2552:
398:
36:
1896:, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows.
4055:
601:
1585:
4561:
251:, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over large (astronomical) distances gravity tends to be the dominant force, and is responsible for holding together the large scale structures in the universe, such as planets, stars, and galaxies.
1313:
2024:. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently
1996:
charge. Han and Nambu hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally
1727:
in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are
1147:
experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstancesâneglecting the friction due to air resistance and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled balloon), all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the
2051:
QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons. The gluons also interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings, loosely modeled by a linear potential, a constant attractive
689:
between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermion's
1109:
Gravitation is the most important of the four fundamental forces for astronomical objects over astronomical distances for two reasons. First, gravitation has an infinite effective range, like electromagnetism but unlike the strong and weak interactions. Second, gravity always attracts and never
1114:"cancels" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.
1113:
Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing
1580:{\displaystyle 4000\ {\mbox{g}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {{O}\cdot {\frac {1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,{\rm {{H}_{2}{\rm {O}}}}}{18\ {\mbox{g}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {10\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,H_{2}O}}\cdot {\frac {96,000\ {\mbox{C}}\,}{1\ {\mbox{mol}}\,e^{-}}}=2.1\times 10^{8}C\ \,\ }}}}}
377:âpresumed to fill all space whether within matter or in vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic fieldâthen it could be reconciled with Galilean relativity and Newton's laws. (However, such a "Maxwell aether" was later disproven; Newton's laws did, in fact, have to be replaced.)
1719:
2190:
759:
Both magnitude ("relative strength") and "range" of the associated potential, as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. The table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that remains the subject of ongoing research.
2497:, have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force-carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.
475:, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field's force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism's QFT is
2404:
2469:
that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy. GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the
Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting
2047:
published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of strong interactions.
262:
cannot produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this. Devising a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces in a single theory is perhaps the greatest goal of today's
2052:
force. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string-like behavior, discovered by Chew and
Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.
1903:, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume whose diameter is about 10
1080:. The full theory includes perturbations beyond simply fermions exchanging bosons; these additional perturbations can involve bosons that exchange fermions, as well as the creation or destruction of particles: see
1768:
is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by
Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.
1110:
repels; in contrast, astronomical bodies tend toward a near-neutral net electric charge, such that the attraction to one type of charge and the repulsion from the opposite charge mostly cancel each other out.
1816:, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as
1594:
864:
2984:
no fully
Galilean-covariant theory of a coupled Schrödinger-Maxwell system (where the density and current of the Schrödinger field act as source of the nonrelativistic Maxwell field) is possible
2093:
324:
postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus
421:
The
Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with
3322:
2465:
Grand
Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with
328:. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His
1198:. These theories must reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limits on what deviations from general relativity are possible.
502:, the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles in a way that endows those particles with mass. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the
129:
The gravitational and electromagnetic interactions produce long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life. The strong and weak interactions produce forces at
1222:
and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modeled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100
718:. In quantum mechanics, physicists often use the terms "force" and "interaction" interchangeably; for example, the weak interaction is sometimes referred to as the "weak force".
2275:
1044:
984:
604:
An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions. Fermions are on the left, and Bosons are on the right.
2221:
913:
254:
Many theoretical physicists believe these fundamental forces to be related and to become unified into a single force at very high energies on a minuscule scale, the
2248:
4305:
3049:
729:, and the strong interaction. Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern physics attempts to explain every observed
1980:
first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of
2040:
361:
unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in vacuum. If his
1812:, the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as
1194:
Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields, i.e. not black holes) on all but the smallest scales, there are
2004:
proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later,
3459:
1589:
of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of
2485:
Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include
104:
are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist in nature:
3404:
2043:
were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980,
283:, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics. Some physicists seek to unite the electroweak and strong fields within what is called a
3954:
733:
by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the
1776:
by utilizing Max Planck's discovery that light was transmitted in 'quanta' of specific energy content based on the frequency, which we now call
3832:
2462:
Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.
3602:
2940:
Goldin, Gerald A.; Shtelen, Vladimir M. (February 2001). "On
Galilean invariance and nonlinearity in electrodynamics and quantum mechanics".
1132:, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.
3921:
494:
were originally mixed components of a different set of ancient pre-symmetry-breaking fields. As the early universe cooled, these fields
3126:
1281:
Electromagnetism has an infinite range, as gravity does, but is vastly stronger. It is the force that binds electrons to atoms, and it
1899:
After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the
392:
1714:{\displaystyle {1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\frac {(2.1\times 10^{8}\mathrm {C} )^{2}}{(1m)^{2}}}=4.1\times 10^{26}\mathrm {N} .}
4161:
556:(SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the
519:
1152:(1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein's
3800:
3452:
332:
implied there to be instant interaction among all objects. As conventionally interpreted, Newton's theory of motion modelled a
3391:
3371:
3353:
3332:
3299:
3181:
2479:
486:. Electroweak theory (EWT) covers both electromagnetism and the weak interaction. At the high temperatures shortly after the
3067:
2475:
805:
4429:
3947:
2185:{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda _{i}}{\sqrt {2}}}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi ={\frac {m_{i}}{\nu }}{\bar {\psi }}\phi '\psi }
3154:
2849:
2508:
theories, some particles acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as
564:(LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a
1195:
17:
4586:
4424:
3595:
3445:
2612:
2451:
1728:
tremendously stronger than gravity, but tend to cancel out so that for astronomical-scale bodies, gravity dominates.
