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the meaning of the alphabetic texts, and "ornamentals" that were decorative. The majority of the nearly 2,500 images are "primary figures" (approximately 2000), with the remainder ornamental. The figures were drawn in black outline first, with color added later. Scholars have concluded that several artists, of varying skill, created the images. It was deduced that twenty-two artists worked on the images in the Codex. This was done by analyzing the different ways that forms of body were drawn, such as the eyes, profile, and proportions of the body.
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of a page; others are black and white sketches. The pictorial images offer remarkable detail about life in New Spain, but they do not bear titles, and the relationship of some to the adjoining text is not always self-evident. They can be considered a "third column of language" in the manuscript. Several different artists' hands have been identified, and many questions about their accuracy have been raised. The drawings convey a blend of
Indigenous and European artistic elements and cultural influences.
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451:. One scholar has argued that Bartholomew's work served as a conceptual model for SahagĂșn, although evidence is circumstantial. Both men present descriptions of the cosmos, society and nature of the late medieval paradigm. Additionally, in one of the prologues, SahagĂșn assumes full responsibility for dividing the Nahuatl text into books and chapters, quite late into the evolution of the Codex (approximately 1566â1568). "Very likely," historian
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599:. This is the scientific research strategy to document the beliefs, behavior, social roles and relationships, and worldview of another culture, and to explain these within the logic of that culture. Ethnography requires scholars to practice empathy with persons very different from them, and to try to suspend their own cultural beliefs in order to enter into, understand, and explain the worldview of those living in another culture.
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22:
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providing a rich
Nahuatl vocabulary, and recording the indigenous cultural heritage are at times in competition within the work. The manuscript pages are generally arranged in two columns, with Nahuatl, written first, on the right and a Spanish gloss or translation on the left. Diverse voices, views, and opinions are expressed in these 2,400 pages, and the result is a document that is sometimes contradictory.
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authorities about the native cultures and, in Ovando's opinion, was not possible to make correct decisions without reliable information. As a consequence, the
Council of the Indies ordered to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1568 that they needed to include ethnographic and geographic information regarding any new discovery within their limits. A similar disposition was given to the Vice-Royalty of
493:, of the object or person depicted. For the Aztecs, the true self or identity of a person or object was shown via the external layer, or skin. Imparting color onto an image would change it so that it was given the identity of what it was portraying. Color was also used as a vehicle to impart knowledge that worked in tandem with the image itself.
102:, SahagĂșn conducted research, organized evidence, wrote and edited his findings. He worked on this project from 1545 up until his death in 1590. The work consists of 2,500 pages organized into twelve books; more than 2,000 illustrations drawn by native artists provide vivid images of this era. It documents the culture,
211:
King
Phillip II of Spain concluded that was not beneficial for the Spanish colonies in America and, hence, it never took place. That is the reason why the missionaries, including Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn continued their missionary work and Fray Bernardino de Sahagun was able to make two more copies
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suggested to the
Spanish Crown to educate the native Americans in Spanish instead of using the indigenous languages; for this reason, the Spanish authorities required Fray SahagĂșn to hand over all of his documents about the Aztec culture and the results of his research in order to get further details
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and its peoples, for there were others in this era. SahagĂșn's methods for gathering information from the perspective within a foreign culture were highly unusual for this time. He reported the worldview of people of
Central Mexico as they understood it, rather than describing the society exclusively
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The text in this section provides very detailed information about location, cultivation, and medical uses of plants and plant parts, as well as information about the uses of animal products as medicine. The drawings in this section provide important visual information to amplify the alphabetic text.
