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been created as a superior means of producing ultraviolet light, but the application also contained a few statements referring to fluorescent illumination. Efforts to obtain a U.S. patent had met with numerous delays, but were it to be granted, the patent might have caused serious difficulties for GE. At first, GE sought to block the issuance of a patent by claiming that priority should go to one of their employees, Leroy J. Buttolph, who according to their claim had invented a fluorescent lamp in 1919 and whose patent application was still pending. GE also had filed a patent application in 1936 in Inman's name to cover the “improvements” wrought by his group. In 1939 GE decided that the claim of Meyer, Spanner, and Germer had some merit, and that in any event a long interference procedure was not in their best interest. They therefore dropped the
Buttolph claim and paid $ 180,000 to acquire the Meyer, et al. application, which at that point was owned by a firm known as Electrons, Inc. The patent was duly awarded in December 1939. This patent, along with the Hull patent, put GE on what seemed to be firm legal ground, although it faced years of legal challenges from
502:, a Frenchman who had developed a technology and a successful business for air liquefaction, was obtaining enough neon as a byproduct to support a neon lighting industry. While neon lighting was used around 1930 in France for general illumination, it was no more energy-efficient than conventional incandescent lighting. Neon tube lighting, which also includes the use of argon and mercury vapor as alternative gases, came to be used primarily for eye-catching signs and advertisements. Neon lighting was relevant to the development of fluorescent lighting, however, as Claude's improved electrode (patented in 1915) overcame "sputtering", a major source of electrode degradation. Sputtering occurred when ionized particles struck an electrode and tore off bits of metal. Although Claude's invention required
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1538:. By definition, an incandescent lamp has a CRI of 100. Real-life fluorescent tubes achieve CRIs of anywhere from 50 to 98. Fluorescent lamps with low CRI have phosphors that emit too little red light. Skin appears less pink, and hence "unhealthy" compared with incandescent lighting. Colored objects appear muted. For example, a low CRI 6800 K halophosphate tube (an extreme example) will make reds appear dull red or even brown. Since the eye is relatively less efficient at detecting red light, an improvement in color rendering index, with increased energy in the red part of the spectrum, may reduce the overall luminous efficacy.
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to be mounted near an earthed metal reflector in order for them to strike. Quick-start ballasts are more common in commercial installations because of lower maintenance costs. A quick-start ballast eliminates the need for a starter switch, a common source of lamp failures. Nonetheless, Quick-start ballasts are also used in domestic (residential) installations because of the desirable feature that a Quick-start ballast light turns on nearly immediately after power is applied (when a switch is turned on). Quick-start ballasts are used only on 240 V circuits and are designed for use with the older, less efficient T12 tubes.
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grain size of the suspended phosphors is necessary; large grains lead to weak coatings, and small particles lead to poor light maintenance and efficiency. Most phosphors perform best with a particle size around 10 micrometers. The coating must be thick enough to capture all the ultraviolet light produced by the mercury arc, but not so thick that the phosphor coating absorbs too much visible light. The first phosphors were synthetic versions of naturally occurring fluorescent minerals, with small amounts of metals added as activators. Later other compounds were discovered, allowing differing colors of lamps to be made.
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1483:(CCT) is a measure of the "shade" of whiteness of a light source compared with a blackbody. Typical incandescent lighting is 2700 K, which is yellowish-white. Halogen lighting is 3000 K. Fluorescent lamps are manufactured to a chosen CCT by altering the mixture of phosphors inside the tube. Warm-white fluorescents have CCT of 2700 K and are popular for residential lighting. Neutral-white fluorescents have a CCT of 3000 K or 3500 K. Cool-white fluorescents have a CCT of 4100 K and are popular for office lighting. Daylight fluorescents have a CCT of 6500 K, which is bluish-white.
476:. The lamp used a smaller bore bulb and higher current operating at higher pressures. As a consequence of the current, the bulb operated at a higher temperature which necessitated the use of a quartz bulb. Although its light output relative to electrical consumption was better than that of other sources of light, the light it produced was similar to that of the Cooper-Hewitt lamp in that it lacked the red portion of the spectrum, making it unsuitable for ordinary lighting. Due to difficulties in sealing the electrodes to the quartz, the lamp had a short life.
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1345:, and these are sometimes called digital ballasts. Digital ballasts can apply quite complex logic to lamp starting and operation. This enables functions such as testing for broken electrodes and missing tubes before attempting to start, detection of tube replacement, and detection of tube type, such that a single ballast can be used with several different tubes. Features such as dimming can be included in the embedded microcontroller software, and can be found in various manufacturers' products.
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first commercially successful fluorescents, was for advertising, not general illumination. This, however, was not the first use of fluorescent coatings; Becquerel had earlier used the idea and Edison used calcium tungstate for his unsuccessful lamp. Other efforts had been mounted, but all were plagued by low efficiency and various technical problems. Of particular importance was the invention in 1927 of a low-voltage “metal vapor lamp” by
Friedrich Meyer, Hans-Joachim Spanner, and
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compared to that of an incandescent source. Colored objects are perceived differently under light sources with differing spectral distributions. For example, some people find the color rendition produced by some fluorescent lamps to be harsh and displeasing. A healthy person can sometimes appear to have an unhealthy skin tone under fluorescent lighting. The extent to which this phenomenon occurs is related to the light's spectral composition, and may be gauged by its
1052:) switch (see circuit diagram to the right) that initially connect the filaments in series with the ballast to preheat them; after a short preheating time the starting switch opens. If timed correctly relative to the phase of the supply AC, this causes the ballast to induce a voltage over the tube high enough to initiate the starting arc. These systems are standard equipment in 200–240 V countries (and in the United States lamps up to about 30 watts).
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Because of the high open circuit tube voltage, this starting method is particularly good for starting tubes in cold locations. Additionally, the circuit power factor is almost 1.0, and no additional power factor correction is needed in the lighting installation. As the design requires that twice the supply voltage must be lower than the cold-cathode striking voltage (or the tubes would erroneously instant-start), this design cannot be used with
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867:(DC) supply of sufficient voltage to strike an arc. The ballast must be resistive, and would consume about as much power as the lamp. When operated from DC, the starting switch is often arranged to reverse the polarity of the supply to the lamp each time it is started; otherwise, the mercury accumulates at one end of the tube. Fluorescent lamps are (almost) never operated directly from DC for those reasons. Instead, an
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547:(Ohio) engineering laboratory. This was not a trivial exercise; as noted by Arthur A. Bright, "A great deal of experimentation had to be done on lamp sizes and shapes, cathode construction, gas pressures of both argon and mercury vapor, colors of fluorescent powders, methods of attaching them to the inside of the tube, and other details of the lamp and its auxiliaries before the new device was ready for the public."
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1149:. Instant-start lamps are slightly more energy efficient than rapid start, because they do not constantly send a heating current to the cathodes during operation, but the cold cathodes starting increases sputter, and they take much longer to transition from a glow discharge to an arc during warm up, thus the lifespan is typically about half of those seen in comparable rapid-start lamps.
1314:, compared to efficacy at normal power frequency. When the AC period is shorter than the relaxation time to de-ionize mercury atoms in the discharge column, the discharge stays closer to optimum operating condition. Electronic ballasts convert supply frequency AC power to variable frequency AC. The conversion can reduce lamp brightness modulation at twice the power supply frequency.
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tube ends also usually means cold cathode tubes have to be run at a lower loading than their thermionic emission equivalents. Given the higher tube voltage required anyway, these tubes can easily be made long, and even run as series strings. They are better suited for bending into special shapes for lettering and signage, and can also be instantly switched on or off.
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amount of material from the cathodes during starting, giving longer lamp life. This is claimed to prolong lamp life by a factor of typically 3 to 4 times for a lamp frequently switched on as in domestic use, and to reduce the blackening of the ends of the lamp typical of fluorescent tubes. While the circuit is complex, the complexity is built into an
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438:-based filament. The extended lifespan and improved efficacy of incandescent bulbs negated one of the key advantages of Moore's lamp, but GE purchased the relevant patents in 1912. These patents and the inventive efforts that supported them were of considerable value when the firm took up fluorescent lighting more than two decades later.
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like the broadband. They requires a 10–20 times higher dose to the skin and they require more bulbs and longer exposure time. The narrowband is good for psoriasis, eczema (atopic dermatitis), vitiligo, lichen planus, and some other skin diseases. The broadband is better for increasing
Vitamin D3 in the body.
396:. Although it received a patent in 1907, it was not put into production. As with a few other attempts to use Geissler tubes for illumination, it had a short operating life, and given the success of the incandescent light, Edison had little reason to pursue an alternative means of electrical illumination.
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In the United States and Canada, lamps are typically identified by a code such as FxxTy, where F is for fluorescent, the first number (xx) indicates either the power in watts or length in inches, the T indicates that the shape of the bulb is tubular, and the last number (y) is the diameter in eighths
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can be noticed, where something spinning at just the right speed may appear stationary if illuminated solely by a single fluorescent lamp. This effect is eliminated by paired lamps operating on a lead-lag ballast. Unlike a true strobe lamp, the light level drops in appreciable time and so substantial
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Fluorescent lamps are a non-linear load and generate harmonic currents in the electrical power supply. The arc within the lamp may generate radio frequency noise, which can be conducted through power wiring. Suppression of radio interference is possible. Very good suppression is possible, but adds to
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Color rendering index (CRI) is an attempt to measure the ability of a light source to reveal the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison to a black body radiator. Colors can be perceived using light from a source, relative to light from a reference source such as daylight or a blackbody of
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Subjecting the tube to asymmetric current flow, effectively operates it under a DC bias, and causes asymmetric distribution of mercury ions along the tube. The localized depletion of mercury vapor pressure manifests itself as pink luminescence of the base gas in the vicinity of one of the electrodes,
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forms. As the lamp warms and pressure increases, the current continues to rise and both resistance and voltage falls, until mains or line-voltage takes over and the discharge becomes an arc. These tubes have no filaments and can be identified by a single pin at each end of the tube (for common lamps;
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of this winding limits the flow of AC current. This type of ballast is common in 220–240V countries (And in North
America, up to 30W lamps). Ballasts are rated for the size of lamp and power frequency. In North America, the AC voltage is insufficient to start long fluorescent lamps, so the ballast is
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Fluorescent tubes can have an outer silicone coating applied by dipping the tube into a solution of water and silicone, and then drying the tube. This coating gives the tube a silky surface finish, and protects against moisture, guaranteeing a predictable surface resistance on the tube when starting
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The fill gas helps determine the electrical characteristics of the lamp but does not give off light itself. The fill gas effectively increases the distance that electrons travel through the tube, which allows an electron a greater chance of interacting with a mercury atom. Additionally, argon atoms,
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In addition to having engineers and technicians along with facilities for R&D work on fluorescent lamps, General
Electric controlled what it regarded as the key patents covering fluorescent lighting, including the patents originally issued to Hewitt, Moore, and KĂĽch. More important than these was
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contain a phosphor that emits only UVB ultraviolet light. There are two types: broadband UVB that gives 290–320 nanometer with peak wavelength of 306 nm, and narrowband UVB that gives 311–313 nanometer. Because of the longer wavelength, the narrowband UVB bulbs do not cause erythema in the skin
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to stabilize the current through the lamp, and to provide the initial striking voltage required to start the arc discharge. Often one ballast is shared between two or more lamps. Electromagnetic ballasts can produce an audible humming or buzzing noise. In North
America, magnetic ballasts are usually
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Compared with an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent tube is a more diffuse and physically larger light source. In suitably designed lamps, light can be more evenly distributed without point source of glare such as seen from an undiffused incandescent filament; the lamp is large compared to the typical
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The life expectancy of a fluorescent lamp is primarily limited by the life of the cathode electrodes. To sustain an adequate current level, the electrodes are coated with an emission mixture of metal oxides. Every time the lamp is started, and during operation, a small amount of the cathode coating
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AC power unless the tubes are at least 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) length. Semi-resonant start fixtures are generally incompatible with energy saving T8 retrofit tubes, because such tubes have a higher starting voltage than T12 lamps and may not start reliably, especially in low temperatures.