295:(QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably
79:
57:
50:
2474:
for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the
2457:
1918:
ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an
1117:
The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and
2551:
1962:
grouped the heavier hadrons into families that could be understood as vibrational and rotational excitations of
1237:
evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang, when the temperature was still above approximately 10
3940:
3748:
498:
into the long-range electromagnetic interaction, the short-range weak interaction, and the Higgs boson. In the
1731:
Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century
4022:
3289:
2885:
2080:
354:
filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.
4389:
3588:
2399:{\displaystyle V(r)=-{\frac {m_{i}m_{j}}{m_{\rm {H}}^{2}}}{\frac {1}{4\pi r}}e^{-m_{\rm {H}}\,c\,r/\hbar }}
2266:
1153:
1149:
442:
366:
329:
161:
3419:
2729:
1106:
is the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate.
1072:), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, photons mediate the interaction of
4591:
3885:
2681:
752:
530:). Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as science's most experimentally confirmed theory.
1735:
discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864,
1015:
955:
4400:
4194:
3716:
3689:
3099:
2471:
2415:
1997:
charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.
1756:) can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity.
1301:. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic-level, properties of the
4394:
4184:
4094:
4027:
2705:
2513:
2021:
1911:
predicted that it was associated with a massive force particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.
1122:
714:). Since such interactions result in a change in momentum, they can give rise to classical Newtonian
533:
362:
2926:
592:. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support.
4261:
4101:
3822:
2255:
1970:
While each of these approaches offered insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.
1927:
1184:
438:
299:, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with
44:
2199:
1241:, the electromagnetic force and the weak force were still merged as a combined electroweak force.
373:. If, instead, his field theory only applied to reference frames at rest relative to a mechanical
4436:
4079:
4042:
3503:
1984:
as simple models for the interactions of quarks. The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were
1847:
1809:
1214:
998:
711:
659:
476:
325:
268:
2771:
4494:
4446:
4151:
3966:
3906:
3768:
3541:
3050:"Physicists debate whether the world is made of particles or fieldsâor something else entirely"
2565:
1981:
1854:. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive
1736:
1249:
876:
507:
288:
61:
2619:
893:
4441:
3911:
3880:
3743:
3664:
3564:
3400:
3218:
3197:
2913:
2521:
2028:: the strong force increases indefinitely with distance, trapping quarks inside the hadrons.
1941:
1183:
is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless
1140:
264:
1772:
In another work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein also explained the
518:(SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such
4535:
4012:
3870:
3694:
3654:
3015:
2959:
2864:
2805:
2656:
2571:
2490:
2226:
1773:
1176:
734:
721:
According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces:
565:
561:
541:
422:
343:
338:
without a communicating medium. Thus Newton's theory violated the tradition, going back to
304:
284:
259:
244:
165:
2512:, can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the discovery that the
2504:, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental physics research. In
669:
The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus:
8:
4384:
4323:
4220:
4156:
4120:
3845:
3704:
3699:
3684:
3659:
3636:
3612:
3554:
2796:
Nauenberg, Michael (October 2018). "Newton's graphical method for central force orbits".
2753:
1743:, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.
1732:
1271:
1244:
For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between
455:
397:
374:
370:
358:
169:
3019:
2963:
2868:
2850:"Gravity and De gravitatione: the development of Newton's ideas on action at a distance"
2809:
2060:
Conventionally, the Higgs interaction is not counted among the four fundamental forces.
1846:. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified
1135:
Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times,
4540:
4379:
4355:
4273:
3901:
3778:
3773:
3726:
3488:
3170:
3131:
3031:
3005:
2975:
2949:
2821:
2525:
2466:
2076:
2017:
1883:
1805:
1761:
937:
789:
730:
585:
537:
123:
3437:
2971:
471:
constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom's nucleus. Atoms interact, form
183:
Within the
Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the
4471:
4456:
4419:
4411:
4214:
4189:
4179:
4116:
3992:
3987:
3916:
3865:
3810:
3790:
3676:
3387:
3367:
3349:
3328:
3295:
3177:
3085:
3035:
2825:
2608:
2044:
2036:
2025:
1813:
1785:
1739:
had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell's theory, restated using
1172:
1065:
1057:
917:
621:
495:
426:
220:
3314:
While all interactions are discussed, discussion is especially thorough on the weak.
1064:) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange
4360:
4300:
4111:
3855:
3795:
3721:
3559:
3513:
3508:
3243:
3107:
3023:
2979:
2967:
2901:
2880:
2872:
2813:
2509:
2439:
2262:
1973:
1959:
1933:
1863:
1829:
1801:
1789:
1302:
1261:
1245:
1219:
1202:
1081:
726:
643:
625:
609:
544:(GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize "shadow" particles, such that every known
511:
434:
240:
177:
118:
113:
2631:
1274:
acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and
1139:
hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the
1125:. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as
4374:
4283:
4125:
4105:
4017:
4007:
3875:
3785:
3731:
3631:
3341:
3318:
3285:
2905:
2602:
2084:
2032:
2001:
1907:, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force,
1793:
1757:
1740:
1267:
1180:
1144:
1073:
588:. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone,
499:
464:
347:
300:
292:
280:
272:
158:
149:
130:
2876:
147:
Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a
4509:
4069:
3982:
3805:
3760:
3738:
3626:
2557:
2505:
2494:
2431:
2068:
2013:
1989:
1900:
1859:
1851:
1765:
1747:
1724:
1060:
view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (
795:
745:
741:
629:
515:
483:
402:
386:
232:
228:
212:
208:
173:
3027:
445:, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT). Force particles, called
4580:
4461:
4135:
3815:
3496:
3111:
2581:
2576:
2529:
2486:
2009:
1985:
1963:
1955:
1908:
1797:
1282:
577:
569:
553:
334:
296:
248:
204:
3580:
2607:(illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 109.