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generally. His interest was likely related to the high death rate at the time from plagues and diseases. Many thousands of people died, including friars and students at the school. Sections of Books Ten and Eleven describe human anatomy, disease, and medicinal plant remedies. SahagĂșn named more than
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is alphabetic text in
Nahuatl and Spanish, but its 2,000 pictures provide vivid images of sixteenth-century New Spain. Some of these images directly support the alphabetic text; others are thematically related; others are for seemingly decorative purposes. Some are colorful and large, taking up most
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in the late-sixteenth century to explain Aztec culture. The copies of the work were essentially lost for about two centuries, until a scholar rediscovered it in the
Laurentian Library (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana) an archive library in Florence, Italy. The Spanish also had earlier drafts in their
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The missionary SahagĂșn had the goal of evangelizing the indigenous
Mesoamerican peoples, and his writings were devoted to this end. He described this work as an explanation of the "divine, or rather idolatrous, human, and natural things of New Spain". He compared its body of knowledge to that needed
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Plants and animals are described in association with their behavior and natural conditions or habitat. The Nahua presented their information in a way consistent with their worldview. For modern readers, this combination of ways of presenting materials is sometimes contradictory and confusing. Other
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had
European books with illustrations and books of engravings. European elements appear in the imagery, as well as pre-Conquest images done in the "native style". A number of the images have Christian elements, which Peterson has described as "Christian editorializing". The entirety of the Codex is
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The images were inserted in places in the text left open for them, and in some cases the blank space has not been filled. This strongly suggests that when the manuscripts were sent to Spain, they were as yet unfinished. The images are of two types, what can be called "primary figures" that amplify
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coverage of contact-period Central Mexico indigenous culture is remarkable, unmatched by any other sixteenth-century works that attempted to describe the native way of life." Foremost in his own mind, SahagĂșn was a Franciscan missionary, but he may also rightfully be given the title as Father of
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and President of the Royal Council of Castile instructed the cleric Luis SĂĄnchez to report about the situation of the native Americans. The concerning findings of this report triggered a visit of Juan de Ovando to the Council of the Indies because it demonstrated a total ignorance of the Spanish
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Some passages appear to be the transcription of spontaneous narration of religious beliefs, society or nature. Other parts clearly reflect a consistent set of questions presented to different people designed to elicit specific information. Some sections of text report SahagĂșn's own narration of
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is a complex document, assembled, edited, and appended over decades. Essentially it is three integral texts: (1) in Nahuatl; (2) a Spanish text; (3) pictorials. The final version of the Florentine Codex was completed in 1569. SahagĂșn's goals of orienting fellow missionaries to Aztec culture,
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SahagĂșn systematically gathered knowledge from a range of diverse persons (now known as informants in anthropology), who were recognized as having expert knowledge of Aztec culture. He did so in the native language of Nahuatl, while comparing the answers from different sources of information.
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Many passages of the texts in the Florentine Codex present descriptions of like items (e.g., gods, classes of people, animals) according to consistent patterns. Because of this, scholars have concluded that SahagĂșn used a series of questionnaires to structure his interviews and collect data.
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SahagĂșn conducted research for several decades, edited and revised his work over several decades, created several versions of a 2,400-page manuscript, and addressed a cluster of religious, cultural and nature themes. Copies of the work were sent by ship to the royal court of Spain and to the
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Book Eleven, "Earthly Things", has the most text and approximately half of the drawings in the codex. The text describes it as a "forest, garden, orchard of the Mexican language". It describes the Aztec cultural understanding of the animals, birds, insects, fish and trees in Mesoamerica.
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of Spain created a new position as "CosmĂłgrafo y Cronista Mayor de Indias" to collect and organize this information, being appointed Don Juan LĂłpez de Velasco, so that he could write "La Historia General de las Indias", namely, a compilation about the history of the Indies.
1538:, ed. Munro S. Edmonson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974). The passage on human anatomy appears primarily intended to record vocabulary. The ethnobotanic section is an insertion into Book Eleven, and reads quite differently from the rest of this book.
1021:(Translation of and Introduction to Historia General de Las Cosas de La Nueva España; 12 Volumes in 13 Books ), trans. Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O Anderson (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1950â1982). Images are taken from Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn,
919:. Contains the Spanish and Nahuatl text in parallel and contains scans of a manuscript too. Also includes translations from Spanish to English, Nahuatl to English, and Nahuatl to Spanish. Furthermore, it allows the text to be searchable across numerous translations.
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Felipe II frente a las culturas y a los discursos prehispånicos de América, De la transculturación a la erradicación, Georges Baudot, IPEALT Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, Editor Caravelle. Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-brésilien, Année 2002, vol 78, pp.
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presented a description of the illustrations at the 7th meeting of the International Congress of Americanists. Mexican scholar Francisco del Paso y Troncoso received permission in 1893 from the Italian government to copy the alphabetic text and the illustrations.
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The manuscript became part of the collection of the library in Florence at some point after its creation in the late sixteenth century. It was not until the late eighteenth century that scholars become aware of it, when the bibliographer
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were created as an integral element of the larger work. Although many of the images show evidence of European influence, a careful analysis by one scholar posits that they were created by "members of the hereditary profession of
346:. This provides more than definitions from a dictionary, as it gives an explanation of their cultural origins, with pictures. This was to help friars and others learn Nahuatl and to understand the cultural context of the language.