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Quick-start ballasts use a small auto-transformer to heat the filaments when power is first applied. When an arc strikes, the filament heating power is reduced and the tube will start within half a second. The auto-transformer is either combined with the ballast or may be a separate unit. Tubes need
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use a different method to preheat the cathodes. They may be plug-in interchangeable with glow starters. They use a semiconductor switch and "soft start" the lamp by preheating the cathodes before applying a starting pulse which strikes the lamp first time without flickering; this dislodges a minimal
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containing inert gas (neon or argon). The glow switch will cyclically warm the filaments and initiate a pulse voltage to strike the arc; the process repeats until the lamp is lit. Once the tube strikes, the impinging main discharge keeps the cathodes hot, permitting continued electron emission. The
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Even though the patent issue was not completely resolved for many years, General
Electric's strength in manufacturing and marketing gave it a pre-eminent position in the emerging fluorescent light market. Sales of "fluorescent lumiline lamps" commenced in 1938 when four different sizes of tubes were
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rights over the fluorescent lamp, a few months after the lamp went into production the firm learned of a U.S. patent application that had been filed in 1927 for the aforementioned "metal vapor lamp" invented in
Germany by Meyer, Spanner, and Germer. The patent application indicated that the lamp had
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Moore invented an electromagnetically controlled valve that maintained a constant gas pressure within the tube, to extend the working life. Although Moore's lamp was complicated, expensive, and required very high voltages, it was considerably more efficient than incandescent lamps, and it produced a
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The spectrum is nearly identical to a normal fluorescent lamp except for a near total lack of light shorter than 500 nanometers. This effect can be achieved through either specialized phosphor use or more commonly by the use of a simple yellow light filter. These lamps are commonly used as lighting
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Low-mercury designs of lamps may fail when mercury is absorbed by the glass tube, phosphor, and internal components, and is no longer available to vaporize in the fill gas. Loss of mercury initially causes an extended warm-up time to full light output, and finally causes the lamp to glow a dim pink
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circuit. After a short time the voltage across the lamp reaches about 1 kV and the lamp instant-starts in cold cathode mode. The cathode filaments are still used for protection of the ballast from overheating if the lamp does not ignite. A few manufacturers use positive temperature coefficient
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Only a fraction of the electrical energy input into a lamp is converted to useful light. The ballast dissipates some heat; electronic ballasts may be around 90% efficient. A fixed voltage drop occurs at the electrodes, which also produces heat. Some of the energy in the mercury vapor column is also
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The development of the neon light also was significant for the last key element of the fluorescent lamp, its fluorescent coating. In 1926 Jacques Risler received a French patent for the application of fluorescent coatings to neon light tubes. The main use of these lamps, which can be considered the
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light (at about 360 nm wavelength). They are built in the same fashion as conventional fluorescent lamps but the glass tube is coated with a phosphor that converts the short-wave UV within the tube to long-wave UV rather than to visible light. They are used to provoke fluorescence (to provide
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at line frequency and generate about twice the supply voltage across the tube, and a small electrode heating current. This tube voltage is too low to strike the arc with cold electrodes, but as the electrodes heat up to thermionic emission temperature, the tube striking voltage falls below that of
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Light-emitting phosphors are applied as a paint-like coating to the inside of the tube. The organic solvents are allowed to evaporate, then the tube is heated to nearly the melting point of glass to drive off remaining organic compounds and fuse the coating to the lamp tube. Careful control of the
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Fluorescent lamp tubes are often straight and range in length from about 100 millimeters (3.9 in) for miniature lamps, to 2.43 meters (8.0 ft) for high-output lamps. Some lamps have a circular tube, used for table lamps or other places where a more compact light source is desired. Larger
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Fluorescent lamps convert more of the input power to visible light than incandescent lamps. A typical 100 watt tungsten filament incandescent lamp may convert only 5% of its power input to visible white light (400–700 nm wavelength), whereas typical fluorescent lamps convert about 22% of the
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Semi-resonant start circuits are mainly restricted to use in commercial installations because of the higher initial cost of circuit components. However, there are no starter switches to be replaced and cathode damage is reduced during starting making lamps last longer, reducing maintenance costs.
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The gas used in the fluorescent tube must be ionized before the arc can "strike" . For small lamps, it does not take much voltage to strike the arc and starting the lamp presents no problem, but larger tubes require a substantial voltage (in the range of a thousand volts). Many different starting
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Cold cathode lamps are generally less efficient than thermionic emission lamps because the cathode fall voltage is much higher. Power dissipated due to cathode fall voltage does not contribute to light output. However, this is less significant with longer tubes. The increased power dissipation at
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The performance of fluorescent lamps is critically affected by the temperature of the bulb wall and its effect on the partial pressure of the mercury vapor within. Since mercury condenses at the coolest spot in the lamp, careful design is required to maintain that spot at the optimum temperature,
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that did not disintegrate at the gas pressures that ultimately were employed in fluorescent lamps. Albert W. Hull of GE's
Schenectady Research Laboratory filed for a patent on this invention in 1927, which was issued in 1931. General Electric used its control of the patents to prevent competition
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All the major features of fluorescent lighting were in place at the end of the 1920s. Decades of invention and development had provided the key components of fluorescent lamps: economically manufactured glass tubing, inert gases for filling the tubes, electrical ballasts, long-lasting electrodes,
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response in most human skin. Typically, the output is rated as 3–10% UVB (5% most typical) with the remaining UV as UVA. These are mainly high output 100W lamps, although 160W very high output are somewhat common. One common phosphor used in these lamps is lead-activated barium disilicate, but a
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switches intended for incandescent lamps. Two effects are responsible for this: the waveform of the voltage emitted by a standard phase-control dimmer interacts badly with many ballasts, and it becomes difficult to sustain an arc in the fluorescent tube at low power levels. Dimming installations
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Fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts do not flicker, since above about 5 kHz, the excited electron state half-life is longer than a half cycle, and light production becomes continuous. Operating frequencies of electronic ballasts are selected to avoid interference with infrared remote
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Frequent switching (more than every 3 hours) will shorten the life of lamps. Each start cycle slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the cathodes; when all the emission material is gone, the lamp cannot start with the available ballast voltage. Fixtures for flashing lights (such as for
1189:. In some lamps a grounded "starting aid" strip is attached to the outside of the lamp glass. This ballast type is incompatible with the European energy saver T8 fluorescent lamps because these lamps require a higher starting voltage than that of the open circuit voltage of rapid start ballasts.
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current, tube diameter, temperature, and fill gas. A general lighting service 48-inch (1,219 mm) T12 lamp operates at 430 mA, with 100 volts drop. High-output lamps operate at 800 mA, and some types operate up to 1.5 A. The power level varies from 33 to 82 watts per meter of tube
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Mercury vapor lamps continued to be developed at a slow pace, especially in Europe. By the early 1930s they received limited use for large-scale illumination. Some of them employed fluorescent coatings, but these were used primarily for color correction and not for enhanced light output. Mercury
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All three of the 'FAST' (< .5 seconds) starter brands caused an audible 'BURRRRRRRP' noise in some light fittings as they started and this is an inherent problem caused by their use of the faster 'DC' heating. It is worse with higher wattage tubes and if there is any loose metal in the light
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from the mercury emission and the phosphorescence effect give a combined spectral distribution of light that is different from those produced by incandescent sources. The relative intensity of light emitted in each narrow band of wavelengths over the visible spectrum is in different proportions
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Electronic starters only attempt to start a lamp for a short time when power is initially applied, and do not repeatedly attempt to restrike a lamp that is dead and unable to sustain an arc; some automatically stop trying to start a failed lamp. This eliminates the re-striking of a lamp and the
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Overdriving a fluorescent lamp is a method of getting more light from each tube than is obtained under rated conditions. ODNO (Overdriven Normal Output) fluorescent tubes are generally used when there is not enough room to put in more bulbs to increase the light. The method is effective, but
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with some other metal reduces the vapor pressure and increases the optimum temperature range. The bulb wall "cold spot" temperature must still be controlled to prevent condensing. High-output fluorescent lamps have features such as a deformed tube or internal heat-sinks to control cold spot
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rather than clear glass. The deep purple glass filters out most of the visible colors of light directly emitted by the mercury-vapor discharge, producing proportionally less visible light compared with UV light. This allows UV-induced fluorescence to be seen more easily (thereby allowing
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Not all the UV radiation striking the phosphor coating is converted to visible light; some energy is lost. The largest single loss in modern lamps is due to the lower energy of each photon of visible light, compared to the energy of the UV photons that generated them (a phenomenon called
460:). Hewitt's lamp glowed when an electric current was passed through mercury vapor at a low pressure. Unlike Moore's lamps, Hewitt's were manufactured in standardized sizes and operated at low voltages. The mercury-vapor lamp was superior to the incandescent lamps of the time in terms of
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chip. Electronic starters may be optimized for fast starting (typical start time of 0.3 seconds), or for most reliable starting even at low temperatures and with low supply voltages, with a startup time of 2–4 seconds. The faster-start units may produce audible noise during start-up.
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continuous flashing of a failing lamp with a glow starter. Electronic starters are not subject to wear and do not need replacing periodically, although they may fail like any other electronic circuit. Manufacturers typically quote lives of 20 years, or as long as the light fitting.
305:. By putting different chemicals inside, the tubes could be made to produce a variety of colors, and elaborate Geissler tubes were sold for entertainment. More important was its contribution to scientific research. One of the first scientists to experiment with a Geissler tube was
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and uneven light output in positive and negative going AC cycles. Power frequency flicker can be emitted from the ends of the tubes, if each tube electrode produces a slightly different light output pattern on each half-cycle. Flicker at power frequency is more noticeable in the
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Fluorescent lamps near end of life can present a serious radio frequency interference hazard. Oscillations are generated from the negative differential resistance of the arc, and the current flow through the tube can form a tuned circuit whose frequency depends on path length.
1782:):Sb, Mn). The color of the light output can be adjusted by altering the ratio of the blue-emitting antimony dopant and orange-emitting manganese dopant. The color rendering ability of these older-style lamps is quite poor. Halophosphate phosphors were invented by A. H. McKeag
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observed in 1859 that certain substances gave off light when they were placed in a
Geissler tube. He went on to apply thin coatings of luminescent materials to the surfaces of these tubes. Fluorescence occurred, but the tubes were inefficient and had a short operating life.
2038:(UV) light. A 1993 study in the US found that ultraviolet exposure from sitting under fluorescent lights for eight hours is equivalent to one minute of sun exposure. Ultraviolet radiation from compact fluorescent lamps may exacerbate symptoms in photosensitive individuals.
723:, and mercury vapor. The pressure inside the lamp is around 0.3% of atmospheric pressure. The partial pressure of the mercury vapor alone is about 0.8 Pa (8 millionths of atmospheric pressure), in a T12 40-watt lamp. The inner surface of the lamp is coated with a
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584:, and Globe Lighting. The Slimline fluorescent ballast's public introduction in 1946 was by Westinghouse and General Electric and Showcase/Display Case fixtures were introduced by Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation in 1946. During the following year, GE and
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2074:-like potting compound to reduce emitted noise. Hum is eliminated in lamps with a high-frequency electronic ballast. Energy lost in magnetic ballasts is around 10% of lamp input power according to GE literature from 1978. Electronic ballasts reduce this loss.
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off the electrodes by the impact of electrons and heavy ions within the tube. The sputtered material collects on the walls of the tube, darkening it. The starting method and frequency affect cathode sputtering. A filament may also break, disabling the lamp.
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erasers. Germicidal lamps have designations beginning with G, for example G30T8 for a 30-watt, 1-inch (2.5 cm) diameter, 36-inch (91 cm) long germicidal lamp (as opposed to an F30T8, which would be the fluorescent lamp of the same size and rating).
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More complex electronic ballasts use programmed start. The output frequency is started above the resonance frequency of the output circuit of the ballast; and after the filaments are heated, the frequency is rapidly decreased. If the frequency approaches the
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generates some additional issues. This technique has become popular among aquatic gardeners as a cost-effective way to add more light to their aquariums. Overdriving is done by rewiring lamp fixtures to increase lamp current; however, lamp life is reduced.
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mercury vapor as a source of luminescence, effective means of producing a reliable electrical discharge, and fluorescent coatings that could be energized by ultraviolet light. At this point, intensive development was more important than basic research.
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Lytle, CD; Cyr, WH; Beer, JZ; Miller, SA; James, RH; Landry, RJ; Jacobs, ME; Kaczmarek, RG; Sharkness, CM; Gaylor, D; et al. (December 1993). "An Estimation of Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk from Ultraviolet Radiation Emitted by Fluorescent Lamps".
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T12 fluorescent tubes. The first two are rapid start, (for "tombstone" and socket holders respectively) while the third is an instant-start lamp. The instant-start has a characteristic, rounded, single pin, for plugging into the spring-loaded socket
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Cooper-Hewitt had not been the first to use mercury vapor for illumination, as earlier efforts had been mounted by Way, Rapieff, Arons, and Bastian and Salisbury. Of particular importance was the mercury-vapor lamp invented by KĂĽch and Retschinsky in
1353:. This increases lamp efficiency. These ballasts operate with voltages that can be almost 600 volts, requiring some consideration in housing design, and can cause a minor limitation in the length of the wire leads from the ballast to the lamp ends.
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Typically a fluorescent lamp will last 10 to 20 times as long as an equivalent incandescent lamp when operated several hours at a time. Under standard test conditions fluorescent lamps last 6,000 to 90,000 hours (2 to 31 years at 8 hours per day).
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compact cold-cathode lamps may also have a single pin, but operate from a transformer rather than a ballast). The lamp holders have a "disconnect" socket at the low-voltage end which disconnects the ballast when the tube is removed, to prevent
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Near the end of life, fluorescent lamps can start flickering at a frequency lower than the power frequency. This is due to instability in the negative resistance of arc discharge, which can be from a bad lamp or ballast or poor connection.
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in San Francisco. Fluorescent lighting systems spread rapidly during World War II as wartime manufacturing intensified lighting demand. By 1951 more light was produced in the United States by fluorescent lamps than by incandescent lamps.
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can contaminate the surrounding environment. About 99% of the mercury is typically contained in the phosphor, especially on lamps that are near the end of their life. Broken lamps may release mercury if not cleaned with correct methods.
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Fluorescent lamps give off about one-fifth the heat of equivalent incandescent lamps. This greatly reduces the size, cost and energy consumption by air conditioning for office buildings that typically have many lights and few windows.