1862:. The weak interaction is the only known interaction that does not conserve
4565:
4530:
4499:
4489:
4241:
4231:
4130:
4037:
3997:
3963:
3840:
3088:
for more exact strengths, depending on the particles and energies involved.
2838:
Newton's absolute space was a medium, but not one transmitting gravitation.
2604:
Particles and
Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle Physics
2251:
2064:
1977:
1937:
1919:
1871:
1867:
1850:â this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the
1077:
321:
255:
1922:
of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:
4451:
4365:
4290:
4268:
4054:
4032:
4002:
3536:
3272:
2996:
Farhoudi, Mehrdad; Yousefian, Maysam (May 2016). "Ether and
Relativity".
2954:
2533:
2517:
2501:
2419:
2072:
2005:
1993:
1949:
1855:
1817:
1723:
This force is many times larger than the weight of the planet Earth. The
1294:
1069:
932:
722:
581:
549:
523:
491:
446:
430:
414:
410:
276:
267:. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the
141:
3932:
4545:
4504:
4484:
4479:
4295:
4204:
4089:
3860:
3850:
1843:
1781:
1278:
forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.
1118:
2817:
4525:
4278:
4199:
4171:
4084:
3711:
2537:
2528:. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as
2438:. Between two electrons, it begins roughly 10 times weaker than the
2435:
1275:
1230:
1165:
1157:
1136:
755:
and the weak interaction into the electroweak interaction; see below.
339:
154:
3381:
3324:
The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe
1248:, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the
600:
522:
is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance
4343:
4338:
4256:
3569:
3010:
2900:
Faraday, Michael (2012). "Experimental Researches in Electricity".
1298:
1234:
1188:
1161:
944:
686:
589:
557:
487:
472:
369:, this would contradict Newton's theory of motion, which relied on
236:
4333:
3520:
3472:
1945:
1160:
masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the
1098:
1061:
617:
573:
545:
527:
490:, the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the
460:
406:
200:
108:
93:
2772:"Newton's law of gravitation | Definition, Formula, & Facts"
2601:
Braibant, Sylvie; Giacomelli, Giorgio; Spurio, Maurizio (2011).
4328:
4251:
4246:
4209:
2500:
Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical
1777:
1290:
1238:
1126:
1005:
682:
613:
224:
196:
192:
3480:
1904:
1286:
1129:
883:
715:
663:
503:
468:
188:
184:
2632:"The Standard Model of Particle Physics | symmetry magazine"
506:, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in
459:
of underlying fieldsâinteract with matter particles, called
153:. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of
4074:
3974:
1915:
595:
482:
The force carriers of the weak interaction are the massive
346:. Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism,
235:, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital
216:
134:
4560:
1866:; it is leftâright asymmetric. The weak interaction even
1223:
710:(or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the
239:
and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as
3364:
After The First Three Minutes: The Story of Our Universe
3068:"A Brief History of the Grand Unified Theory of Physics"
2600:
2442:, and grows exponentially weaker at non-zero distances.
560:
and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is
3467:
2079:
produces a weakly attractive fifth interaction. After
1764:, however, which follows from the observation that the
1750:
in vacuum (customarily denoted with a lowercase letter
144:
might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative.
1524:
1508:
1466:
1440:
1404:
1365:
1324:
1308:
In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water, there is
211:. The weak interaction is carried by particles called
2278:
2229:
2202:
2096:
1597:
1316:
1018:
958:
896:
859:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r}}\ e^{-m_{\rm {W,Z}}\ r}}
808:
2547:
2458:
Elementary particle § Beyond the Standard Model
1229:
The electroweak theory is very important for modern
1226:, they would merge into a single electroweak force.
287:(GUT). An even bigger challenge is to find a way to
3219:"fundamental force | Definition, List, & Facts"
3155:"Extra dimensions, gravitons, and tiny black holes"
2857:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A
536:, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and
3169:
2434:), this potential has an effective range of a few
2398:
2242:
2215:
2184:
1842:is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as
1713:
1579:
1038:
978:
907:
858:
662:). They attract or repel each other by exchanging
510:(QCD). EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism comprise
291:the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of
2995:
2886:20.500.11820/b84d5f3c-47b3-453a-849f-eb9add123210
4578:
2016:discovered that this theory had the property of
1926:The pions were understood to be oscillations of
1285:. It is responsible for everyday phenomena like
1266:Electromagnetism is the force that acts between
1205:could explain why the gravity force is so weak.
677:by boson exchange â two changed fermions go out.
3127:"What Is The Strongest Force In The Universe?"