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was a decades-long work of Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, an important contribution to the scholarship on Mesoamerican ethno-history. In 1979, the Mexican government published a full-color, three-volume facsimile of the
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SahagĂșn was among the first people to develop an array of strategies for gathering and validating knowledge of indigenous New World cultures. Much later, the discipline of anthropology would later formalize these as
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in a limited edition of 2,000, allowing scholars to have easier access to the manuscript. The Archivo General de la NaciĂłn (Dra. Alejandra Moreno Toscano, director) supervised the project that was published by the
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could be analyzed in detail. Previously, the images were known mainly through the black-and-white drawings found in various earlier publications, which were separated from the alphabetic text. The images in the
304:, Secretary). The 2012 World Digital Library high-resolution digital version of the manuscript makes it fully accessible online to all those interested in this source for Mexican and Aztec history. In 2023, the
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According to James Lockhart, SahagĂșn collected statements from indigenous people of "relatively advanced age and high status, having what was said written down in Nahuatl by the aids he had trained."
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archives. A scholarly community of historians, anthropologists, art historians, and linguists has since been investigating SahagĂșn's work, its subtleties and mysteries, for more than 200 years.
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To describe and explain ancient Indigenous religion, beliefs, practices, deities. This was to help friars and others understand this "idolatrous" religion in order to evangelize the Aztecs.
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published a description of it in Latin in 1793. The work became more generally known in the nineteenth century, with a description published by P. Fr. Marcellino da Civezza in 1879.
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He undertook a comparative evaluation of information, drawing from multiple sources, in order to determine the degree of confidence with which he could regard that information.
757:, an herbal created in 1552 that has pictorials of medicinal plants and their uses. Although this was originally written in Nahuatl, only the Latin translation has survived.
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Complete digital facsimile edition on 16 DVDs. Tempe, Arizona: Bilingual Press, 2009. Reproduced with permission from Arizona State University Hispanic Research Center.
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in 1569, specifying that 37 chapters were to be reported; in 1570, the extent of the report was modified to required information for 200 chapters. That same year,
1551:(Translation of and Introduction to Historia General de Las Cosas de la Nueva España; 12 Volumes in 13 Books), Prologue to Book XI, Introductory Volume, page 88.
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For Book Ten, "The People", a questionnaire may have been used to gather information about the social organization of labor and workers, with questions such as:
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notes, "SahagĂșn himself devised the chapter titles, in Spanish, and the Nahuatl chapter titles may well be a translation of them, reversing the usual process."
279:) was known in the 1860s and studied by JosĂ© Fernando RamĂrez. The Tolosa Manuscript has been the source for all published editions in Spanish of the
1348:
James Lockhart, ed. and trans., We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 30.
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James Lockhart, ed. and trans., We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 27
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James Lockhart, ed. and trans., We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
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895:"We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico" contains Book XII translated from Nahuatl to English by James Lockhart (2004)
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He structured his inquiry by using questionnaires, but also could adapt to using more valuable information shared with him by other means.
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a dozen Aztec doctors who dictated and edited these sections. A questionnaire such as the following may have been used in this section:
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is one of the most remarkable social science research projects ever conducted. It is not unique as a chronicle of encountering the
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ed. Eloise Quiñones Keber (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2002). Prologue to Book XI, Introductory Volume, page 46.
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Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy. About prayers to their gods, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and theology in the same context.
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The People. About general history: it explains vices and virtues, spiritual as well as bodily, of all manner of persons.
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characterized by the Nahua belief that the use of color activates the image and causes it to embody the true nature, or
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Earthly Things. About properties of animals, birds, fish, trees, herbs, flowers, metals, and stones, and about colors.
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The Omens. Deals with foretelling these natives made from birds, animals, and insects in order to foretell the future.
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The Ceremonies. Deals with holidays and sacrifices with which these natives honored their gods in times of infidelity.
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SahagĂșn was particularly interested in Nahua medicine. The information he collected is a major contribution to the
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For instance, the following questions appear to have been used to gather information about the gods for Book One:
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people. It has been described as "one of the most remarkable accounts of a non-Western culture ever composed."
1503:(Translation of and Introduction to Historia General De Las Cosas De La Nueva España; 12 Volumes in 13 Books).
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140:
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An illustration of the "One Flower" ceremony, from the 16th-century Florentine Codex. The two drums are the
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Alfredo LĂłpez Austin, "SahagĂșn's Work and the Medicine of the Ancient Nahuas: Possibilities for Study", in
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These methodological innovations substantiate historians' claim that SahagĂșn was the first anthropologist.
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For analysis of the pictures and the artists, see several contributions to John Frederick Schwaller, ed.,
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to English, in a project that took 30 years to complete. In 2012, high-resolution scans of all volumes of
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1382:, J. Jorge Klor de Alva et al. eds. Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies. SUNY Albany 1988, p.273.