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of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. For comparison, the luminous efficiency of an incandescent bulb may only be 16 lumens per watt.
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for red. For an explanation of the origin of the individual peaks click on the image. Several of the spectral peaks are directly generated from the mercury arc. This is likely the most common type of fluorescent lamp in use today.
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fluorescent tubes were invented in 1944. Instant start simply uses a high enough voltage to break down the gas column and thereby start arc conduction. Once the high-voltage spark "strikes" the arc, the current is boosted until a
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for film and video production. They are cooler than traditional halogen light sources, and use high-frequency ballasts to prevent video flickering and high color-rendition index lamps to approximate daylight color temperatures.
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the ringing voltage, and the arc strikes. As the electrodes heat, the lamp slowly, over three to five seconds, reaches full brightness. As the arc current increases and tube voltage drops, the circuit provides current limiting.
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with its incandescent lights and probably delayed the introduction of fluorescent lighting by 20 years. Eventually, war production required 24-hour factories with economical lighting, and fluorescent lights became available.
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Fluorescent lamps can be illuminated by means other than a proper electrical connection. These other methods, however, result in very dim or very short-lived illumination, and so are seen mostly in science demonstrations.
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Since introduction in the 1990s, high-frequency ballasts have been used in general lighting fixtures with either rapid start or pre-heat lamps. These ballasts convert the incoming power to an output frequency in excess of
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in Great Britain (unrelated to General Electric in the United States). Stimulated by this report, and with all of the key elements available, a team led by George E. Inman built a prototype fluorescent lamp in 1934 at
1889:. Schools and businesses find the cost savings of fluorescent lamps to be significant and rarely use incandescent lights. Electricity costs, tax incentives and building codes result in greater use in locales such as
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Lamps can be made with a lithium metaluminate phosphor activated with iron. This phosphor has peak emissions between 675 and 875 nanometers, with lesser emissions in the deep red part of the visible spectrum.
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ions, which have emission bands more evenly distributed over the spectrum of visible light. Triphosphor tubes give a more natural color reproduction to the human eye. The CRI of such lamps is typically 85.
1896:
In other countries, residential use of fluorescent lighting varies depending on the price of energy, financial and environmental concerns of the local population, and acceptability of the light output. In
415:
to emit white or pink light, respectively. They were considerably more complicated than an incandescent bulb, requiring both a high-voltage power supply and a pressure-regulating system for the fill gas.
1941:
per watt with a modern electronic ballast, commonly averaging 50 to 67 lm/W overall. Ballast loss can be about 25% of the lamp power with magnetic ballasts, and around 10% with electronic ballasts.
309:, who systematically described in 1858 the luminescent effects that occurred in a Geissler tube. He also made the important observation that the glow in the tube shifted position when in proximity to an
1091:
With glow switch starters a failing tube will cycle repeatedly. Some starter systems used a thermal over-current trip to detect repeated starting attempts and disable the circuit until manually reset.
929:). Incident photons have an energy of 5.5 electron volts but produce visible light photons with energy around 2.5 electron volts, so only 45% of the UV energy is used; the rest is dissipated as heat.
896:
temperature and mercury distribution. Heavily loaded small lamps, such as compact fluorescent lamps, also include heat-sink areas in the tube to maintain mercury vapor pressure at the optimum value.
1874:
Fluorescent lamps come in many shapes and sizes. Many compact fluorescent lamps integrate the auxiliary electronics into the base of the lamp, allowing them to fit into a regular light bulb socket.
430:
closer approximation to natural daylight than contemporary incandescent lamps. From 1904 onwards Moore's lighting system was installed in a number of stores and offices. Its success contributed to
3757:
2488:. Because the electrodes are usually the life-limiting element of fluorescent lamps, such electrodeless lamps can have a very long service life, although they also have a higher purchase price.
1656:). This phosphor mainly emits yellow and blue light, and relatively little green and red. In the absence of a reference, this mixture appears white to the eye, but the light has an incomplete
1021:
fluorescent lamp circuit using an automatic starting switch. A: Fluorescent tube, B: Power (+220 volts), C: Starter, D: Switch (bi-metallic thermostat), E: Capacitor, F: Filaments, G: Ballast
2397:, growth, or flowering in plants, algae, photosynthetic bacteria, and other light-dependent organisms. These often emit light primarily in the red and blue color range, which is absorbed by
1257:
986:). Sputtering of the electrode may still occur, but electrodes can be shaped (e.g. into an internal cylinder) to capture most of the sputtered material so it is not lost from the electrode.
400:
made similar experiments in the 1890s, devising high-frequency powered fluorescent bulbs that gave a bright greenish light, but as with Edison's devices, no commercial success was achieved.
2209:
New fluorescent lamps may show a twisting spiral pattern of light in a part of the lamp. This effect is due to loose cathode material and usually disappears after a few hours of operation.
1996:
The extra energy used to start a fluorescent lamp is equivalent to a few seconds of normal operation; it is more energy-efficient to switch off lamps when not required for several minutes.
4474:
2739:
1209:
2193:
Fluorescent lamps may produce flicker at the power supply frequency (50 or 60 Hz), which is noticeable by more people. This happens if a damaged or failed cathode results in slight
2951:
1185:
is produced for starting, so the lamps must be mounted near a grounded (earthed) reflector to allow the glow discharge to propagate through the tube and initiate the arc discharge via
1181:
ballast designs provide windings within the ballast that continuously warm the cathode filaments. Usually operating at a lower arc voltage than the instant start design; no inductive
3571:
1949:
this is at the end of the tube with the text stamped on it. The ideal temperature for a T8 lamp is 25 °C (77 °F) while the T5 lamp is ideally at 35 °C (95 °F).
2989:
766:
have several small-diameter tubes joined in a bundle of two, four, or six, or a small diameter tube coiled in a helix, to provide a high amount of light output in minimal volume.
3192:
2484:
Electrodeless induction lamps are fluorescent lamps without internal electrodes. They have been commercially available since 1990. A current is induced into the gas column using
2215:
2086:
of less than unity. Inductive ballasts include power factor correction capacitors. Simple electronic ballasts may also have low power factor due to their rectifier input stage.
632:, it transfers energy to the atom's outer electron, causing that electron to temporarily jump up to a higher energy level that is not stable. The atom will emit an ultraviolet
4506:
3830:
3719:
2465:
by the color of their fluorescence when fitted with filters that pass the short-wave UV and block visible light produced by the mercury discharge. They are also used in some
2342:
to seem much more dramatic). The blacklight lamps used in bug zappers do not require this refinement so it is usually omitted in the interest of cost; they are called simply
1445:
The spectrum of light emitted from a fluorescent lamp is the combination of light directly emitted by the mercury vapor, and light emitted by the phosphorescent coating. The
4011:
1541:
Lighting arrangements use fluorescent tubes in an assortment of tints of white. Mixing tube types within fittings can improve the color reproduction of lower quality tubes.
353:, as it came to be known, produced little light because the vacuum in it was too great and thus lacked the trace amounts of gas that are needed for electrically stimulated
1338:
of the ballast, the output voltage will increase so much that the lamp will ignite. If the lamp does not ignite, an electronic circuit stops the operation of the ballast.
1005:
circuits have been used. The choice of circuit is based on cost, AC voltage, tube length, instant versus non-instant starting, temperature ranges and parts availability.
3972:
800:
devices, so as more current flows through them, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops, allowing for even more current to flow. Connected directly to a
2457:. Lamps labeled OF block the 184.45 nm far UV and do not produce significant ozone. In addition the UVC can cause eye and skin damage. They are sometimes used by
3665:
2552:
will pass high-frequency current through the tube, and since it has a high voltage as well, the gases within the tube will ionize and emit light. This also works with
1374:
This tube failed after it had been turned on many times. Too much of the thermionic emission mix had sputtered off the cathodes, sticking to and blackening the glass.
3484:
608:
was used as greenish phosphor. Small additions of magnesium tungstate improved the blue portion of the spectrum, yielding acceptable white. After the discovery that
2449:
transparent to the UVC light emitted by the mercury discharge. The 254 nm UVC emitted by these tubes will kill germs and the 184.45 nm far UV will ionize
4436:
Glozman, Stanislav; Ben-Yaakov, Shmuel (September–October 2001). "Dynamic Interaction Analysis of HF Ballasts and Fluorescent Lamps Based on Envelope Simulation".
3452:
652:
of the inner phosphor coating. The difference in energy between the absorbed ultra-violet photon and the emitted visible light photon heats the phosphor coating.
250:
of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood. One of the first to explain it was Irish scientist
3783:
2273:
Systematic nomenclature identifies mass-market lamps as to general shape, power rating, length, color, and other electrical and illuminating characteristics.
321:
Inquiries that began with the Geissler tube continued as better vacuums were produced. The most famous was the evacuated tube used for scientific research by
4541:"Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting"
4242:
3069:, Friedrich Meyer; Hans-Joachim Spanner & Edmund Germer, "Metal Vapor Lamp", issued 1939-12-05, assigned to General Electric Company
377:, 1903. It was similar to a fluorescent lamp without the fluorescent coating on the tube and produced greenish light. The round device under the lamp is the
4375:
Shadick NA, Phillips CB, Sangha O, et al. (December 1999). "Musculoskeletal and neurologic outcomes in patients with previously treated Lyme disease".
4279:
954:
A cold-cathode fluorescent lamp from an emergency-exit sign. Operating at a much higher voltage than other fluorescents, the lamp produces a low-amperage
4944:
3741:
4775:
1961:
The higher initial cost of a fluorescent lamp compared with an incandescent lamp is usually compensated for by lower energy consumption over its life.
4689:
2617:
2714:
498:, an inert gas that had been discovered in 1898 by isolation from the atmosphere. Neon glowed a brilliant red when used in Geissler tubes. By 1910,
455:
4463:
4064:
2661:
5372:
4086:
3050:, Albert W. Hull, "Electrical Discharge Device and Method of Operation", issued 1931-01-27, assigned to General Electric Company
2731:
2106:
decreases. At below-freezing temperatures standard lamps may not start. Special lamps may be used for reliable service outdoors in cold weather.
2798:
1945:
Fluorescent lamp efficacy is dependent on lamp temperature at the coldest part of the lamp. In T8 lamps this is in the center of the tube. In
2935:
1410:
The phosphors lining the lamp degrade with time as well, until a lamp no longer produces an acceptable fraction of its initial light output.
221:
3578:
1310:
while regulating the current flow in the lamp. These ballasts take advantage of the higher efficacy of lamps, which rises by almost 10% at
3950:
3010:
5823:
3909:
2862:
804:, a fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destruct because of the uncontrolled current flow. To prevent this, fluorescent lamps must use a
177:
coating on the inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than an
3238:
3117:
2973:
636:
as the atom's electron reverts to a lower, more stable, energy level. Most of the photons that are released from the mercury atoms have
3383:
3338:
3176:
1080:
starter switch does not close again because the voltage across the lit tube is insufficient to start a glow discharge in the starter.
464:, but the blue-green light it produced limited its applications. It was, however, used for photography and some industrial processes.
4498:
762:
U-shaped lamps are used to provide the same amount of light in a more compact area, and are used for special architectural purposes.
581:
3703:
3417:
2146:
flicker at a normally unnoticeable frequency of 100 or 120 Hz and this flickering can cause problems for some individuals with
534:, a renowned physicist and GE consultant, reported to the GE lamp department on successful experiments with fluorescent lighting at
3973:
Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Mercury Sources, Reference Report and Guideline for Inventory Level 2, Version 1.4
3878:
1231:
fluorescent tubes. This method uses a double wound transformer and a capacitor. With no arc current, the transformer and capacitor
585:
4675:
4004:
2322:
and to detect materials such as urine and certain dyes that would be invisible in visible light) as well as to attract insects to
2022:
Due to the mercury content, discarded fluorescent lamps must be treated as hazardous waste. For large users of fluorescent lamps,
388:
briefly pursued fluorescent lighting for its commercial potential. He invented a fluorescent lamp in 1896 that used a coating of
270:
By mid-19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an
3263:
T12 specifies the bulb's diameter in 1/8 inch units; a T12 bulb is 12Ă—(1/8) inches or 1.5 in (38 mm) in diameter.
679:
excited to a metastable state by the impact of an electron, can impart energy to a mercury atom and ionize it, described as the
4768:
4418:
2613:
434:'s motivation to improve the incandescent lamp, especially its filament. GE's efforts came to fruition with the invention of a
17:
1937:
The efficacy of fluorescent tubes ranges from about 16 lumens per watt for a 4 watt tube with an ordinary ballast to over 100
4646:
4625:
3248:
3186:
2894:
2837:
2686:
1909:
5514:
4265:
Museum Handbook: Museum collections. Part I United States National Park Service, Department of the Interior, 1991, page K19
4043:
974:
between the electrodes. The cathodes will be warmed by current flowing through them, but are not hot enough for significant
4304:
2445:
contain no phosphor at all, making them mercury vapor gas discharge lamps rather than fluorescent. Their tubes are made of
593:
3476:
962:. Without direct connection to line voltage, current is limited by the transformer alone, negating the need for a ballast.
5482:
2026:
are available in some areas, and may be required by regulation. In some areas, recycling is also available to consumers.