2520:), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero
3948:
3610:
3596:
3453:
2939:
1808:, completed this theory, which is now called
223:. The electromagnetic force, carried by the
2998:International Journal of Theoretical Physics
2445:
3361:
1121:and, being only attractive, it retards the
467:is atoms, composed of three fermion types:
3955:
3941:
3603:
3589:
3460:
3446:
2261:. Hence coupled particles can exchange a
1208:
568:(ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is
3962:
3399:
3009:
2953:
2884:
2795:
2524:, and possibly to other modifications of
2382:
2378:
1569:
1530:
1514:
1472:
1446:
1410:
1371:
1330:
1156:of 1915, a more accurate (especially for
393:Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
168:, and their interactions are mediated by
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
3340:
3317:
1270:particles. This phenomenon includes the
1076:, and gluons mediate the interaction of
599:
596:Overview of the fundamental interactions
396:
207:that binds the latter particles to form
203:. As a residual effect, it creates the
43:This article includes a list of general
3386:(4th ed.), Cambridge Univ. Press,
3379:
3284:
2899:
921:
429:(QM). For predictive success with QM's
133:and govern nuclear interactions inside
14:
4579:
3801:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
3307:
3271:
3124:
3065:
2654:
681:The exchange of bosons always carries
4380:Inverse beta decay (electron capture)
3936:
3584:
3441:
3097:
2847:
2020:, allowing them to make contact with
1877:
3167:
3152:
2055:
29:
3383:Introduction to High Energy Physics
2031:Assuming that quarks are confined,
1823:
1255:
584:âand so, strictly speaking, became
425:, whose behaviours are modelled in
315:
140:Some scientists hypothesize that a
24:
3412:NCP 5th Particle Physics Sypnoisis
3066:Krauss, Lawrence M. (2017-03-16).
2372:
2327:
2087:, Yukawa terms remain of the form
1704:
1646:
1563:
1532:
1483:
1474:
1448:
1421:
1412:
1388:
1376:
1348:
1335:
1196:alternatives to general relativity
1039:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}
979:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{r^{2}}}}
842:
836:
778:Long-distance behavior (potential)
405:of elementary particles, with the
215:, and also acts on the nucleus of
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
4603:
3198:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"
3172:The Equations. Icons of knowledge
2730:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"
2706:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"
2682:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979"
2452:Physics beyond the Standard Model
2391:
2067:interaction nor generated by any
380:
27:Most basic type of physical force
4559:
4162:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
4053:
3312:, Johns Hopkins University Press
2550:
2476:Large ElectronâPositron Collider
1792:. Further work in the 1940s, by
1788:with the relativistic theory of
1179:) into a more general theory of
548:associates with an undiscovered
409:in the first three columns, the
34:
3922:Timeline of physics discoveries
3265:
3236:
3211:
3190:
3161:
3146:
3118:
3091:
3078:
3059:
3042:
2989:
2933:
2893:
2841:
2832:
2516:is accelerating (also known as
1171:Merging general relativity and
1087:
690:spin direction will flip from +
164:. The other three are discrete
2789:
2764:
2746:
2722:
2698:
2674:
2648:
2624:
2594:
2288:
2282:
2165:
2122:
2000:In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and
1944:for approximate symmetries of
1672:
1662:
1651:
1626:
413:in the fourth column, and the
13:
1:
3291:The Character of Physical Law
2972:10.1016/S0375-9601(01)00017-2
2655:Shivni, Rashmi (2016-05-16).
2587:
2081:spontaneous symmetry breaking
612:of fundamental interactions,
552:, and vice versa, altogether
4447:Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
4390:Electron degeneracy pressure
2906:10.1017/cbo9781139383165.018
2568:, a hypothesized fifth force
2216:{\displaystyle \lambda _{i}}
2063:Nonetheless, although not a
1982:quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
1920:extremely complicated theory
1154:General Theory of Relativity
1150:law of Universal Gravitation
367:inertial frames of reference
363:electromagnetic field theory
330:law of universal gravitation
162:general theory of relativity
7:
3886:Quantum information science
3405:"Non-standard interactions"
3380:Perkins, Donald H. (2000),
2877:10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.11.025
2798:American Journal of Physics
2543:
1936:proposed the rho and omega
753:electromagnetic interaction
10:
4608:
3717:Classical electromagnetism
2848:Henry, John (March 2011).
2472:gauge coupling unification
2455:
2449:
2416:reduced Compton wavelength
1914:The 1947 discovery of the
1881:
1827:
1259:
1233:, particularly on how the
1212:
1148:same rate. Isaac Newton's
1096:
1092:
1056:The modern (perturbative)
390:
384:
342:, that there should be no
310:
4554:
4518:
4470:
4410:
4395:Pauli exclusion principle
4314:
4230:
4170:
4144:
4095:Supernova nucleosynthesis
4062:
4051:
4028:Cataclysmic variable star
3973:
3894:
3831:
3759:
3675:
3647:
3619:
3550:
3529:
3479:
3418:(1): 1â25. Archived from
3366:, Cambridge Univ. Press,
3308:Schumm, Bruce A. (2004),
3100:"Fundamental interaction"
3028:10.1007/s10773-015-2881-y
2754:"Newton's Laws of Motion"
2514:expansion of the universe
2446:Beyond the Standard Model
1123:expansion of the universe
534:Beyond the Standard Model
469:up-quarks and down-quarks
437:conventionally models QM
191:binding together to form
4587:Fundamental interactions
4351:Fundamental interactions
3823:Condensed matter physics
3469:Fundamental interactions
3362:Padmanabhan, T. (1998),
3346:Dreams of a Final Theory
3153:CERN (20 January 2012).
