bibcode
4988:3905584
4912:3779131
4823:2842777
4741:7272027
4710:Bibcode
4674:5011728
4645:Bibcode
4582:Bibcode
4505:Bibcode
4462:Bibcode
4380:Bibcode
4361:Science
4273:4172523
4253:Bibcode
4218:Bibcode
4179:Bibcode
4047:Bibcode
4039:Science
3666:sievert
3634:röntgen
3559:J⋅kg ×
3552:sievert
3491:J⋅kg ×
3484:sievert
3379:of air
3377: g
3361:röntgen
3338:coulomb
3224:Symbol
3055:Sievert
2809:in cm.
2695:removed
2680:sources
2599:granite
2526:removed
2511:sources
2346:quasars
2306:quasars
2302:pulsars
2289:quasars
2285:pulsars
2169:SN1987A
2134:hadrons
2094:neutral
1917:+
1890:+
1852:→
1816:+
1789:+
1759:+
1734:+
1708:→
1619:excited
1513:called
1391:fission
1349:Fermi's
1327:Sources
1284:excited
1191:fission
1114:chemist
1102:photons
1080:. With
947:Thomson
937:Szilárd
907:Purcell
887:Meitner
822:N. Bohr
817:A. Bohr
802:Alvarez
718:Stellar
622:neutron
506:Gamma γ
359:Isomers
316:Isobars
211:Nucleus
103:scholar
6703:, and
5842:L band
5837:S band
5832:C band
5827:X band
5813:K band
5799:Q band
5794:V band
5789:W band
5694:Orange
5689:Yellow
5669:Violet
5580:X-rays
5494:X-rays
5239:
5201:
5168:
5141:
5093:
5044:
5037:558612
5034:
4995:
4985:
4919:
4909:
4830:
4820:
4768:GOV.UK
4748:
4738:
4730:
4681:
4671:
4663:
4612:
4605:154297
4602:
4551:
4523:
4480:
4437:
4414:
4406:
4398:
4271:
4245:Nature
4197:
4083:
4075:
3957:
3798:always
3742:nuclei
3642:energy
3437:erg⋅g
3434:erg/g
3091:(Gy).
3021:emits
2999:cancer
2595:4.1 cm
2472:helium
2191:, and
2138:bosons
2106:strong
1914:
1903:γ
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1849:
1813:
1802:γ
1786:
1773:ν
1756:
1731:
1705:
1472:β
1452:α
1345:blazar
1321:photon
1317:X-rays
1305:easily
1292:radium
1262:, the
1248:tumors
1244:cancer
1197:, and
1163:using
1138:matter
1126:radium
1078:X-rays
1049:γ
989:
957:Wigner
952:Walton
942:Teller
872:Jensen
639:proton
382:Stable
105:
98:
91:
84:
76:
6516:acute
6413:X-ray
6300:Light
6169:Other
6001:decay
5927:types
5852:Radio
5748:Bands
5721:Bands
5684:Green
5519:Radio
4865:(PDF)
4858:(PDF)
4521:S2CID
4478:S2CID
4412:S2CID
4370:arXiv
4269:S2CID
4195:S2CID
4169:arXiv
4092:(PDF)
4081:S2CID
4035:(PDF)
3983:. 6.
3953:–58.
3638:kerma
3619:1971
3581:1977
3533:1971
3504:1977
3465:1953
3440:1950
3420:1974
3382:1928
3373:0.001
3352:1974
3346:C/kg
3310:1946
3287:1953
3271:curie
3262:1974
3230:Year
3221:Unit
3039:SPECT
2964:into
2962:topaz
2942:VACIS
2914:(see
2858:range
1436:alpha
1260:Earth
922:Soddy
902:Proca
882:Mayer
862:Fermi
812:Bethe
387:Magic
110:JSTOR
96:books
5822:band
5808:band
5766:LWIR
5744:MWIR
5739:SWIR
5679:Cyan
5674:Blue
5237:ISBN
5199:ISBN
5166:ISBN
5139:ISBN
5137:–5.
5091:ISBN
5042:PMID
4993:PMID
4917:PMID
4828:PMID
4746:PMID
4728:ISSN
4679:PMID
4661:ISSN
4610:PMID
4549:ISBN
4435:ISSN
4404:PMID
4396:ISSN
4100:2015
4073:PMID
3955:ISBN
3816:and
3760:for
3702:Moon
3700:The
3671:The
3654:gray
3652:The
3594:rem
3517:rem
3459:rad
3417:⋅kg
3407:gray
3386:2.58
3340:per
3208:edit
3201:talk
3194:view
3089:gray
2817:The
2678:any
2676:cite
2607:soil
2591:lead
2509:any
2507:cite
2428:and
2281:CGRO
2256:1972
2130:pion
2122:1.24
2102:weak
2042:and
1503:spin
1440:beta
1405:and
1385:and
1371:and
1246:and
1205:and
1148:and
1116:and
912:Rabi
867:Hahn
777:RHIC
397:Halo
82:news
5915:ELF
5910:SLF
5905:ULF
5900:VLF
5880:VHF
5875:UHF
5870:SHF
5865:EHF
5860:THF
5771:FIR
5717:NIR
5699:Red
5651:UVA
5646:UVB
5641:UVC
5636:NUV
5631:MUV
5626:FUV
5278:doi
5233:876
5195:109
5032:PMC
5024:doi
5020:331
5016:BMJ
4983:PMC
4973:doi
4907:PMC
4899:doi
4895:132
4818:PMC
4810:doi
4736:PMC
4718:doi
4669:PMC
4653:doi
4600:PMC
4590:doi
4578:100
4513:doi
4470:doi
4458:138
4388:doi
4366:320
4261:doi
4249:241
4226:doi
4187:doi
4063:hdl
4055:doi
4043:264
3989:doi
3928:130
3912:130
3685:CGS
3681:rem
3677:CGS
3673:rad
3556:Sv
3488:Sv
3455:rad
3444:1.0
3429:erg
3411:Gy
3375:293
3369:esu
3319:000
3316:000
3304:Rd
3290:3.7
3279:3.7
3275:Ci
3256:Bq
3165:.)
3133:PET
3045:).
2889:TeV
2879:).
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2324:).
2118:keV
2104:or
1822:MeV
1648:MeV
1640:by
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1438:or
1299:by
1237:DNA
1068:of
782:LHC
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