1893:. Fluorescent use is declining, supplanted by LED lighting, which is more energy efficient and does not contain mercury.
4723:
4329:
3513:
3444:
1507:
5237:
1697:
683:. This lowers the breakdown and operating voltage of the lamp, compared to other possible fill gases such as krypton.
293:
that evacuated a glass tube to an extent not previously possible. Geissler invented the first gas-discharge lamp, the
274:
passed. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists
3131:
468:
vapor lamps also anticipated the fluorescent lamp in their incorporation of a ballast to maintain a constant current.
4761:
4354:
3917:
3779:
3751:
3713:
3675:
3633:
3162:
2983:
2945:
2646:
1602:
1576:
1403:
and the operating lifetime of the lamp may be dramatically shortened. This can be an issue with some poorly designed
403:
One of Edison's former employees created a gas-discharge lamp that achieved a measure of commercial success. In 1895
134:
118:
5536:
5277:
2238:
controls. Poor quality or faulty electronic ballasts may have considerable 100/120 Hz modulation of the light.
1993:
advertising) use a ballast that maintains cathode temperature when the arc is off, preserving the life of the lamp.
1584:
5519:
4922:
978:. Because cold cathode lamps have no thermionic emission coating to wear out, they can have much longer lives than
797:
4235:
2291:
inches or 38 mm) for residential lamps, T8 or T26 (1 inch or 25 mm) for commercial energy-saving lamps.
301:
at either end. When a high voltage was applied between the electrodes, the inside of the tube illuminated with a
5780:
5677:
5652:
5415:
5282:
4745:
MIT Press, 1995, Chapter 4, preview available at Google Books, on the social construction of fluorescent lighting
4275:
2360:
contain a different phosphor blend (typically 3 to 5 or more phosphors) that emits both UVA and UVB, provoking a
1744:
1127:
966:
Most fluorescent lamps use electrodes that emit electrons into the tube by heat, known as hot cathodes. However,
2126:
lamps and high power LEDs. However, low luminous intensity of the emitting surface is useful because it reduces
5507:
5292:
4545:
2277:
of an inch (sometimes in millimeters, rounded-up to the nearest millimeter). Typical diameters are T12 or T38 (
1580:
1245:
Recent proposals in some countries to phase out T12 tubes will reduce the application of this starting method.
871:
converts the DC into AC and provides the current-limiting function as described below for electronic ballasts.
251:
193:
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because, among other things, they require a
5502:
5302:
5209:
4665:
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part I: Fundamental Theory and Applications 46(5), 1999 (529–544).
2115:
1511:
Fluorescent spectra in comparison with other forms of lighting. Clockwise from upper left: Fluorescent lamp,
1036:
Starting a preheat lamp. The automatic starter switch flashes orange each time it attempts to start the lamp.
801:
589:
4233:
5828:
5808:
5672:
4833:
4686:
3805:
2609:
2159:
2005:
1491:
1480:
753:
uses a low-pressure mercury-vapor glow discharge identical to that in a fluorescent lamp, but the uncoated
535:
1795:
169:
to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-wave
5813:
5564:
5332:
4187:"The risk to normal and photosensitive individuals from exposure to light from compact fluorescent lamps"
3540:
by Walter T Grondzik, Alison Kwok, Benjamin Stein, John S Reynolds -- Wiley Publishing 2010 Page 545--546
2561:
648:(nm). These are not visible to the human eye, so ultraviolet energy is converted to visible light by the
4966:
2677:
Gribben, John; "The Scientists; A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors";
1413:
Failure of the integral electronic ballast of a compact fluorescent bulb will also end its usable life.
675:, the conductivity of the ionized gas rapidly rises, allowing higher currents to flow through the lamp.
5833:
4711:
4072:
3978:(Report). Geneva, Switzerland: UN Environment Chemicals Branch (published December 2017). p. 199.
2886:
Inventing the 20th century: 100 inventions that shaped the world : from the airplane to the zipper
2658:
2023:
1842:
565:
506:
with a lot of surface area, it showed that a major impediment to gas-based lighting could be overcome.
314:
145:
Inside the lamp end of a preheat G13 lamp. In this lamp, the filament is surrounded by an oblong metal
31:
5541:
4094:
3066:
3047:
1103:
draws leading current from the mains to compensate for the lagging current drawn by the lamp circuit.
5684:
5245:
5232:
4828:
2710:
2485:
451:
2794:
5745:
4960:
4934:
4234:
SCENIHR (Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly-Identified Health Risks) (September 23, 2008).
2268:
2259:
can be dimmed; in the United States, such lamps are identified as complying with UL standard 1993.
2256:
2163:
2131:
2041:
Museum artifacts may need protection from UV light to prevent degradation of pigments or textiles.
2009:
1565:
1228:
763:
628:. Electrons flowing in the arc collide with the mercury atoms. If the incident electron has enough
202:
96:
59:
38:
3377:"Datasheet of typical electronic starter (not fast start), with detailed explanation of operation"
2564:
can light a lamp continuously at low intensity, depending on the intensity of the electric field.
5605:
4889:
3602:
Corazza, A.; Giorgi, S.; Massaro, V. (October 5–9, 2008). "Mercury Dosing in Fluorescent Lamps".
2768:
2545:
2532:
2227:
Electromagnetic ballasts may also cause problems for video recording as there can be a so-called
2119:
1569:
255:
178:
1157:
620:
The fundamental mechanism for the conversion of electrical energy to light is the emission of a
5818:
5362:
5287:
3942:
3921:
3014:
983:
4005:"Frequently Asked Questions Information on Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs) and Mercury"
3109:
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2823:
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1528:
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1404:
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868:
404:
310:
129:
3411:"Datasheet of typical fast start electronic starter, with detailed explanation of operation"
3376:
3349:
5487:
4990:
4605:
The Electric-Lamp Industry: Technological Change and Economic Development from 1800 to 1947
2829:
1615:
Some of the least pleasant light comes from tubes containing the older, halophosphate-type
1232:
461:
378:
2181:
The "beat effect" problem created when shooting photos under standard fluorescent lighting
2130:. Lamp fixture design must control light from a long tube instead of a compact globe. The
576:
put on the market. They were used in fixtures manufactured by three leading corporations:
8:
5615:
5474:
4939:
4917:
4422:
3410:
2557:
2528:
2223:
The "beat effect" problem created when shooting films under standard fluorescent lighting
2186:
2102:
Fluorescent lamps operate best around room temperature. At lower or higher temperatures,
1946:
1848:
There is typically only one phosphor present in a blacklight lamp, usually consisting of
1496:
1383:
1307:
1186:
1174:
1068:
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290:
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between the video frame rate and the fluctuations in intensity of the fluorescent lamp.
121:
G13 bi-pin lamp used in tanning beds. The (Hg) symbol indicates that this lamp contains
5765:
5437:
5222:
5165:
5157:
4603:
4400:
4216:
4162:
4137:
4087:"Mercury-Containing Light Bulb (Lamp) Collection and Recycling Programs Where You Live"
2762:
2541:
2524:
2479:
2143:
2066:
2061:, when used without a capacitor, which increases current drawn by the lighting fixture.
2054:
1335:
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1111:
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913:
856:
837:
805:
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194:
162:
104:
4635:
Van Broekhoven, Jacob (2001). "Lamp Phosphors". In Kane, Raymond; Sell, Heinz (eds.).
2548:
will cause a lamp to flash momentarily as it discharges a high-voltage capacitance. A
2134:(CFL) replaces regular incandescent bulbs in many light fixtures where space permits.
346:
5307:
5255:
5227:
5147:
4985:
4973:
4929:
4857:
4803:
4662:
Emanuel Gluskin, “The fluorescent lamp circuit”, (Circuits & Systems Expositions)
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2732:"Mr. Moore's Etheric Light. The Young Newark Electrician's New And Successful Device"
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2642:
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2339:
2199:
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2103:
2015:
1802:
1535:
1512:
1473:
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1322:
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286:
186:
125:. In the US, this symbol is now required on all mercury-containing fluorescent lamps.
122:
4404:
1814:
745:
306:
75:
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tubes. This makes them desirable for long-life applications (such as backlights in
912:
of energy losses in a fluorescent lamp. In modern designs, the biggest loss is the
664:
540:
494:
The next step in gas-based lighting took advantage of the luminescent qualities of
431:
330:
271:
198:
4700:
1703:
A typical "cool white" fluorescent lamp utilizing two rare-earth-doped phosphors,
518:. A German patent was granted but the lamp never went into commercial production.
333:. Research conducted by Crookes and others ultimately led to the discovery of the
54:
5750:
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2334:
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1860:
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and as "bug repellent" outdoor lighting (the efficacy of which is questionable).
1342:
833:
750:
738:
and are coated with a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium oxides to improve
696:
322:
275:
217:
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86:
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1916:
1902:
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1141:
955:
909:
864:
699:(an essentially similar design that uses no fluorescent phosphor, allowing the
629:
531:
499:
408:
302:
201:
through the lamp, but the initial cost is offset by a much lower running cost.
4748:
4705:
1915:
In addition to general lighting, special fluorescent lights are often used in
1219:
5797:
5719:
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5269:
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1370:
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1067:
Before the 1960s, four-pin thermal starters and manual switches were used. A
840:(to limit current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include a
511:
489:
385:
338:
326:
294:
285:
Little more was done with this phenomenon until 1856 when German glassblower
213:
206:
63:
46:
4559:
4540:
2975:
Uncle Tungsten: Memories of a Chemical Boyhood – Oliver Sacks – Google Books
1433:
1277:
1227:
The semi-resonant start circuit was invented by Thorn Lighting for use with
827:
placed in series, consisting of a winding on a laminated magnetic core. The
624:
when an electron in a mercury atom falls from an excited state into a lower
5729:
5625:
5620:
5595:
5585:
5546:
5367:
5322:
5199:
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5015:
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4909:
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4743:
Of bicycles, bakelites, and bulbs: toward a theory of sociotechnical change
4568:
4396:
4212:
4171:
3611:
2678:
2553:
2497:
2446:
2378:
2357:
2167:
2123:
2083:
2058:
1938:
1520:
1468:
1096:
967:
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926:
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of converting high-energy UV photons to lower-energy visible light photons.
845:
812:
754:
656:
649:
644:(UV) region of the spectrum, predominantly at wavelengths of 253.7 and 185
625:
397:
354:
350:
247:
166:
100:
4350:
4122:
3640:
2369:
as an activator, but emissions of thallium during manufacture were toxic.
407:
demonstrated lamps 2 to 3 meters (6.6 to 9.8 ft) in length that used
62:. Bottom: two fluorescent tube lamps. Both types require a ballast in the
5770:
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5600:
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5187:
5182:
5142:
5114:
5109:
5040:
5035:
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4153:
3477:"Soft Start Electronic Starter for fluorescent tubes the UM2 Multi Pulse"
2659:
Mercury-Containing Light Bulb (Lamp) Recycling | Universal Waste | US EPA
2513:
2430:; light of this color penetrates skin and helps in the breakup of excess
2398:
2365:
europium-activated strontium fluoroborate is also used. Early lamps used
2361:
2314:
2035:
1420:
Compact fluorescent lamp that has reached end of life because of mercury
1387:
1330:
to disable instant starting and give some time to preheat the filaments.
1071:
automatically preheats the lamp cathodes. It consists of a normally open
979:
724:
641:
609:
170:
5379:
921:
dissipated, but about 85% is turned into visible and ultraviolet light.
5714:
5580:
5575:
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5427:
5410:
5342:
5337:
5312:
5007:
2937:
Building Systems for Interior Designers – Corky Binggeli – Google Books
2549:
2323:
2313:
Blacklights are a subset of fluorescent lamps that are used to provide
1890:
1835:
1826:
1690:
1627:
1421:
1416:
1391:
1363:
1327:
1318:
1317:
Low cost ballasts contain only a simple oscillator and series resonant
1300:
1169:
at the ends of the lamps. This ballast runs two F40T12 lamps in series.
1048:
at each end of the lamp in conjunction with a mechanical or automatic (
959:
828:
728:
637:
577:
503:
262:, a mineral many of whose samples glow strongly because of impurities.
224:
recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for
4449:
1382:
The filament of a low-pressure mercury gas-discharge lamp, with white
1378:
811:
The terminal voltage across an operating lamp varies depending on the
441:
At about the same time that Moore was developing his lighting system,
419:
5760:
5657:
5610:
5175:
5104:
5084:
2458:
2431:
2390:
2344:
2194:
1898:
1882:
1853:
1755:
1712:
1653:
1304:
1100:
904:
841:
700:
660:
645:
605:
552:
544:
485:
389:
298:
225:
3606:. Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting. IEEE. pp. 1–4.
1750:
Halophosphate phosphors in these lamps usually consist of trivalent
1554:
1215:
A 65-watt fluorescent lamp starting on a semi-resonant start circuit
1013:
691:
228:
or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them.
5492:
5432:
5129:
5099:
5060:
5025:
4995:
4784:
4696:
Research about the improved T5 relative to the previous T8 standard
3664:
Karlen, Mark; Benya, James R.; Spangler, Christina (June 1, 2012).