3112:10.1036/1097-8542.275600
2636:www.symmetrymagazine.org
2256:vacuum expectation value
1958:, Edward K. Burdett and
1942:force carrying particles
1780:. Starting around 1927,
1283:holds molecules together
908:{\displaystyle {\sim r}}
725:, electromagnetism, the
98:fundamental interactions
4437:Quantum electrodynamics
4043:Super soft X-ray source
3504:Electroweak interaction
3279:, Cambridge Univ. Press
3223:Encyclopedia Britannica
2776:Encyclopedia Britannica
1901:electrostatic repulsion
1848:electroweak interaction
1810:quantum electrodynamics
1215:Electroweak interaction
1209:Electroweak interaction
999:Quantum electrodynamics
712:reduced Planck constant
660:reduced Planck constant
477:quantum electrodynamics
326:absolute space and time
187:and is responsible for
64:more precise citations.
4546:Physics of shock waves
4306:Observational timeline
4152:Gravitational collapse
3907:Nobel Prize in Physics
3769:Relativistic mechanics
3200:. The Nobel Foundation
3125:Siegel, Ethan (2016).
2921:Cite journal requires
2400:
2265:Higgs boson, yielding
2244:
2217:
2186:
1715:
1581:
1250:Nobel Prize in Physics
1040:
980:
909:
877:Quantum chromodynamics
860:
748:into electromagnetism;
605:
540:interactions within a
508:quantum chromodynamics
441:across a field set to
418:
265:theoretical physicists
4442:Quantum hydrodynamics
3912:Philosophy of physics
3565:Philosophy of physics
3403:(December 29, 2009).
3168:Bais, Sander (2005),
3098:Salam, Abdus (2020).
2522:cosmological constant
2401:
2245:
2243:{\displaystyle m_{i}}
2218:
2196:with Yukawa coupling
2187:
2022:experimental evidence
1992:, who introduced the
1716:
1582:
1141:Scientific Revolution
1041:
981:
910:
861:
673:Two fermions go in â
603:
400:
260:particle accelerators
245:electromagnetic waves
4536:Nuclear astrophysics
4324:Elementary particles
3871:Mathematical physics
3277:The Forces of Nature
3244:"The Standard Model"
2491:loop quantum gravity
2430:, comparable to the
2276:
2267:classical potentials
2227:
2200:
2094:
1894:strong nuclear force
1868:violates CP symmetry
1774:photoelectric effect
1595:
1314:
1268:electrically charged
1246:elementary particles
1177:quantum field theory
1016:
956:
922:see discussion below
894:
806:
572:, although to model
566:Theory of Everything
562:loop quantum gravity
542:Grand Unified Theory
423:elementary particles
344:action at a distance
320:In his 1687 theory,
305:theory of everything
285:Grand Unified Theory
170:elementary particles
4385:Degeneracy pressure
4315:Particles, forces,
4157:Chandrasekhar limit
3846:Atmospheric physics
3685:Classical mechanics
3613:branches of physics
3555:Glossary of physics
3530:Hypothetical forces
3054:Scientific American
3020:2016IJTP...55.2436F
2964:2001PhLA..279..321G
2869:2011SHPSA..42...11H
2810:2018AmJPh..86..765N
2620:Extract of page 109
2337:
1737:Maxwell's equations
1733:James Clerk Maxwell
1272:electrostatic force
731:physical phenomenon
520:perturbation theory
456:messenger particles
417:in the fifth column
375:luminiferous aether
371:Galilean relativity
359:James Clerk Maxwell
4592:Physical phenomena
4541:Physical cosmology
4495:Quarkâgluon plasma
4356:Strong interaction
3902:History of physics
3489:Strong interaction
3132:Starts With a Bang
3048:Meinard Kuhlmann,
2657:"The Planck scale"
2526:general relativity
2396:
2321:
2240:
2213:
2182:
2041:Valentine Zakharov
2018:asymptotic freedom
1928:vacuum condensates
1890:strong interaction
1884:Strong interaction
1878:Strong interaction
1840:weak nuclear force
1806:Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
1762:special relativity
1760:'s 1905 theory of
1711:
1577:
1528:
1512:
1470:
1444:
1408:
1369:
1328:
1058:quantum mechanical
1036:
976:
938:General relativity
905:
856:
790:Electroweak theory
606:
586:superstring theory
443:special relativity
419:
269:electroweak theory
124:strong interaction
102:fundamental forces
18:Fundamental forces
4574:
4573:
4472:Degenerate matter
4457:Color confinement
4420:Quantum mechanics
4117:Carbon detonation
4063:Stellar processes
3930:
3929:
3917:Physics education
3866:Materials science
3833:Interdisciplinary
3791:Quantum mechanics
3578:
3577:
3393:978-0-521-62196-0
3373:978-0-521-62972-0
3355:978-0-679-74408-5
3334:978-0-465-02437-7
3301:978-0-262-56003-0
3183:978-0-674-01967-6
3086:Coupling constant
3084:Approximate. See
2942:Physics Letters A
2818:10.1119/1.5050620
2661:symmetry magazine
2572:Gerardus 't Hooft
2356:
2338:
2168:
2157:
2125:
2114:
2113:
2056:Higgs interaction
2045:Kenneth G. Wilson
2037:Arkady Vainshtein
1814:quantum tunneling
1786:quantum mechanics
1682:
1621:
1572:
1568:
1542:
1527:
1522:
1511:
1506:
1487:
1469:
1464:
1443:
1438:
1425:
1407:
1402:
1368:
1363:
1327:
1322:
1303:chemical elements
1173:quantum mechanics
1066:virtual particles
1054:
1053:
1034:
974:
918:Color confinement
850:
821:
817:
775:Relative strength
658:, where ħ is the
427:quantum mechanics
365:held true in all
221:radioactive decay
172:described by the
90:
89:
82:
16:(Redirected from
4599:
4566:Stars portal
4564:
4563:
4361:Weak interaction
4317:and interactions
4301:Electroweak star
4195:Pair instability
4112:Electron capture
4057:
3957:
3950:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3856:Chemical physics
3796:Particle physics
3722:Classical optics
3605:
3598:
3591:
3582:
3581:
3560:Particle physics
3514:electromagnetism
3509:weak interaction
3462:
3455:
3448:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3425:on March 3, 2016
3424:
3409:
3396:
3376:
3358:
3342:Weinberg, Steven
3337:
3319:Weinberg, Steven
3313:
3310:Deep Down Things
3304:
3286:Feynman, Richard
3280:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3229:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3194:
3188:
3186:
3175:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3095:
3089:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3063:
3057:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3013:
3004:(5): 2436â2454.