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He elicited information from elders, cultural authorities publicly recognized as the most knowledgeable.
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Kings and Lords. About kings and lords, and the way they held their elections and governed their reigns.
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This work follows the organizational logic found in medieval encyclopedias, in particular the 19-volume
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Scholars have proposed several classical and medieval worldbook authors who inspired SahagĂșn, such as
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Eloise Quiñones Keber, "Reading Images: The Making and Meaning of the Sahaguntine Illustrations", in
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has been intensely analyzed and compared to earlier drafts found in Madrid. The Tolosa Manuscript (
148:
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1780:
1573:, ed. Arthur J. O Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1982).
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Alfredo LĂłpez Austin, "The Research Method of Fray Bernardino De SahagĂșn: The Questionnaires", in
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He attended to the diverse ways that diverse meanings are transmitted through Nahuatl linguistics.
54:
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General history of the affairs of New Spain. Books X-XI: Aztec's Knowledge in medicine and botany
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H. B. Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De SahagĂșn: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590", in
1232:"General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn: The Florentine Codex"
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H. B. Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De SahagĂșn: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590", in
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2586:
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Nicholson, "Fray Bernardino De SahagĂșn: A Spanish Missionary in New Spain, 1529-1590." page 27.
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General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn: The Florentine Codex
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sections include data on minerals, mining, bridges, roads, types of terrain, and food crops.
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He adapted the project to the ways in which Aztec culture recorded and transmitted knowledge.
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To record and document the great cultural inheritance of the Indigenous peoples of New Spain.
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He collected information on the conquest of the Aztec Empire from the point of view of the
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He attempted to capture the totality or complete reality of Aztec culture on its own terms.
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The Spanish Royal Academy of History learned of this work and, at the fifth meeting of the
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233:
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D. Robertson, "The Sixteenth Century Mexican Encyclopedia of Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn",
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The Work of Bernardino de SahagĂșn: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Aztec Mexico
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The Work of Bernardino de SahagĂșn: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Aztec Mexico
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After the facsimile edition became available generally in 1979, the illustrations of the
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LĂłpez Austin, "The Research Method of Fray Bernardino De SahagĂșn: The Questionnaires."
1261:, ed. Munro S. Edmonson (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974). Page 121.
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SahagĂșn at 500: Essays on the Quincentenary of the Birth of Fr. Bernardino de SahagĂșn
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The Gods. Deals with gods worshipped by the natives of this land, which is New Spain.
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The Soothsayers. About Indian judiciary astrology or omens and fortune-telling arts.
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It is not clear what artistic sources the scribes drew from, but the library of the
263:, the find was announced to the larger scholarly community. In 1888 German scholar
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The English translation of the complete Nahuatl text of all twelve volumes of the
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et al. eds. Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies. SUNY Albany 1988, p.202.
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Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of SahagĂșn,
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Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of SahagĂșn,
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1979:
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SahagĂșn appeared to have asked questions about animals such as the following:
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The twelve books of the Florentine Codex are organized in the following way:
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2019:
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753:. Scholars have speculated that SahagĂșn was involved in the creation of the
407:. These shaped the late medieval approach to the organization of knowledge.
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JosĂ© Fernando RamĂrez, "CĂłdices majicanos de fr. Bernardino de SahagĂșn."
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which gives access to the complete manuscript and multiple translations.
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43:
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ed. Eloise Quiñones Keber (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2002).
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U Distinguished Professor of Anthropology Professor Charles Dibble Dies
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What are the titles, the attributes, or the characteristics of the god?
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Humanity (society, politics, economics, including anatomy and disease),
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Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources,
925:, at the World Digital Library online. Contains scans of a manuscript.
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The Florentine Codex : General History of the Things of New Spain
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This book also described some other indigenous groups in Mesoamerica.
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2009:
2004:
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1161:, Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, No. 14, Part I 1982, p. 15
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850:, 12 volumes; University of Utah Press (January 7, 2002), hardcover,
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Gods, religious beliefs and rituals, cosmology, and moral philosophy,
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240:, following in the tradition of nineteenth-century Mexican scholars
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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
1994:
1954:
1934:
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For a history of this scholarly work, see Miguel LeĂłn-Portilla,
535:. Deals with the sun, the moon, the stars, and the jubilee year.
135:, in Nahuatl and Spanish, with illustrations, were added to the
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1959:
1642:
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75:. The best-preserved manuscript is commonly referred to as the
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by a physician to cure the "patient" suffering from idolatry.
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Part 2, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973, pp. 189-207.