3445:"Electronic Tube Starter 300C Fastlux for fluorescent strip lights"
2578:
2427:
2419:
2366:
2333:
lamps are also made from more expensive deep purple glass known as
2155:
2049:
1878:
1849:
1779:
1775:
1751:
1720:
1672:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1616:
824:
735:
731:
435:
412:
334:
259:
182:
174:
5444:
5389:
5089:
5067:
4726:. The Report courtesy of General Electric Company. Archived from
2462:
1759:
1724:
1704:
1676:
1620:
1166:
1045:
971:
851:
720:
473:
205:
made in the same sizes as incandescent lamp bulbs are used as an
146:
141:
3809:
2114:
Fluorescent tubes are long, low-luminance sources compared with
5072:
5030:
3864:
National Research Council (U.S.). Building Research Institute.
2450:
2247:
2151:
1856:
1708:
1630:
1516:
1083:
633:
621:
515:
393:
342:
4107:
1428:
970:
tubes have cathodes that emit electrons only due to the large
297:, consisting of a partially evacuated glass tube with a metal
113:
5755:
5119:
5045:
4716:
3572:"Energy Conservation Standards for Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts"
2466:
2454:
1912:
and substitution with other types of energy-efficient lamps.
1288:
1269:
712:
708:
560:
3288:
3218:
4753:
4351:"Accommodation and Compliance Series: Employees with Lupus"
4065:"Mercury-Containing Light Bulb (Lamp) Regulatory Framework"
3312:
2150:; they are listed as problematic for some individuals with
1055:
716:
495:
4641:(2nd ed.). The Fairmont Press, Inc. pp. 93–126.
4580:
4578:
788:
734:
salts. The lamp's electrodes are typically made of coiled
655:
Electric current flows through the tube in a low-pressure
325:. That tube was evacuated by the highly effective mercury
3178:
Basic Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications
3028:
2903:
2501:
2071:
663:
atoms inside the bulb surrounding the filament to form a
521:
50:
Linear fluorescent lamps illuminating a pedestrian tunnel
4638:
Revolution in lamps: a chronicle of 50 years of progress
4617:
Revolution in lamps: a chronicle of 50 years of progress
3866:
Building illumination: the effect of new lighting levels
3780:"Panasonic Spiral Fluorescent ceiling lights, 124.3lm/W"
3577:. US Department of Energy. pp. 3–23. Archived from
3011:"Discover Lighting! History > Milestones in Lighting"
2775:
2691:
2610:"Mercury-containing Lights and Lamps as Universal Waste"
2014:
If a fluorescent lamp is broken, a very small amount of
1877:
In US residences, fluorescent lamps are mostly found in
1399:
when the argon gas takes over as the primary discharge.
1040:
Preheating, also called switchstart, uses a combination
4575:
4520:
4464:"Frequently Asked Questions Regarding CFLs and Dimming"
3552:
3300:
3206:
2077:
1438:
258:
in 1852, who named the phenomenon "fluorescence" after
3604:
2008 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting
2639:
Electrical Engineer's Reference Book Sixteenth Edition
1740:
An older-style halophosphate-phosphor fluorescent lamp
1667:
Since the 1990s, higher-quality fluorescent lamps use
1063:
fluorescent lamp "starter" (automatic starting switch)
792:
Different ballasts for fluorescent and discharge lamps
4749:
Explanations and schematics of some fluorescent lamps
4374:
4191:
Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine
3910:"Science Fact or Science Fiction: Fluorescent Lights"
2915:
1495:
A helical cool-white fluorescent lamp reflected in a
588:
publicized the new lights through exhibitions at the
4538:
3601:
1273:
Electronic ballast for fluorescent lamp, 2Ă—58 W
3663:
1923:
1177:of large quantities of electrons from the cathode,
559:While the Hull patent gave GE a basis for claiming
4602:
3181:. India: Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 801.
3153:William M. Yen, Shigeo Shionoya, Hajime Yamamoto,
2825:Discovery of the Elements: Third Edition (reprint)
2246:Fluorescent light fixtures cannot be connected to
2082:Simple inductive fluorescent lamp ballasts have a
1437:Light from a fluorescent tube lamp reflected by a
757:envelope allows ultraviolet radiation to transmit.
4687:T5 Fluorescent Systems — Lighting Research Center
4435:
4326:"Accommodation Ideas for Employees with Epilepsy"
3538:Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings
3506:"Fast electronic starters for fluorescent lights"
932:
5795:
3803:
3110:"Lighting A Revolution: 20th Century Store-room"
2491:
2190:"blurring" of the moving part would be evident.
1970:distance between lamp and illuminated surfaces.
1424:. Light is produced only by the base argon fill.
707:A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a mix of
30:"Tubelight" redirects here. For other uses, see
4724:"The Fluorescent Lamp: Early U. S. Development"
4539:Goins GD, Yorio NC, Sanwo MM, Brown CS (1997).
4184:
3743:Quality Lighting for High Performance Buildings
3371:
3369:
2764:Modern illuminants and illuminating engineering
2535:can light a lamp continuously at low intensity.
808:to regulate the current flow through the lamp.
727:coating made of varying blends of metallic and
4634:
3970:
3224:
3137:
3046:
2581:— made as drop-in replacement for fluorescents
2262:
149:shield, which helps reduce lamp end darkening.
4769:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3327:
1341:Many electronic ballasts are controlled by a
1173:Because the formation of an arc requires the
222:United States Environmental Protection Agency
4721:
4276:"RF Emissions of Compact Fluorescent Lights"
3964:
3806:"Light and Lighting Facts and Bits of Data!"
3405:
3403:
3366:
3283:Fluorescent Lamps Technical Bulletin TP 111R
3174:
2496:Cold-cathode fluorescent lamps were used as
209:alternative to incandescent lamps in homes.
4499:"Why overdriving could burn down your home"
3868:Publisher National Academies, 1959. Page 81
3771:
3439:
3437:
1583:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1429:Phosphors and the spectrum of emitted light
1265:Fluorescent lamp with an electronic ballast
937:"CCFL" redirects here. For other uses, see
883:Thermal image of a helical fluorescent lamp
612:, halophosphate-based phosphors dominated.
4776:
4762:
4701:The Fluorescent Lamp: A plasma you can use
4438:IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
3324:
2882:
2846:
2303:
1905:incandescent bulbs are rare in buildings.
1841:
1813:
1794:
1743:
1696:
1394:at every start; the lamp ultimately fails.
863:Fluorescent lamps can run directly from a
615:
4620:(2nd ed.). The Fairmont Press, Inc.
4614:Kane, Raymond; Sell, Heinz, eds. (2001).
4558:
4236:"Scientific opinion on light sensitivity"
4202:
4161:
3702:Lenk, Ron; Lenk, Carol (March 10, 2017).
3400:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
2889:. New York University Press. p. 42.
2876:
2795:"Article about KĂĽch and Retschinsky lamp"
2760:
2519:
2034:Fluorescent lamps emit a small amount of
1603:Learn how and when to remove this message
1303:to change the supply frequency into high-
582:Artcraft Fluorescent Lighting Corporation
514:, who were employees of a German firm in
392:as the fluorescing substance, excited by
66:. A matchstick, left, is shown for scale.
4613:
4584:
4526:
4389:10.7326/0003-4819-131-12-199912210-00003
4185:Moseley, Harry; Ferguson, James (2011).
3701:
3558:
3434:
3348:. Philips Semiconductors. Archived from
3318:
3306:
3294:
3212:
2933:
2761:Gaster, Leon; Dow, John Stewart (1915).
2523:
2211:
2176:
2097:
2048:
1506:
1490:
1486:
1467:
1432:
1415:
1377:
1369:
1287:
1276:
1268:
1252:
1218:
1205:
1156:
1126:
1082:
1054:
1024:
1012:
949:
903:
878:
874:
850:
787:
744:
690:
418:
364:
360:
140:
128:
112:
53:
45:
27:Lamp using fluorescence to produce light
3823:
3739:
3236:
2512:. They were also popular with computer
2401:and used for photosynthesis in plants.
2393:contain phosphor blends that encourage
2029:
1859:, which is contained in an envelope of
1544:
1295:and different compact fluorescent lamps
236:
14:
5796:
4707:How Fluorescent Tubes are Manufactured
4600:
4135:
3639:. Harison Toshiba Corp. Archived from
3471:
3469:
3266:
3034:
2921:
2909:
2852:
2781:
2724:
2697:
2614:Washington State Department of Ecology
2090:the cost of the fluorescent fixtures.
1248:
1201:
816:length (10 to 25 W/ft) for T12 lamps.
522:Commercialization of fluorescent lamps
216:, fluorescent lamps are classified as
4757:
4036:"Commercial Lighting: Lamp Recyclers"
3777:
2971:
2818:
2473:
1987:
1910:phase-out of incandescent light bulbs
1223:A semi-resonant start circuit diagram
37:For Lamp sizes and designations, see
3168:
2372:
2078:Power quality and radio interference
1934:power input to visible white light.
1928:
1791:"Natural sunshine" fluorescent light
1581:adding citations to reliable sources
1548:
1457:
1441:shows the individual bands of color.
1087:Electronic fluorescent lamp starters
659:. Electrons collide with and ionize
594:Golden Gate International Exposition
133:A "tombstone" style lamp-holder for
4419:"Accommodating People with Vertigo"
4111:Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed
3705:Practical Lighting Design with LEDs
3466:
3155:Practical Applications of Phosphors
2422:-activated phosphor is used in the
1908:Many countries are encouraging the
24:
5824:Plasma technology and applications
4717:Museum of Electric Lamp Technology
4656:
3740:Stiller, Michael (July 16, 2013).
3237:Cayless, M. A. (August 21, 2012).
2508:and televisions before the use of
2437:
2413:
1999:
1964:
1664:(CRI) of such lamps is around 60.
265:
181:, but is less efficient than most
161:, is a low-pressure mercury-vapor
25:
5845:
4722:R. N. Thayer (October 25, 1991).
4669:
4601:Bright, Arthur Aaron Jr. (1949).
4142:Environmental Health Perspectives
3884:. eere.energy.gov. Archived from
3549:Thorn Lighting Technical Handbook
2853:Claude, Georges (November 1913).
2418:Deep blue light generated from a
2404:
2202:than it is when viewed directly.
958:rather than an arc, similar to a
888:around 40 °C (104 °F).
4301:"Working with Light Sensitivity"
4204:10.1111/j.1600-0781.2011.00576.x
3346:Power Semiconductor Applications
2142:Fluorescent lamps with magnetic
1982:
1924:Comparison to incandescent lamps
1719:for green and blue emission and
1553:
1161:A rapid-start "iron" (magnetic)
1122:
798:negative differential resistance
85:
74:
5293:Parabolic aluminized reflector
4532:
4509:from the original on 2020-05-21
4491:
4480:from the original on 2014-05-13
4456:
4429:
4411:
4368:
4357:from the original on 2008-05-09
4343:
4332:from the original on 2008-07-25
4318:
4307:from the original on 2008-03-30
4293:
4282:from the original on 2021-02-27
4268:
4259:
4248:from the original on 2009-09-02
4227:
4178:
4129:
4101:
4079:
4057:
4046:from the original on 2010-02-01
4028:
4017:from the original on 2021-02-18
3997:
3985:from the original on 2019-09-30
3971:UN Environment (January 2017).
3953:from the original on 2012-11-16
3935:
3902:
3871:
3858:
3847:from the original on 2023-04-20
3797:
3786:from the original on 2011-02-11
3760:from the original on 2023-04-20
3733:
3722:from the original on 2023-04-20
3695:
3684:from the original on 2023-04-20
3657:
3634:"Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp"
3626:
3595:
3564:
3543:
3531:
3516:from the original on 2012-11-04
3498:
3487:from the original on 2019-04-23
3455:from the original on 2019-01-08
3423:from the original on 2012-03-22
3389:from the original on 2012-03-22
3257:
3230:
3195:from the original on 2023-04-20
3147:
3120:from the original on 2018-11-09
3102:
3090:
3078:
3059:
3040:
3003:
2992:from the original on 2023-04-20
2972:Sacks, Oliver (June 16, 2011).
2965:
2954:from the original on 2023-04-20
2927:
2865:from the original on 2023-04-20
2855:"The Development of Neon Tubes"
2812:
2801:from the original on 2020-06-11
2787:
2767:. Whittaker & Co. pp.
2742:from the original on 2018-07-25
2620:from the original on 2016-06-04
2461:to identify certain species of
2351:
1869:
1321:. This principle is called the
686:
241:
5238:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide
4546:Journal of Experimental Botany
3943:"When to Turn Off Your Lights"
3879:"Compact Fluorescent Lighting"
3840:. Philips. pp. 16 to 47.
3175:Kulshreshtha, Alok K. (2009).
3099:, Volume 12–13, Page 141, 1952
2754:
2703:
2671:
2652:
2631:
2602:
2308:
2294:
2116:high intensity discharge lamps
1689:Typical fluorescent lamp with
1356:
1192:
1152:
933:Cold-cathode fluorescent lamps
695:Close-up of the cathodes of a
13:
1:
4138:"Ultraviolet leaks from CFLs"
2595:
2492:Cold-cathode fluorescent lamp
2109:
1973:
1390:. A little of the coating is
1008:
802:constant-voltage power supply
479:
4783:
3994:Citing Floyd, et al. (2002).
2883:van Dulken, Stephen (2002).