2993:
2987:
2986:
2957:
2955:quant-ph/0006067
2948:(5â6): 321â326.
2937:
2931:
2930:
2924:
2919:
2917:
2909:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2854:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2758:www.grc.nasa.gov
2750:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2628:
2622:
2618:
2598:
2560:
2555:
2554:
2440:weak interaction
2429:
2427:
2413:
2410:with Higgs mass
2405:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2357:
2355:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2331:
2330:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2309:
2308:
2298:
2260:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2223:, particle mass
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2143:
2135:
2127:
2126:
2118:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2098:
1974:Murray Gell-Mann
1960:Steven Frautschi
1934:Jun John Sakurai
1836:weak interaction
1830:Weak interaction
1824:Weak interaction
1802:Julian Schwinger
1790:electromagnetism
1754:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1599:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1262:Electromagnetism
1256:Electromagnetism
1220:Electromagnetism
1203:extra dimensions
1082:Feynman diagrams
1074:electric charges
1050:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1020:
990:
985:
983:
982:
977:
975:
973:
972:
960:
914:
912:
911:
906:
904:
865:
863:
862:
857:
855:
854:
848:
847:
846:
845:
819:
818:
810:
763:
762:
727:weak interaction
709:
708:
704:
699:
698:
694:
657:
656:
652:
644:angular momentum
641:
640:
636:
610:conceptual model
574:matter particles
512:particle physics
435:particle physics
316:Classical theory
241:chemical bonding
178:particle physics
131:subatomic scales
119:weak interaction
114:electromagnetism
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
60:this article by
51:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
4607:
4606:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4570:
4558:
4550:
4514:
4466:
4406:
4375:Pair production
4316:
4310:
4284:Shell collapsar
4233:
4226:
4166:
4140:
4126:Gamma-ray burst
4106:Bondi accretion
4080:Nucleosynthesis
4058:
4049:
4008:Stellar physics
3969:
3961:
3931:
3926:
3890:
3876:Medical physics
3827:
3786:Nuclear physics
3755:
3749:Non-equilibrium
3671:
3643:
3615:
3609:
3579:
3574:
3546:
3525:
3481:Physical forces
3475:
3466:
3428:
3426:
3422:
3407:
3394:
3374:
3356:
3348:, Basic Books,
3335:
3327:, Basic Books,
3302:
3268:
3263:
3262:
3252:
3250:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3227:
3225:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3166:
3162:
3151:
3147:
3137:
3135:
3123:
3119:
3096:
3092:
3083:
3079:
3064:
3060:
3047:
3043:
2994:
2990:
2938:
2934:
2922:
2920:
2911:
2910:
2898:
2894:
2852:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2804:(10): 765â771.
2794:
2790:
2780:
2778:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2738:
2736:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2714:
2712:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2690:
2688:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2666:
2664:
2663:. Fermilab/SLAC
2653:
2649:
2640:
2638:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2615:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2556:
2549:
2546:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2425:
2423:
2412:125.18 GeV
2411:
2386:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2345:
2340:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2259:246.22 GeV
2258:
2234:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2207:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2171:
2160:
2159:
2148:
2144:
2142:
2128:
2117:
2116:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2085:Higgs mechanism
2077:Yukawa coupling
2058:
2033:Mikhail Shifman
2002:Harald Fritzsch
1886:
1880:
1832:
1826:
1794:Richard Feynman
1758:Albert Einstein
1752:
1741:vector calculus
1721:
1703:
1697:
1693:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1557:
1553:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1516:
1507:
1494:
1492:
1477:
1473:
1465:
1458:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1432:
1430:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1323:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1264:
1258:
1217:
1211:
1185:spin-2 particle
1181:quantum gravity
1145:Galileo Galilei
1101:
1095:
1090:
1048:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1001:
995:Electromagnetic
988:
968:
964:
959:
957:
954:
953:
940:
915:
897:
895:
892:
891:
879:
835:
834:
830:
826:
822:
809:
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582:force particles
546:matter particle
500:Higgs mechanism
465:Everyday matter
395:
389:
383:
348:Michael Faraday
318:
313:
301:mass generation
293:quantum gravity
281:Steven Weinberg
273:Sheldon Glashow
233:magnetic fields
157:, described by
86:
75:
69:
66:
56:Please help to
55:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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4519:Related topics
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4510:Strange matter
4507:
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4480:Neutron matter
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4433:
4432:
4430:Basic concepts
4427:
4416:
4414:
4412:Quantum theory
4408:
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4382:
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4309:
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4288:
4287:
4286:
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4259:
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4238:
4236:
4234:exotic objects
4228:
4227:
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4212:
4207:
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4185:Type Ib and Ic
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4133:
4128:
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4114:
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4099:
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4092:
4087:
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4075:Surface fusion
4072:
4070:Nuclear fusion
4066:
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4052:
4050:
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4013:Stellar plasma
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3104:Access Science
3090:
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3056:, 24 Jul 2013.