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Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
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Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
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Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
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Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
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about this matter. In the meantime, the Bishop of SigĂŒenza,
1999:
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The information is useful for a wider understanding of the
1569:
Arthur J. O Anderson, "SahagĂșn: Career and Character", in
1274:, Albuquerque, New Mexico, University of New Mexico Press.
106:(worldview) and ritual practices, society, economics, and
1525:(Berkeley: Academy of American Franciscan History, 2003).
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elders and authors who were formerly his students at the
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Mexican Manuscript Painting of the Early Colonial Period
1299:
Howard F. Cline, "Evolution of the Historia General" in
1079:, 5 Dec. 2002, University of Utah. Accessed 7 July 2012.
505:
Merchants selecting gemstones, from Book 9 of the Codex.
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The Origin of the Gods. About the creation of the gods.
67:). After a translation mistake, it was given the name
1479:. Los Angeles, California: Getty Research Institute.
1221:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1950-1982.
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The codex is composed of the following twelve books:
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318:
1116:"The work of Fray Bernardino de SahagĂșn (1499â1590)"
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SahagĂșn, Bernardino de; Kupriienko, Sergii (2013) .
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He used the expertise of his former students at the
590:, "Our Lord the Flayed One", an Aztec (Mexica) deity
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The Merchants. About long-distance elite merchants,
362:
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1465:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Imagery", p. 293.
1434:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Imagery", p. 278.
1412:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Imagery", p. 274.
1400:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Imagery", p. 273.
1391:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Imagery", p. 277.
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1311:
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821:from the European perspective. "The scope of the
335:He had three overarching goals for his research:
139:. In 2015, SahagĂșn's work was inscribed into the
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1443:Peterson, "The Florentine Codex Images", p. 279.
1425:. New Haven: Yale University Press 1959, p. 178.
60:La Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España
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1403:
1288:Bernardino De SahagĂșn: The First Anthropologist
579:Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex
158:which gives access to the complete manuscript.
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1169:
1167:
342:To create a vocabulary of the Aztec language,
65:The General History of the Things of New Spain
1594:
1536:Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of SahagĂșn
1290:(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002).
1272:Sixteenth-century Mexico: The Work of SahagĂșn
1259:Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of SahagĂșn
1090:"World Digital Library Adds Florentine Codex"
694:What is the (trader, artisan) called and why?
570:
232:chosen by its English translators, Americans
173:Historia general de las Cosas de Nueva España
171:
71:Historia general de las Cosas de Nueva España
69:
58:
683:What ceremonies were performed in his honor?
436:is the only strictly historical book of the
161:
1571:Florentine Codex: Introductions and Indices
1197:BoletĂn de la Real Academia de la Historia,
1164:
1159:Florentine Codex: Introductions and Indices
725:What is the name of the plant (plant part)?
428:from the point of view of the conquered of
124:were the first to translate the Codex from
1601:
1587:
1217:Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble,
1157:Charles Dibble, "SahagĂșn's Historia", in
999:Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
838:, translated from Nahuatl to English by
759:
618:He used the indigenous Nahuatl language.
582:
574:
500:
366:
322:
165:
20:
2486:Romances de los señores de Nueva España
1378:Imagery and the Colonial Tlacuilo", in
697:What particular gods did they venerate?
2622:16th century in the Aztec civilization
2579:
261:International Congress of Americanists
1582:
447:of SahagĂșn's fellow Franciscan Friar
2607:16th-century illuminated manuscripts
1186:Dibble, "SahagĂșn's Historia", p. 17.
1177:Dibble, "SahagĂșn's Historia", p. 16.
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
554:The Conquest. About the conquest of
1608:
1208:Dibble, "SahagĂșn's Historia" p. 21.
1094:News Releases â Library of Congress
946:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
629:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
486:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
271:The three-volume manuscript of the
100:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
13:
1199:Vol. VI (Madrid 1885), pp. 85-124.
915:a multi-disciplinary project from
459:Images within the Florentine Codex
327:Goldsmith measuring a gold article
319:SahagĂșn's motivations for research
14:
2643:
2381:Lienzo de Coixtlahuaca I & II
1626:: OmetÄcuthli and OmecihuÄtl (or
1132:
1039:"Digital Florentine Codex Online"
906:
531:The Sun, Moon and Stars, and the
216:. The three bound volumes of the
1641:
991:
977:
963:
874:. Kyiv: ĐОЎаĐČĐ”ŃŃ ĐŃĐżŃŃŃĐœĐșĐŸ ĐĄ.Đ.