2385:
2065:Fluorescent lamps require a
2006:Fluorescent lamps and health
1481:Correlated color temperature
137:G13 bi-pin fluorescent lamps
7:
5483:Automotive light bulb types
5333:Intelligent street lighting
2567:
2263:Lamp sizes and designations
1476:of different electric lamps
1299:Electronic ballasts employ
993:
777:
10:
5850:
5246:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide
4594:
3831:"Philips lighting catalog"
2477:
2348:(and not blacklite blue).
2266:
2241:
2137:
2044:
2003:
1526:
1461:
997:
943:
936:
781:
566:Sylvania Electric Products
536:General Electric Co., Ltd.
483:
315:Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
231:
36:
32:Tubelight (disambiguation)
29:
5738:
5693:
5685:Stage lighting instrument
5634:
5557:
5473:
5398:
5268:
5208:
5156:
5128:
5006:
4908:
4880:
4871:
4791:
3947:U.S. Department of Energy
3708:. John Wiley & Sons.
3670:. John Wiley & Sons.
3087:, Volume 50, Page 4, 1946
3013:. Ies.org. Archived from
2940:. John Wiley & Sons.
2720:Fluorescent Electric Lamp
2486:electromagnetic induction
2257:compact fluorescent lamps
1810:Yellow fluorescent lights
1684:Fluorescent-lamp spectra
1323:current resonant inverter
1075:switch in a small sealed
899:
819:The simplest ballast for
764:Compact fluorescent lamps
572:on patents that it held.
203:Compact fluorescent lamps
99:of different shapes with
97:compact fluorescent lamps
60:compact fluorescent lamps
5746:Battlefield illumination
5503:high-intensity discharge
4935:Electrochemiluminescence
2934:Binggeli, Corky (2010).
2859:The Engineering Magazine
2562:high-voltage power lines
2533:high-voltage power lines
2269:Fluorescent lamp formats
2164:chronic fatigue syndrome
2132:compact fluorescent lamp
2010:Fluorescent lamp crusher
1503:which make up the light.
604:with varying content of
58:Top: two non-integrated
39:Fluorescent-lamp formats
5606:Electroluminescent wire
4136:Nicole, Wendee (2012).
2546:Van de Graaff generator
2318:dramatic effects using
2304:Other fluorescent lamps
1952:
984:liquid crystal displays
616:Principles of operation
256:University of Cambridge
5288:Multifaceted reflector
3667:Lighting Design Basics
3612:10.1109/08IAS.2008.237
3114:americanhistory.si.edu
2536:
2520:Science demonstrations
2224:
2182:
2062:
1524:
1504:
1477:
1442:
1425:
1395:
1375:
1296:
1285:
1274:
1266:
1224:
1216:
1170:
1165:continually heats the
1133:
1088:
1064:
1037:
1022:
963:
917:
884:
860:
796:Fluorescent lamps are
793:
758:
704:
568:, Inc., which claimed
426:
382:
150:
138:
126:
67:
51:
18:Fluorescent light bulb
5678:ellipsoidal reflector
5283:Ellipsoidal reflector
4967:Fluorescent induction
4945:field-induced polymer
4560:10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407
4503:Practical Fishkeeping
4278:. December 17, 2012.
3804:Klipstein, Donald L.
3339:"Chapter 8. Lighting"
3097:Westinghouse Engineer
3085:Electrical Consultant
3067:US patent 2182732
3048:US patent 1790153
2585:List of light sources
2527:
2251:require a compatible
2222:
2180:
2098:Operating temperature
2052:
1801:Peaks with stars are
1662:color rendering index
1529:Color rendering index
1510:
1494:
1487:Color rendering index
1471:
1452:color rendering index
1436:
1419:
1381:
1373:
1291:
1280:
1272:
1264:
1222:
1214:
1160:
1130:
1086:
1058:
1035:
1016:
953:
944:Further information:
939:CCFL (disambiguation)
907:
882:
875:Effect of temperature
854:
791:
748:
694:
590:New York World's Fair
551:a patent covering an
422:
405:Daniel McFarlan Moore
368:
361:Early discharge lamps
311:electromagnetic field
144:
132:
116:
57:
49:
5515:Rear position lights
5488:Daytime running lamp
5416:Mechanically powered
5303:Aviation obstruction
4585:Kane & Sell 2001
4527:Kane & Sell 2001
4154:10.1289/ehp.120-a387
3559:Kane & Sell 2001
3319:Kane & Sell 2001
3307:Kane & Sell 2001
3295:Kane & Sell 2001
3213:Kane & Sell 2001
2830:Kessinger Publishing
2681:; 2004; pp 424–432;
2030:Ultraviolet emission
1577:improve this section
1545:Phosphor composition
1499:reveals the various
673:avalanche ionization
449:, patented in 1901 (
237:Physical discoveries
5829:American inventions
5809:Gas discharge lamps
4923:Electron-stimulated
3746:. Lulu Press, Inc.
3321:, pp. 196–197.
3225:Van Broekhoven 2001
3157:, CRC Press, 2006,
3138:Van Broekhoven 2001
3037:, pp. 388–391.
2912:, pp. 369–374.
2784:, pp. 221–223.
2738:. October 2, 1896.
2700:, pp. 381–385.
2558:Capacitive coupling
2529:Capacitive coupling
2187:stroboscopic effect
1685:
1497:diffraction grating
1384:thermionic emission
1293:Electronic ballasts
1249:Electronic ballasts
1202:Semi-resonant start
1187:capacitive coupling
1175:thermionic emission
1107:Electronic starters
1069:glow switch starter
1000:Glow switch starter
976:thermionic emission
821:alternating current
740:thermionic emission
610:beryllium was toxic
600:In the first years
443:Peter Cooper Hewitt
424:Peter Cooper Hewitt
375:Peter Cooper Hewitt
371:mercury vapor lamps
291:mercury vacuum pump
280:James Clerk Maxwell
173:that then causes a
5814:Glass applications
5766:Luminous gemstones
4940:Electroluminescent
4918:Cathodoluminescent
4692:2021-11-17 at the
3838:images.philips.com
3281:General Electric,
3240:Lamps and Lighting
2820:Weeks, Mary Elvira
2664:2015-06-29 at the
2542:Static electricity
2537:
2480:Electrodeless lamp
2474:Electrodeless lamp
2377:The lamps used in
2356:The lamps used in
2340:blacklight posters
2225:
2183:
2063:
2024:recycling services
1988:Frequent switching
1683:
1671:mixture, based on
1619:(chemical formula
1525:
1505:
1478:
1443:
1426:
1396:
1386:coating acting as
1376:
1336:resonant frequency
1297:
1286:
1282:Electronic ballast
1275:
1267:
1225:
1217:
1171:
1134:
1112:integrated circuit
1089:
1077:gas-discharge lamp
1065:
1038:
1023:
964:
918:
914:quantum efficiency
885:
861:
838:leakage inductance
794:
784:Electrical ballast
759:
705:
667:by the process of
602:zinc orthosilicate
447:mercury-vapor lamp
427:
383:
163:gas-discharge lamp
151:
139:
127:
105:electronic ballast
68:
52:
5834:Mercury (element)
5791:
5790:
5308:Balanced-arm lamp
5264:
5263:
5148:Yablochkov candle
5016:Acetylene/Carbide
4986:Radioluminescence
4858:Luminous efficacy
4804:Color temperature
4681:Fluorescent Lamps
4648:978-0-88173-378-5
4627:978-0-88173-378-5
4505:. June 13, 2016.
4450:10.1109/28.952531
3914:Quirks and Quarks
3512:. June 20, 2004.
3481:www.tabelek.co.uk
3449:www.tabelek.co.uk
3250:978-1-135-13809-7
3188:978-0-07-014100-1
2978:. Pan Macmillan.
2896:978-0-8147-8812-7
2839:978-0-7661-3872-8
2687:978-0-8129-6788-3
2590:Metal-halide lamp
2506:computer monitors
2373:UVB medical lamps
2255:. Some models of
2220:
2200:peripheral vision
2148:light sensitivity
1929:Luminous efficacy
1867:
1866:
1762:halophosphate (Ca
1613:
1612:
1605:
1536:color temperature
1513:incandescent bulb
1474:color temperature
1464:Color temperature
1458:Color temperature
1262:
1212:
1099:correction (PFC)
1033:
836:with substantial
671:. As a result of
669:impact ionization
462:energy efficiency
390:calcium tungstate
369:One of the first
287:Heinrich Geissler
278:in the 1840s and
252:Sir George Stokes
187:luminous efficacy
179:incandescent lamp
171:ultraviolet light
16:(Redirected from
5841:
5591:Christmas lights
5525:Safety reflector
5520:Reversing lights
5455:Navigation light
5406:Bicycle lighting
5296:
5249:
5241:
5215:
4974:Photoluminescent
4957:Fluorescent lamp
4930:Chemiluminescent
4878:
4877:
4846:Bi-pin lamp base
4841:Lightbulb socket
4778:
4771:
4764:
4755:
4754:
4741:Wiebe E. Bijker,
4738:
4736:
4735:
4708:
4652:
4631:
4610:
4608:
4588:
4582:
4573:
4572:
4562:
4553:(7): 1407–1413.
4536:
4530:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4485:
4479:
4468:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4444:(5): 1531–1536.
4433:
4427:
4426:
4421:. Archived from
4415:
4409:
4408:
4377:Ann. Intern. Med
4372:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4362:
4347:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4272:
4266:
4263:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4253:
4247:
4240:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4206:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4133:
4127:
4126:
4105:
4099:
4098:
4093:. Archived from
4083:
4077:
4076:
4071:. Archived from
4061:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4051:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4022:
4016:
4009:
4001:
3995:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3920:. Archived from
3906:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3890:
3883:
3875:
3869:
3862:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3846:
3835:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3808:. Archived from
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3791:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3766:
3765:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3645:
3638:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3583:
3576:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3547:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3510:users.tpg.com.au
3502:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3492:
3473:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3441:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3428:
3422:
3415:
3407:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3394:
3388:
3381:
3373:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3354:
3343:
3335:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3292:
3286:
3279:
3264:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3172:
3166:
3151:
3145:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3088:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2931:
2925:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2880:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2758:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2728:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2675:
2669:
2656:
2650:
2637:M. A. Laughton.
2635:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2606:
2510:LED-backlit LCDs
2443:Germicidal lamps
2320:blacklight paint
2290:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2221:
1845:
1823:photolithography
1817:
1798:
1747:
1700:
1686:
1682:
1608:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1588:
1557:
1549:
1352:
1313:
1263:
1243:
1213:
1034:
859:for 18–20 W
832:often a step-up
541:General Electric
459:
458:
454:
432:General Electric
331:Hermann Sprengel
272:electric current
159:fluorescent tube
155:fluorescent lamp
89:
78:
21:
5849:
5848:
5844:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5794:
5793:
5792:
5787:
5751:Bioluminescence
5734:
5703:
5689:
5646:
5630:
5569:
5553:
5469:
5394:
5318:Emergency light
5294:
5260:
5247:
5239:
5213:
5211:
5204:
5152:
5124:
5095:Magnesium torch
5002:
4904:
4873:
4867:
4824:Light pollution
4799:Accent lighting
4787:
4782:
4733:
4731:
4706:
4694:Wayback Machine
4679:, January 1940
4677:Popular Science
4672:
4659:
4657:Further reading
4649:
4628:
4609:. Macmillan Co.
4597:
4592:
4591:
4583:
4576:
4537:
4533:
4525:
4521:
4512:
4510:
4497:
4496:
4492:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4434:
4430:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4373:
4369:
4360:
4358:
4349:
4348:
4344:
4335:
4333:
4324:
4323:
4319:
4310:
4308:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4285:
4283:
4274:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4251:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4232:
4228:
4183:
4179:
4134:
4130:
4106:
4102:
4085:
4084:
4080:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4049:
4047:
4040:LampRecycle.org
4034:
4033:
4029:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4007:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3975:
3969:
3965:
3956:
3954:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3927:
3925:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3877:
3876:
3872:
3863:
3859:
3850:
3848:
3844:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3815:
3813:
3802:
3798:
3789:
3787:
3776:
3772:
3763:
3761:
3754:
3738:
3734:
3725:
3723:
3716:
3700:
3696:
3687:
3685:
3678:
3662:
3658:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3600:
3596:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3570:
3569:
3565:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3536:
3532:
3519:
3517:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3490:
3488:
3475:
3474:
3467:
3458:
3456:
3443:
3442:
3435:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3401:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3358:
3356:
3352:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3289:
3285:, December 1978
3280:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3198:
3196:
3189:
3173:
3169:
3152:
3148:
3136:
3132:
3123:
3121:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3045:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2995:
2993:
2986:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2955:
2948:
2932:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2881:
2877:
2868:
2866:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2832:. p. 287.