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2697:
2686:NobelPrize.org
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2558:Physics portal
2545:
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2506:supersymmetric
2495:twistor theory
2480:supersymmetric
2450:Main article:
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2432:W and Z bosons
2414:. Because the
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2102:
2071:symmetry, the
2069:diffeomorphism
2057:
2054:
2014:David Politzer
1990:Yoichiro Nambu
1968:
1967:
1953:
1931:
1882:Main article:
1879:
1876:
1860:W and Z bosons
1852:Standard Model
1828:Main article:
1825:
1822:
1766:speed of light
1748:speed of light
1710:
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1260:Main article:
1257:
1254:
1213:Main article:
1210:
1207:
1097:Main article:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:for examples.
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769:Current theory
767:
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749:
746:magnetic force
679:
678:
620:, which carry
597:
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550:force particle
516:Standard Model
484:W and Z bosons
451:force carriers
403:Standard Model
387:Standard Model
385:Main article:
382:
381:Standard Model
379:
317:
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213:W and Z bosons
174:Standard Model
166:quantum fields
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4462:Deconfinement
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4136:Orbital decay
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4023:Variable star
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3881:Ocean physics
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3294:, MIT Press,
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2614:9789400724631
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2593:
2583:
2582:Howard Georgi
2580:
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2577:Edward Witten
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2487:string theory
2483:
2481:
2477:
2473:
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2422:is so small (
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2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:Frank Wilczek
2007:
2003:
1998:
1995:
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1986:Moo-Young Han
1983:
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1956:Geoffrey Chew
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1938:vector bosons
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570:string theory
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501:
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485:
480:
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458:
457:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:probabilistic
428:
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404:
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394:
388:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
336:
335:central force
331:
327:
323:
308:
306:
302:
298:
297:string theory
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
261:
257:
252:
250:
249:visible light
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
209:atomic nuclei
206:
205:nuclear force
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
160:
156:
152:
151:
145:
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120:
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112:
110:
107:
106:
105:
103:
99:
95:
84:
81:
73:
70:November 2022
63:
59:
53:
52:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
4531:Astrophysics
4500:Preon matter
4490:Quark matter
4425:Introduction
4399:
4350:
4242:Neutron star
4232:Compact and
4219:
4131:Helium flash
4121:deflagration
4038:X-ray binary
3964:Stellar core
3841:Astrophysics
3655:Experimental
3542:Quintessence
3468:
3427:. Retrieved
3420:the original
3415:
3411:
3382:
3363:
3345:
3323:
3309:
3290:
3276:
3273:Davies, Paul
3266:Bibliography
3251:. Retrieved
3247:
3238:
3226:. Retrieved
3222:
3213:
3202:. Retrieved
3192:
3171:
3163:
3148:
3136:. Retrieved
3130:
3120:
3103:
3093:
3080:
3071:
3061:
3053:
3044:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2983:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2914:cite journal
2895:
2863:(1): 11â27.
2860:
2856:
2843:
2834:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2779:. Retrieved
2775:
2766:
2757:
2748:
2737:. Retrieved
2733:
2724:
2713:. Retrieved
2709:
2700:
2689:. Retrieved
2685:
2676:
2665:. Retrieved
2660:
2650:
2639:. Retrieved
2635:
2626:
2603:
2596:
2566:Quintessence
2532:violations,
2499:
2484:
2478:in 1991 for
2464:
2461:
2409:
2269:of the form
2195:
2062:
2059:
2050:
2030:
1999:
1978:George Zweig
1972:
1969:
1913:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1887:
1872:conserve CPT
1856:gauge bosons
1839:
1835:
1833:
1771:
1751:
1745:
1730:
1722:
1588:
1307:
1280:
1265:
1243:
1228:
1218:
1200:
1193:
1170:
1158:cosmological
1134:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1102:
1088:Interactions
1070:gauge bosons
1055:
758:
720:
680:
674:
668:
649:
616:consists of
607:
532:
524:bound states
481:
454:
450:
447:gauge bosons
420:
411:gauge bosons
356:
351:
333:
322:Isaac Newton
319:
256:Planck scale
253:
247:, including
219:, mediating
182:
148:
146:
139:
128:
101:
97:
91:
76:
67:
48:
4452:Lattice QCD
4366:Gravitation
4291:Exotic star
4269:White dwarf
4262:Radio-quiet
4033:Binary star
4003:Metallicity
3744:Statistical
3660:Theoretical
3637:Engineering
3537:Fifth force
3521:Gravitation
3493:fundamental
2534:dark matter
2518:dark energy
2502:fifth force
2482:theories).