363:Evolution, format, and structure
2556:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus I
2436:Oztoticpac Lands Map of Texcoco
2386:Lienzo de Santa MarĂa Nativitas
1563:
1554:
1541:
1528:
1515:
1506:
1493:
1475:Magaloni Kerpel, Diana (2014).
1468:
1459:
1446:
1437:
1428:
1415:
1394:
1385:
1374:Jeanette Favrot Peterson. "The
1368:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1320:
1293:
1264:
1251:
1238:
1224:
1211:
1202:
1189:
1180:
1068:Ann Bardsley and Ursula Hanly,
867:
780:What is the name of the animal?
57:. SahagĂșn originally titled it
2396:Lienzo de Zacatepec I & II
1151:
1107:
1082:
1062:
1049:
1011:
789:Why does it receive this name?
783:What animals does it resemble?
222:Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana
179:Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana
1:
1270:Edmonson, M. S. (Ed.) (1974)
1005:
734:How is the medicine prepared?
709:How did each occupation work?
614:with the following elements:
242:Francisco del Paso y Troncoso
16:Text by Bernardino de SahagĂșn
700:How were their gods attired?
426:conquest of the Aztec Empire
424:Book 12, the account of the
25:Page 51 of Book IX from the
7:
2531:Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca
2391:Lienzo de Santiago Ihuitlan
1477:The Colors of the New World
1454:Mexican Manuscript Painting
929:
829:
764:One of the first images of
631:, whom he credited by name.
477:or native scribe-painter".
298:Secretariat of the Interior
277:CĂłdice Castellano de Madrid
10:
2648:
2491:Codex Santa Maria AsunciĂłn
2271:Boban Aztec Calendar Wheel
571:Ethnographic methodologies
449:Bartholomew the Englishman
246:JoaquĂn GarcĂa Icazbalceta
2506:Codex Telleriano-Remensis
2296:Mapas de Cuauhtinchan 1-4
2266:Codices Becker I & II
2228:
2200:
2124:
2058:
1692:
1650:
1639:
1616:
804:What sounds does it make?
795:What habits does it have?
654:, that had been defeated.
162:History of the manuscript
2446:Plano en papel de maguey
2256:Codices AzoyĂș I & II
1328:Journal of World History
913:Digital Florentine Codex
703:How were they worshiped?
496:
306:Getty Research Institute
302:Enrique Olivares Santana
228:, Italy, with the title
149:Getty Research Institute
33:; World Digital Library.
2241:Aubin Manuscript no. 20
1547:Bernardino de SahagĂșn,
1499:Bernardino de SahagĂșn,
1017:Bernardino de SahagĂșn,
792:What does it look like?
737:How is it administered?
728:What does it look like?
445:De proprietatibus rerum
2376:Lienzo Antonio de LeĂłn
826:American Ethnography.
769:
607:events or commentary.
591:
580:
506:
380:
328:
182:
172:
70:
59:
34:
2536:Codex Totomixtlahuaca
2476:RelaciĂłn de MichoacĂĄn
2426:CĂłdice Maya de MĂ©xico
2411:MatrĂcula de Tributos
2336:Codex Fejérvåry-Mayer
1781:TlÄhuizcalpantecuhtli
1363:J. Jorge Klor de Alva
1023:The Florentine Codex.
941:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
840:Arthur J. O. Anderson
836:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
798:What does it feed on?
763:
706:What do they produce?
680:What were his powers?
586:
578:
504:
405:Bartholomeus Anglicus
375:(foreground) and the
370:
326:
187:Council of the Indies
169:
137:World Digital Library
122:Arthur J. O. Anderson
55:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
24:
2627:History of New Spain
2592:Mesoamerican codices
2566:Codex Zouche-Nuttall
2516:Anales de Tlatelolco
2406:Codex Magliabechiano
1656:(Four Tezcatlipocas)
768:to be sent to Europe
686:What was his attire?
533:Binding of the Years
254:Angelo Maria Bandini
234:Arthur J.O. Anderson
224:, Palat. 218-220 in
94:In partnership with
39:The Florentine Codex
2456:Codex Porfirio DĂaz
2451:Primeros Memoriales
2366:Codex Ixtlilxochitl
2361:Humboldt fragment 1
2351:CĂłdice de Huichapan
2261:Badianus Manuscript
2215:The Stinking Corpse
956:Pedro Cieza de Leon
917:J. Paul Getty Trust
786:Where does it live?
755:Badianus Manuscript
718:history of medicine
194:, who was also the
177:(original from the
141:Memory of the World
104:religious cosmology
2597:Nahuatl literature
2421:CrĂłnica Mexicayotl
2306:Codex Chimalpopoca
1895:Itzpapalotlcihuatl
1875:Huitztlampaehecatl
1736:Tezcatlipoca (see
1702:Lords of the Night
1421:Donald Robertson,
1075:2016-03-05 at the
985:Mesoamerica portal
770:
751:history of zoology
740:Where is it found?