2817:
2813:
2804:
2802:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2743:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2676:
2672:
2666:Wayback Machine
2657:
2653:
2641:, Newnes, 2003
2636:
2632:
2623:
2621:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2574:Gas-filled tube
2570:
2522:
2494:
2482:
2476:
2440:
2438:Germicidal lamp
2416:
2414:Bilirubin lamps
2407:
2388:
2375:
2354:
2311:
2306:
2297:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2271:
2265:
2253:dimming ballast
2244:
2212:
2140:
2112:
2100:
2080:
2047:
2032:
2012:
2002:
2000:Mercury content
1990:
1985:
1976:
1967:
1965:Lower luminance
1955:
1931:
1926:
1872:
1834:Spectrum of a "
1773:
1769:
1765:
1754:- and divalent
1733:
1729:
1718:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1609:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1574:
1558:
1547:
1531:
1489:
1466:
1460:
1431:
1359:
1350:
1343:microcontroller
1311:
1284:basic schematic
1253:
1251:
1241:
1206:
1204:
1195:
1155:
1125:
1025:
1011:
1002:
996:
948:
942:
935:
902:
877:
834:autotransformer
823:(AC) use is an
786:
780:
751:germicidal lamp
697:germicidal lamp
689:
618:
524:
492:
484:Main articles:
482:
456:
450:
363:
347:Wilhelm Röntgen
323:William Crookes
276:Michael Faraday
268:
266:Discharge tubes
244:
239:
234:
218:universal waste
111:
110:
109:
108:
92:
91:
90:
81:
80:
79:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5847:
5837:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5789:
5788:
5786:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5748:
5742:
5740:
5739:Related topics
5736:
5735:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5706:
5704:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5649:
5647:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5572:
5570:
5568:
5567:
5562:
5558:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5550:
5549:
5539:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5530:retroreflector
5522:
5517:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5490:
5485:
5479:
5477:
5471:
5470:
5468:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5441:
5440:
5430:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5418:
5408:
5402:
5400:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5392:
5387:
5385:Track lighting
5382:
5377:
5376:
5375:
5365:
5360:
5358:Recessed light
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5328:Gooseneck lamp
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5299:
5298:
5290:
5285:
5274:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5258:
5253:
5252:
5251:
5243:
5235:
5225:
5219:
5217:
5210:High-intensity
5206:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5180:
5179:
5178:
5168:
5162:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5151:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5075:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5010:
5004:
5003:
5001:
5000:
4999:
4998:
4988:
4983:
4982:
4981:
4979:Laser headlamp
4971:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4949:
4948:
4947:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4926:
4925:
4914:
4912:
4906:
4905:
4903:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4886:
4884:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4838:
4837:
4836:
4831:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4809:Electric light
4806:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4789:
4788:
4781:
4780:
4773:
4766:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4746:
4739:
4719:
4714:
4703:
4697:
4684:
4671:
4670:External links
4668:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4658:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4647:
4632:
4626:
4611:
4596:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4587:, p. 122.
4574:
4531:
4529:, p. 120.
4519:
4490:
4455:
4428:
4425:on 2008-06-08.
4410:
4383:(12): 919–26.
4367:
4342:
4317:
4292:
4267:
4258:
4226:
4197:(3): 131–137.
4177:
4128:
4100:
4097:on 2010-01-10.
4078:
4075:on 2010-01-25.
4056:
4027:
3996:
3963:
3934:
3901:
3870:
3857:
3822:
3796:
3770:
3752:
3732:
3714:
3694:
3676:
3656:
3625:
3594:
3563:
3561:, p. 182.
3551:
3542:
3530:
3497:
3465:
3433:
3399:
3365:
3323:
3311:
3309:, p. 188.
3299:
3287:
3265:
3256:
3249:
3229:
3217:
3215:, p. 185.
3205:
3187:
3167:
3165:, pages 84–85
3146:
3130:
3101:
3089:
3077:
3058:
3039:
3027:
3002:
2984:
2964:
2946:
2926:
2924:, p. 385.
2914:
2902:
2895:
2875:
2845:
2838:
2811:
2786:
2774:
2753:
2736:New York Times
2723:
2702:
2690:
2670:
2651:
2630:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2576:
2569:
2566:
2521:
2518:
2493:
2490:
2478:Main article:
2475:
2472:
2439:
2436:
2415:
2412:
2406:
2405:Infrared lamps
2403:
2395:photosynthesis
2387:
2384:
2374:
2371:
2353:
2350:
2331:blacklite blue
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2267:Main article:
2264:
2261:
2243:
2240:
2139:
2136:
2111:
2108:
2099:
2096:
2079:
2076:
2070:filled with a
2046:
2043:
2031:
2028:
2001:
1998:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1954:
1951:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1917:stage lighting
1903:Southeast Asia
1871:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1830:
1818:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1748:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1716:
1701:
1694:
1637:
1633:
1623:
1611:
1610:
1561:
1559:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1527:Main article:
1501:spectral lines
1488:
1485:
1462:Main article:
1459:
1456:
1447:spectral lines
1430:
1427:
1392:sputtered away
1358:
1355:
1250:
1247:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1154:
1151:
1147:electric shock
1142:glow discharge
1124:
1121:
1010:
1007:
998:Main article:
995:
992:
956:glow discharge
934:
931:
910:Sankey diagram
901:
898:
876:
873:
865:direct current
782:Main article:
779:
776:
688:
685:
681:Penning effect
630:kinetic energy
617:
614:
532:Arthur Compton
523:
520:
500:Georges Claude
481:
478:
409:carbon dioxide
362:
359:
307:Julius PlĂĽcker
303:glow discharge
282:in the 1860s.
267:
264:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
185:. The typical
94:
93:
84:
83:
82:
73:
72:
71:
70:
69:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5846:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5819:Types of lamp
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5782:
5779:
5778:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5737:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5720:Infrared lamp
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5707:
5705:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5692:
5686:
5683:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5573:
5571:
5566:
5563:
5560:
5559:
5556:
5548:
5545:
5544:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5480:
5478:
5476:
5472:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5450:Laser pointer
5448:
5446:
5443:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5353:Pendant light
5351:
5349:
5348:Neon lighting
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5297:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5279:
5276:
5275:
5273:
5271:
5267:
5257:
5254:
5250:
5244:
5242:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5230:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5223:Mercury-vapor
5221:
5220:
5218:
5216:
5207:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5174:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5166:Deuterium arc
5164:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5158:Gas discharge
5155:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5070:
5069:
5066:
5062:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5009:
5005:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4975:
4972:
4968:
4965:
4962:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4953:
4950:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4924:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4916:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4907:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4879:
4876:
4870:
4864:
4863:Task lighting
4861:
4859:
4856:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4839:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4819:Light fixture
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4779:
4774:
4772:
4767:
4765:
4760:
4759:
4756:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4740:
4730:on 2007-03-24
4729:
4725:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4704:
4702:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4673:
4664:
4661:
4660:
4650:
4644:
4640:
4639:
4633:
4629:
4623:
4619:
4618:
4612:
4607:
4606:
4599:
4598:
4586:
4581:
4579:
4570:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4535:
4528:
4523:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4494:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4459:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4432:
4424:
4420:
4414:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4371:
4356:
4352:
4346:
4331:
4327:
4321:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4281:
4277:
4271:
4262:
4244:
4237:
4230:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4181:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4132:
4124:
4120:
4117:(6): 268–74.
4116:
4112:
4104:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4082:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4031:
4013:
4010:. July 2008.
4006:
4000:
3981:
3974:
3967:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3938:
3924:on 2011-10-28
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3905:
3891:on 2011-05-11
3887:
3880:
3874:
3867:
3861:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3826:
3812:on 2007-12-28
3811:
3807:
3800:
3785:
3781:
3774:
3759:
3755:
3753:9781304236159
3749:
3745:
3744:
3736:
3721:
3717:
3715:9781119165323
3711:
3707:
3706:
3698:
3683:
3679:
3677:9781118287927
3673:
3669:
3668:
3660:
3646:on 2007-10-22
3642:
3635:
3629:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3598:
3584:on 2012-08-03
3580:
3573:
3567:
3560:
3555:
3546:
3539:
3534:
3527:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3501:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3472:
3470:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3438:
3419:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3385:
3378:
3372:
3370:
3355:on 2009-11-22
3351:
3347:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3320:
3315:
3308:
3303:
3296:
3291:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3260:
3252:
3246:
3243:. Routledge.
3242:
3241:
3233:
3227:, p. 93.
3226:
3221:
3214:
3209:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3180:
3179:
3171:
3164:
3163:1-4200-4369-2
3160:
3156:
3150:
3143:
3139:
3134:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3098:
3093:
3086:
3081:
3068:
3062:
3049:
3043:
3036:
3031:
3017:on 2016-06-04
3016:
3012:
3006:
2991:
2987:
2985:9780330537216
2981:
2977:
2976:
2968:
2953:
2949:
2947:9780470228470
2943:
2939:
2938:
2930:
2923:
2918:
2911:
2906:
2898:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2879:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2841:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2783:
2778:
2770:
2766:
2765:
2757:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2712:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2655:
2648:
2647:0-7506-4637-3
2644:
2640:
2634:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2554:plasma globes
2551:
2547:
2543:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2489:
2487:
2481:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2426:treatment of
2425:
2424:light therapy
2421:
2411:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2383:
2380:
2370:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2301:
2292:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2239:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2210:
2207:
2203:
2201:
2196:
2195:rectification
2191:
2188:
2179:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2085:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2020:
2017:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1994:
1983:Disadvantages
1980:
1971:
1962:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1921:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1632:
1629:
1622:
1618:
1607:
1604:
1596:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1562:This section
1560:
1556:
1551:
1550:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1484:
1482:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1440:
1435:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1354:
1346:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1246:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1199:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1183:voltage spike
1180:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1150:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1137:Instant start
1129:
1123:Instant start
1120:
1116:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1020:
1015:
1006:
1001:
991:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
961:
957:
952:
947:
940:
930:
928:
922:
915:
911:
906:
897:
894:
889:
881:
872:
870:
866:
858:
853:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
830:
826:
822:
817:
814:
809:
807:
803:
799:
790:
785:
775:
771:
767:
765:
756:
752:
747:
743:
741:
737:
733:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
702:
698:
693:
684:
682:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
657:arc discharge
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
613:
611:
607:
603:
598:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
573:
571:
567:
562:
557:
554:
548:
546:
542:
537:
533:
528:
519:
517:
513:
512:Edmund Germer
507:
505:
501:
497:
491:
490:Neon lighting
487:
477:
475:
469:
465:
463:
453:
448:
445:invented the
444:
439:
437:
433:
425:
421:
417:
414:
410:
406:
401:
399:
395:
391:
387:
386:Thomas Edison
380:
376:
372:
367:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:J. J. Thomson
336:
332:
328:
324:
319:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
295:Geissler tube
292:
288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:United States
210:
208:
207:energy-saving
204:
200:
196:
191:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
148:
143:
136:
131:
124:
120:
115:
106:
102:
98:
88:
77:
65:
64:light fixture
61:
56:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
5804:Fluorescence
5626:Strobe light
5621:Plasma globe
5596:Crackle tube
5586:Bubble light
5547:trafficators
5542:Turn signals
5368:Street light
5323:Gas lighting
5256:Sodium vapor
5228:Metal-halide
5130:Electric arc
4956:
4882:Incandescent
4851:Edison screw
4742:
4732:. Retrieved
4728:the original
4680:
4676:
4637:
4616:
4604:
4550:
4544:
4534:
4522:
4511:. Retrieved
4502:
4493:
4482:. Retrieved
4471:www.nema.org
4470:
4458:
4441:
4437:
4431:
4423:the original
4413:
4380:
4376:
4370:
4359:. Retrieved
4345:
4334:. Retrieved
4320:
4309:. Retrieved
4295:
4284:. Retrieved
4270:
4261:
4250:. Retrieved
4229:
4194:
4190:
4180:
4148:(10): a387.
4145:
4141:
4131:
4114:
4110:
4103:
4095:the original
4090:
4081:
4073:the original
4068:
4059:
4048:. Retrieved
4039:
4030:
4019:. Retrieved
3999:
3987:. Retrieved
3966:
3955:. Retrieved
3946:
3937:
3926:. Retrieved
3922:the original
3913:
3904:
3893:. Retrieved
3886:the original
3873:
3865:
3860:
3849:. Retrieved
3837:
3825:
3814:. Retrieved
3810:the original
3799:
3788:. Retrieved
3773:
3762:. Retrieved
3742:
3735:
3724:. Retrieved
3704:
3697:
3686:. Retrieved
3666:
3659:
3648:. Retrieved
3641:the original
3628:
3603:
3597:
3586:. Retrieved
3579:the original
3566:
3554:
3545:
3537:
3533:
3524:
3518:. Retrieved
3509:
3500:
3489:. Retrieved
3480:
3457:. Retrieved
3448:
3425:. Retrieved
3391:. Retrieved
3357:. Retrieved
3350:the original
3345:
3314:
3302:
3290:
3282:
3259:
3239:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3197:. Retrieved
3177:
3170:
3154:
3149:
3133:
3122:. Retrieved
3113:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3061:
3042:
3030:
3019:. Retrieved
3015:the original
3005:
2994:. Retrieved
2974:
2967:
2956:. Retrieved
2936:
2929:
2917:
2905:
2885:
2878:
2867:. Retrieved
2858:
2848:
2824:
2814:
2803:. Retrieved
2789:
2777:
2763:
2756:
2751:Paid access.
2744:. Retrieved
2735:
2726:
2719:
2705:
2693:
2679:Random House
2673:
2654:
2649:, pp. 21-12.