2420:Higgs boson
2073:Higgs field
2006:David Gross
1994:quark color
1976:along with
1950:hypercharge
1858:called the
1818:transistors
1295:electricity
1187:called the
1119:black holes
1104:Gravitation
933:Gravitation
766:Interaction
735:unification
723:gravitation
675:interaction
642:(intrinsic
576:, it added
492:Higgs boson
415:Higgs boson
350:inferred a
277:Abdus Salam
142:fifth force
62:introducing
4581:Categories
4505:Strangelet
4485:QCD matter
4296:Quark star
4274:Black hole
4205:Quark-nova
4172:Supernovae
4090:RP-process
4018:Supergiant
3861:Geophysics
3851:Biophysics
3695:Analytical
3648:Approaches
3204:2008-12-16
3011:1511.07795
2739:2018-10-30
2715:2018-10-30
2691:2018-10-30
2667:2018-10-30
2641:2018-10-30
2588:References
2467:symmetries
2456:See also:
2436:attometers
1844:beta decay
1782:Paul Dirac
781:Range (m)
622:properties
433:outcomes,
391:See also:
227:, creates
195:, such as
159:Einstein's
45:references
4526:Astronomy
4279:Collapsar
4200:Hypernova
4102:Accretion
4085:R-process
3993:Structure
3988:Evolution
3983:Formation
3811:Molecular
3712:Acoustics
3705:Continuum
3700:Celestial
3690:Newtonian
3677:Classical
3620:Divisions
3429:March 19,
3401:Riazuddin
3036:119258859
2826:125197336
2538:dark flow
2428:10 m
2392:ℏ
2364:−
2350:π
2295:−
2205:λ
2180:ψ
2173:ϕ
2166:¯
2163:ψ
2155:ν
2137:ψ
2130:ϕ
2123:¯
2120:ψ
2101:λ
2075:'s cubic
1870:but does
1784:combined
1691:×
1633:×
1612:ε
1608:π
1551:×
1537:−
1490:⋅
1453:−
1428:⋅
1353:⋅
1252:in 1979.
1231:cosmology
1201:Proposed
1166:spacetime
1137:Aristotle
1127:planetary
945:gravitons
899:∼
828:−
772:Mediators
473:molecules
357:In 1873,
340:Descartes
303:within a
237:electrons
155:spacetime
4344:Neutrino
4339:Electron
4257:Magnetar
4145:Collapse
3967:collapse
3570:Universe
3497:residual
3344:(1994),
3321:(1993),
3288:(1967),
3275:(1986),
3253:22 March
3228:22 March
3138:22 March
3072:Nautilus
2781:22 March
2544:See also
2176:′
2133:′
2083:via the
2026:confined
1299:friction
1276:magnetic
1235:universe
1189:graviton
1162:geometry
1062:fermions
742:Electric
687:momentum
618:fermions
590:M-theory
558:graviton
528:solitons
488:Big Bang
461:fermions
407:fermions
289:quantize
229:electric
201:neutrons
4401:More...
4334:Neutron
4221:More...
4215:Remnant
4190:Type II
4180:Type Ia
3895:Related
3779:General
3774:Special
3632:Applied
3473:physics
3281:2nd ed.
3016:Bibcode
2980:5398578
2960:Bibcode
2865:Bibcode
2806:Bibcode
2760:. NASA.
2418:of the
2263:virtual
1964:strings
1946:isospin
1778:photons
1291:magnets
1099:Gravity
1093:Gravity
1006:photons
705:⁄
695:⁄
653:⁄
637:⁄
626:charges
624:called
608:In the
479:(QED).
311:History
307:(ToE).
197:protons
193:hadrons
109:gravity
94:physics
58:improve
4329:Proton
4252:Quasar
4247:Pulsar
4210:Nebula
3806:Atomic
3761:Modern
3611:Major
3390:
3370:
3352:
3331:
3298:
3180:
3034:
2978:
2824:
2611:
2536:, and
2510:moduli
2493:, and
2012:, and
1940:to be
1864:parity
1804:, and
1571:
1567:
1521:
1505:
1463:
1437:
1401:
1362:
1321:
1297:, and
1130:orbits
884:gluons
873:Strong
849:
820:
716:forces
683:energy
664:bosons
614:matter
538:strong
439:events
279:, and
258:, but
225:photon
189:quarks
96:, the
47:, but
3975:Stars
3423:(PDF)
3408:(PDF)
3032:S2CID
3006:arXiv
2976:S2CID
2950:arXiv
2853:(PDF)
2822:S2CID
2424:1.576
2065:gauge
1892:, or
1287:light
1002:(QED)
880:(QCD)
792:(EWT)
504:gluon
496:split
352:field
217:atoms
185:gluon
150:field
135:atoms
3998:Core
3732:Wave
3627:Pure
3431:2011
3388:ISBN
3368:ISBN
3350:ISBN
3329:ISBN
3296:ISBN
3255:2021
3248:CERN
3230:2021
3187:p.84
3178:ISBN
3140:2021
2927:help
2783:2021
2609:ISBN
2250:(in
2039:and
1988:and
1948:and
1916:pion
1888:The
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1175:(or
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786:Weak
751:The
744:and
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700:to â
685:and
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628:and
578:SUSY
526:and
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243:and
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