731:What does it cure?
592:
581:
507:
401:Isidore of Seville
381:
329:
196:Inquisitor General
183:
85:Laurentian Library
46:research study in
42:is a 16th-century
35:
2617:1569 in New Spain
2574:
2573:
2551:Codex Vaticanus B
2511:Tira de Tepechpan
2356:Codex Huexotzinco
2301:Codex Chimalpahin
2220:Use of entheogens
2187:Tlillan-Tlapallan
2081:Centzon TĆtĆchtin
2076:CentzonhuÄ«tznÄhua
1802:Acuecueyotl (see
1657:
1486:978-1-60606-329-3
881:978-617-7085-07-1
844:Charles E. Dibble
801:How does it hunt?
747:history of botany
220:are found in the
192:Diego de Espinosa
118:Charles E. Dibble
27:Florentine Codex.
2639:
2632:Aztec philosophy
2521:Codex Tlatelolco
2341:Codex Florentine
2281:Codex Borbonicus
2251:Codex Azcatitlan
2246:Aubin Tonalamatl
2177:Thirteen Heavens
1940:Mictlanpachecatl
1900:Itzpapalotltotec
1820:Chalchiuhtotolin
1761:Lords of the Day
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663:Florentine Codex
470:Florentine Codex
465:Florentine Codex
438:Historia General
420:Natural history.
385:Florentine Codex
312:Florentine Codex
293:Florentine Codex
288:Florentine Codex
281:Historia General
273:Florentine Codex
230:Florentine Codex
218:Florentine Codex
214:Historia general
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132:Florentine Codex
77:Florentine Codex
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52:Franciscan friar
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2612:1560s in Mexico
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2416:Codex Mexicanus
2346:Codex Huamantla
2321:Codex Cozcatzin
2311:Codex Colombino
2224:
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2120:
2071:CentzonmÄ«mixcĆa
2054:
1905:Itztlacoliuhqui
1804:Chalchiuhtlicue
1727:Piltzintecuhtli
1712:Chalchiuhtlicue
1688:
1664:HuÄ«tzilĆpĆchtli
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147:. In 2023, the
108:natural history
83:is held in the
50:by the Spanish
29:The text is in
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1923:
1921:
1920:Macuilxochitl
1918:
1916:
1915:Macuiltochtli
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1885:Ilamatecuhtli
1883:
1881:
1880:Huixtocihuatl
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
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1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1845:Cihuatecayotl
1843:
1841:
1838:
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1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
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1801:
1799:
1798:Acolnahuacatl
1796:
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1632:TĆnacÄcihuÄtl
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1024:
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1014:
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1000:
989:
986:
975:
972:
971:Mexico portal
961:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
936:Aztec codices
934:
933:
924:
921:
918:
914:
911:
910:
902:
901:9781592446810
898:
894:
883:
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664:
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389:
386:
379:(background).
378:
374:
369:
360:
357:
348:
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341:
338:
337:
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325:
316:
314:
313:
308:released the
307:
303:
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284:
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202:
197:
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188:
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159:
157:
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151:released the
150:
146:
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138:
134:
133:
127:
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119:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
72:
66:
63:(in English:
61:
56:
53:
49:
45:
41:
40:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2561:Codex Xolotl
2541:Codex Tudela
2526:Mapa Tloztin
2401:Codex Madrid
2340:
2286:Codex Borgia
2276:Codex Bodley
2201:Beliefs and
2160:
2116:Xiuhtotontli
2045:Yacatecuhtli
2025:XĆchiquetzal
1985:Tlacotzontli
1975:Temazcalteci
1970:TÄcciztÄcatl
1870:HuÄhuecoyĆtl
1860:CoyolxÄuhqui
1830:ChicomecĆÄtl
1803:
1786:Tlaltecuhtli
1754:Xiuhtecuhtli
1738:Creator gods
1737:
1674:Tezcatlipoca
1669:Quetzalcoatl
1652:Creator gods
1570:
1565:
1556:
1548:
1543:
1535:
1530:
1522:
1517:
1508:
1500:
1495:
1476:
1470:
1461:
1456:, pp. 15-23.