2638:
2633:
2622:. Retrieved
2604:
2538:
2514:case modders
2498:backlighting
2495:
2483:
2447:fused quartz
2441:
2417:
2408:
2389:
2379:phototherapy
2376:
2358:tanning beds
2355:
2352:Tanning lamp
2343:
2335:Wood's glass
2330:
2328:
2312:
2298:
2275:
2272:
2245:
2236:
2228:
2226:
2208:
2204:
2192:
2184:
2168:Lyme disease
2141:
2120:incandescent
2113:
2101:
2092:
2088:
2084:power factor
2081:
2064:
2059:power factor
2040:
2033:
2021:
2013:
1995:
1991:
1977:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1914:
1907:
1895:
1876:
1873:
1870:Applications
1861:Wood's glass
1857:fluoroborate
1783:
1668:
1666:
1614:
1599:
1590:
1575:Please help
1563:
1540:
1532:
1521:LED lighting
1479:
1444:
1412:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1360:
1347:
1340:
1332:
1316:
1298:
1238:
1226:
1196:
1178:
1172:
1136:
1135:
1117:
1106:
1105:
1097:power factor
1094:
1090:
1066:
1060:
1039:
1018:
1003:
988:
968:cold cathode
965:
946:Cold cathode
927:Stokes shift
923:
919:
890:
886:
862:
848:correction.
846:power factor
818:
810:
795:
772:
768:
760:
755:fused quartz
706:
687:Construction
677:
654:
650:fluorescence
626:energy level
619:
599:
586:Westinghouse
574:
570:infringement
558:
549:
529:
525:
508:
493:
470:
466:
440:
428:
402:
398:Nikola Tesla
384:
373:invented by
355:luminescence
351:Crookes tube
320:
284:
269:
248:fluorescence
245:
242:Fluorescence
211:
197:to regulate
192:
167:fluorescence
158:
154:
152:
119:F71T12 100 W
43:
5771:Signal lamp
5725:Stroboscope
5601:DJ lighting
5537:Stop lights
5508:sealed beam
5460:Searchlight
5200:Xenon flash
5143:Klieg light
4991:Solid-state
4952:Fluorescent
4910:Luminescent
3778:Panasonic.
3297:, c.f. 182.
3035:Bright 1949
2922:Bright 1949
2910:Bright 1949
2861:: 271–274.
2782:Bright 1949
2698:Bright 1949
2399:chlorophyll
2324:bug zappers
2309:Black light
2295:Overdriving
2057:have a low
2036:ultraviolet
1669:triphosphor
1388:hot cathode
1357:End of life
1328:thermistors
1301:transistors
1193:Quick-start
1179:rapid start
1153:Rapid start
1073:bi-metallic
1050:bi-metallic
980:hot cathode
855:230 V
725:fluorescent
703:to be seen)
642:ultraviolet
638:wavelengths
345:in 1895 by
337:in 1897 by
329:created by
327:vacuum pump
107:in the base
95:Integrated
5798:Categories
5715:Grow light
5710:Germicidal
5700:Scientific
5697:Industrial
5653:Floodlight
5639:Theatrical
5581:Blacklight
5576:Aroma lamp
5565:Decorative
5475:Automotive
5465:Solar lamp
5428:Glow stick
5411:Flashlight
5343:Nightlight
5338:Light tube
5313:Chandelier
5270:Stationary
5212:discharge
5138:Carbon arc
5008:Combustion
4874:generation
4872:Methods of
4734:2007-03-18
4513:2020-03-31
4484:2020-03-18
4361:2007-12-28
4336:2007-12-28
4311:2007-12-28
4286:2019-03-14
4252:2016-01-16
4050:2010-03-16
4021:2020-06-04
3989:2019-09-30
3957:2012-11-28
3928:2011-10-27
3895:2012-07-24
3851:2019-11-24
3816:2007-12-29
3790:2010-09-27
3764:2020-10-17
3726:2020-10-17
3688:2020-10-17
3650:2007-10-22
3588:2012-01-29
3520:2023-02-25
3491:2019-04-26
3459:2019-04-26
3427:2011-04-08
3393:2011-04-08
3359:2009-11-22
3199:2020-10-17
3140:, p.
3124:2019-04-26
3021:2016-06-05
2996:2016-06-05
2958:2016-06-05
2869:2016-10-01
2805:2020-06-23
2746:2008-05-26
2624:2016-06-11
2596:References
2550:Tesla coil
2459:geologists
2391:Grow lamps
2329:So-called
2110:Lamp shape
2004:See also:
1974:Lower heat
1891:California
1836:blacklight
1827:cleanrooms
1691:rare-earth
1519:flame and
1422:adsorption
1319:LC circuit
1009:Preheating
960:neon light
829:inductance
729:rare-earth
701:electrodes
646:nanometers
578:Lightolier
504:electrodes
480:Neon lamps
289:created a
165:that uses
135:T12 and T8
101:E27 socket
5781:Reflected
5761:Light art
5673:Spotlight
5658:Footlight
5643:Cinematic
5611:Lava lamp
5373:in the US
5278:Reflector
5195:Xenon arc
5176:Neon lamp
5105:Rushlight
5085:Limelight
4834:Hong Kong
3620:0197-2618
2711:US 865367
2579:LED tubes
2432:bilirubin
2386:Grow lamp
2345:blacklite
2053:Magnetic
1883:basements
1854:strontium
1786:in 1942.
1756:manganese
1617:phosphors
1564:does not
1534:the same
1405:inverters
1364:sputtered
1305:frequency
1101:capacitor
891:Using an
842:capacitor
661:noble gas
606:beryllium
553:electrode
545:Nela Park
530:In 1934,
486:Neon lamp
452:US 682692
299:electrode
254:from the
226:recycling
183:LED lamps
5493:Headlamp
5433:Headlamp
5421:Tactical
5399:Portable
5380:Torchère
5061:Petromax
5056:Kerosene
5026:Campfire
4996:LED lamp
4792:Concepts
4785:Lighting
4690:Archived
4569:11541074
4507:Archived
4475:Archived
4405:20746489
4397:10610642
4355:Archived
4330:Archived
4305:Archived
4280:Archived
4243:Archived
4213:21535166
4172:23026199
4044:Archived
4012:Archived
3980:Archived
3951:Archived
3842:Archived
3784:Archived
3758:Archived
3720:Archived
3682:Archived
3526:fitting.
3514:Archived
3485:Archived
3453:Archived
3418:Archived
3384:Archived
3193:Archived
3118:Archived
2990:Archived
2952:Archived
2863:Archived
2822:(2003).
2799:Archived
2740:Archived
2662:Archived
2618:Archived
2568:See also
2463:minerals
2428:jaundice
2420:europium
2367:thallium
2156:epilepsy
2144:ballasts
2104:efficacy
2055:ballasts
1947:T5 lamps
1879:kitchens
1850:europium
1825:work in
1752:antimony
1693:phosphor
1673:europium
1658:spectrum
1593:May 2024
1242:240 volt
1233:resonate
1167:cathodes
1132:holders.
1042:filament
994:Starting
869:inverter
825:inductor
778:Ballasts
736:tungsten
732:phosphor
592:and the
436:tungsten
413:nitrogen
335:electron
260:fluorite
175:phosphor
117:Typical
5776:Sources
5730:Tanning
5616:Marquee
5561:Display
5445:Lantern
5438:outdoor
5390:Troffer
5233:ceramic
5090:Luchina
5068:Lantern
4961:compact
4959: (
4895:Halogen
4890:Regular
4712:YouTube
4595:Sources
4221:9509601
4163:3491932
4123:1343229
4091:EPA.gov
4069:EPA.gov
2362:tanning
2286:⁄
2242:Dimming
2172:vertigo
2138:Flicker
2124:halogen
2067:ballast
2045:Ballast
2016:mercury
1887:garages
1852:-doped
1805:lines.
1803:mercury
1760:calcium
1758:-doped
1677:terbium
1585:removed
1570:sources
1454:(CRI).
1163:ballast
1061:preheat
1046:cathode
1019:preheat
972:voltage
893:amalgam
857:ballast
806:ballast
721:krypton
640:in the
474:Germany
379:ballast
232:History
212:In the
199:current
195:ballast
147:cathode
123:mercury
103:and an
5498:hidden
5363:Sconce
5188:Sulfur
5183:Plasma
5115:Tilley
5110:Safety
5073:Fanous
5036:Carcel
5031:Candle
5021:Argand
4900:Nernst
4829:Hawaii
4699:NASA:
4645:
4624:
4567:
4403:
4395:
4219:
4211:
4170:
4160:
4121:
3750:
3712:
3674:
3618:
3247:
3185:
3161:
3073:
3054:
2982:
2944:
2893:
2836:
2716:
2685:
2645:
2451:oxygen
2248:dimmer
2232:effect
2170:, and
2152:autism
1939:lumens
1838:" lamp
1784:et al.
1660:. The
1517:candle
1351:20 kHz
1326:(PTC)
1312:10 kHz
900:Losses
665:plasma
634:photon
622:photon
516:Berlin
457:
394:X-rays
349:. The
343:X-rays
220:. The
5756:Laser
5668:Scoop
5295:(PAR)
5248:(HQI)
5240:(HMI)
5214:(HID)
5120:Torch
5078:Paper
5046:Flare
4814:Glare
4478:(PDF)
4467:(PDF)
4401:S2CID
4246:(PDF)
4239:(PDF)
4217:S2CID
4015:(PDF)
4008:(PDF)
3983:(PDF)
3976:(PDF)
3889:(PDF)
3882:(PDF)
3845:(PDF)
3834:(PDF)
3644:(PDF)
3637:(PDF)
3582:(PDF)
3575:(PDF)
3421:(PDF)
3414:(PDF)
3387:(PDF)
3380:(PDF)
3353:(PDF)
3342:(PDF)
3142:97–98
2771:–111.
2560:with
2544:or a
2531:with
2467:EPROM
2455:ozone
2160:lupus
2128:glare
1885:, or
719:, or
713:xenon
709:argon
561:legal
157:, or
5663:Gobo
5171:Neon
5041:Diya
4643:ISBN
4622:ISBN
4565:PMID
4393:PMID
4209:PMID
4168:PMID
4119:PMID
3748:ISBN
3710:ISBN
3672:ISBN
3616:ISSN
3245:ISBN
3183:ISBN
3159:ISBN
2980:ISBN
2942:ISBN
2891:ISBN
2834:ISBN
2683:ISBN
2643:ISBN
2502:LCDs
2500:for
2230:beat
2122:and
2008:and
1953:Life
1901:and
1899:East
1821:for
1675:and
1568:any
1566:cite
1472:The
844:for
774:it.
717:neon
496:neon
488:and
341:and
246:The
5100:Oil
5051:Gas
4710:on
4555:doi
4446:doi
4385:doi
4381:131
4199:doi
4158:PMC
4150:doi
4146:120
3918:CBC
3608:doi
2769:107
2504:in
2453:to
2315:UVA
2174:.
2072:tar
1766:(PO
1579:by
1362:is
1229:T12
813:arc
543:'s
411:or
5800::
4577:^
4563:.
4551:48
4549:.
4543:.
4501:.
4473:.
4469:.
4442:37
4440:.
4399:.
4391:.
4379:.
4353:.
4328:.
4303:.
4241:.
4215:.
4207:.
4195:27
4193:.
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4166:.
4156:.
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4089:.
4067:.
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3916:.
3912:.
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3680:.
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3508:.
3483:.
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3468:^
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3447:.
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3416:.
3402:^
3382:.
3368:^
3344:.
3326:^
3268:^
3191:.
3116:.
3112:.
2988:.
2950:.
2857:.
2828:.
2797:.
2734:.
2616:.
2612:.
2556:.
2516:.
2434:.
2185:A
2166:,
2162:,
2158:,
2154:,
2118:,
1881:,
1863:.
1778:,
1776:Cl
1721:Eu
1715:PO
1713:La
1709:Ce
1707:,
1705:Tb
1654:Mn
1652:,
1650:Sb
1648:):
1646:Cl
1644:,
1621:Ca
1515:,
1439:CD
1407:.
1308:AC
1095:A
1059:A
1017:A
908:A
749:A
742:.
715:,
711:,
580:,
381:.
357:.
313:.
153:A
4963:)
4777:e
4770:t
4763:v
4737:.
4651:.
4630:.
4571:.
4557::
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4387::
4364:.
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4289:.
4255:.
4223:.
4201::
4174:.
4152::
4125:.
4115:9
4053:.
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3992:.
3960:.
3931:.
3898:.
3854:.
3819:.
3793:.
3767:.
3729:.
3691:.
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3622:.
3610::
3591:.
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3462:.
3430:.
3396:.
3362:.
3253:.
3202:.
3144:.
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2999:.
2961:.
2899:.
2872:.
2842:.
2808:.
2749:.
2668:.
2627:.
2326:.
2288:2
2284:1
2281:+
2279:1
1780:F
1774:(
1772:3
1770:)
1768:4
1764:5
1732:3
1730:O
1728:2
1725:Y
1723::
1717:4
1711::
1642:F
1640:(
1638:3
1636:)
1634:4
1631:O
1628:P
1626:(
1624:5
1606:)
1600:(
1595:)
1591:(
1587:.
1573:.
1523:.
1044:–
941:.
41:.
34:.
20:)
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