1453:
1448:
1439:
1430:
1422:
1417:
1396:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1358:
1353:
1344:
1335:
1327:
1322:
1300:
1295:
1287:
1271:
1266:
1258:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1226:
1218:
1213:
1204:
1196:
1191:
1182:
1158:
1153:
1123:. Retrieved
1119:
1109:
1098:. Retrieved
1096:. 2012-10-31
1093:
1084:
1064:
1056:
1051:
1042:
1022:
1018:
1013:
885:. Retrieved
870:
847:
822:
813:
811:
807:
775:
771:
743:
715:
712:
689:
672:
668:
662:
661:Most of the
660:
657:
648:Tenochtitlan
609:
605:
601:
593:
560:Tenochtitlan
508:
490:
483:
479:
474:
469:
464:
462:
444:
442:
437:
430:Tenochtitlan
423:
409:
390:
384:
382:
376:
372:
352:
334:
330:
311:
292:
287:
285:
280:
276:
272:
270:
265:Eduard Seler
258:
250:
229:
217:
213:
210:
185:In 1575 the
184:
170:
154:
143:register by
131:
116:
93:
76:
68:
64:
44:ethnographic
38:
37:
36:
26:
18:
2496:Selden Roll
2471:Codex Reese
2441:Paris Codex
2431:Codex Osuna
2331:Codex DurĂĄn
2316:Codex Cospi
2236:Aubin Codex
2172:Teotihuacan
2147:Chicomoztoc
2106:TiÄnquiztli
2050:Zacatzontli
2030:Xochitlicue
1990:Tlalocayotl
1980:TepoztÄcatl
1890:ÄȘtzpÄpÄlĆtl
1776:Nanahuatzin
1749:TlazĆlteĆtl
1732:TepÄyĆllĆtl
1617:Primordials
1452:Robertson,
951:Diego DurĂĄn
887:4 September
612:methodology
597:ethnography
48:Mesoamerica
2602:1569 books
2581:Categories
2481:Codex RĂos
2371:Codex Laud
2167:Tamoanchan
2161:Underworld
2142:Cemanahuac
2111:Tzitzimitl
2091:Cihuateteo
2066:Ahuiateteo
2020:XĆchipilli
1850:Cipactonal
1840:CihuacĆÄtl
1766:CitlÄlicue
1679:Xipe Totec
1125:2024-04-02
1100:2012-11-12
1006:References
856:087480082X
823:Historia's
652:Tlatelolco
588:Xipe Totec
564:Tlatelolco
434:Tlatelolco
373:teponaztli
205:Phillip II
2210:Five Suns
2096:Civateteo
2010:Tonantzin
2005:Toltecatl
1910:Ixtlilton
1855:CĆÄtlÄ«cue
1330:4 (1966).
818:New World
558:from the
556:New Spain
393:Aristotle
201:New Spain
91:, Italy.
79:, as the
2203:practice
2182:TlÄlĆcÄn
2086:CintÄteo
1965:Patecatl
1950:Opochtli
1945:Mixcoatl
1930:Mayahuel
1835:ChÄ«malmÄ
1825:Chantico
1815:Atlacoya
1791:TĆnatiuh
1717:Cinteotl
1707:CenteĆtl
1683:Camaxtle
1624:ĆmeteĆtl
1073:Archived
930:See also
830:Editions
749:and the
543:pochteca
475:tlacuilo
377:huehuetl
310:Digital
226:Florence
153:Digital
89:Florence
2229:Codices
2157:MictlÄn
2132:Anahuac
2015:Xilonen
1995:Tlilhua
1955:Oxomoco
1935:Metztli
1865:Ehecatl
1810:Atlahua
1694:Deities
491:ixiptla
356:Vatican
344:Nahuatl
212:of his
126:Nahuatl
110:of the
31:Nahuatl
2192:TĆllÄn
2137:AztlĂĄn
2125:Places
2059:Groups
2040:Xolotl
2035:Xocotl
1960:Painal
1744:TlĂĄloc
1483:
899:
878:
861:
854:
403:, and
145:UNESCO
2159:(The
1148:37-56
1043:Getty
766:maize
497:Books
112:Aztec
96:Nahua
81:codex
2000:Toci
1681:(or
1630:and
1481:ISBN
897:ISBN
889:2013
876:ISBN
859:ISBN
852:ISBN
842:and
812:The
383:The
244:and
236:and
130:the
120:and
87:of
2583::
1405:^
1361:.
1308:^
1279:^
1166:^
1134:^
1118:.
1092:.
1041:.
1030:^
846:;
440:.
399:,
395:,
283:.
248:.
2163:)
1806:)
1740:)
1685:)
1634:)
1602:e
1595:t
1588:v
1489:.
1234:.
1128:.
1103:.
1045:.
891:.
650:-
562:-
432:-
300:(
181:)
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