206:
382:
919:, the structure can be used to reconstruct the original order of a manuscript. However, complications can arise in the study of a codex. Manuscripts were frequently rebound, and this resulted in a particular codex incorporating works of different dates and origins, thus different internal structures. Additionally, a binder could alter or unify these structures to ensure a better fit for the new binding. Completed quires or books of quires might constitute independent book units- booklets, which could be returned to the stationer, or combined with other texts to make anthologies or miscellanies. Exemplars were sometimes divided into quires for simultaneous copying and loaned out to students for study. To facilitate this, catchwords were used- a word at the end of a page providing the next page's first word.
759:
293:
414:; the erased text, which can often be recovered, is older and usually more interesting than the newer text which replaced it. Consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal and impermanent. Parchment (animal skin) was expensive, and therefore it was used primarily by the wealthy and powerful, who were also able to pay for textual design and color. "Official documents and deluxe manuscripts were written in gold and silver ink on parchment...dyed or painted with costly purple pigments as an expression of imperial power and wealth."
469:
830:. Codices intended for display were bound with more durable materials than vellum. Parchment varied widely due to animal species and finish, and identification of animals used to make it has only begun to be studied in the 21st century. How manufacturing influenced the final products, technique, and style, is little understood. However, changes in style are underpinned more by variation in technique. Before the 14th and 15th century, paper was expensive, and its use may mark off the deluxe copy.
654:
520:
374:. Three of these books are specifically described by Martial as being in the form of a codex; the poet praises the compendiousness of the form (as opposed to the scroll), as well as the convenience with which such a book can be read on a journey. In another poem by Martial, the poet advertises a new edition of his works, specifically noting that it is produced as a codex, taking less space than a scroll and being more comfortable to hold in one hand. According to
2784:
750:. Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers. Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed. Defects can also appear during the writing process. Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear later in its life.
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side to the flesh side. This was not the same style used in the
British Isles, where the membrane was folded so that it turned out an eight-leaf quire, with single leaves in the third and sixth positions. The next stage was tacking the quire. Tacking is when the scribe would hold together the leaves in quire with thread. Once threaded together, the scribe would then sew a line of parchment up the "spine" of the manuscript to protect the tacking.
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27:
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exactly, format differed. In preparation for writing codices, ruling patterns were used that determined the layout of each page. Holes were prickled with a spiked lead wheel and a circle. Ruling was then applied separately on each page or once through the top folio. Ownership markings, decorations and
734:
The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin. The skin is washed with water and lime but not together. The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days. The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse. The parchment maker attaches the skin
775:
Pricking is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of it ruling. The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks.... The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal
770:
Firstly, the membrane must be prepared. The first step is to set up the quires. The quire is a group of several sheets put together. Raymond
Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in "Introduction to Manuscript Studies", that "the quire was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages":
850:
and rebinding. A quire consisted of a number of folded sheets inserting into one another- at least three, but most commonly four bifolia, that is eight sheets and sixteen pages: Latin quaternio or Greek tetradion, which became a synonym for quires. Unless an exemplar (text to be copied) was copied
785:
From the
Carolingian period to the end of the Middle Ages, different styles of folding the quire came about. For example, in continental Europe throughout the Middle Ages, the quire was put into a system in which each side folded on to the same style. The hair side met the hair side and the flesh
409:
9.26.1). Early codices were not always cohesive. They often contained multiple languages, various topics and even multiple authors. "Such codices formed libraries in their own right." The parchment notebook pages were "more durable, and could withstand being folded and stitched to other sheets".
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to remove any remaining hairs. Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets. The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions. For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half
1548:; see Roberts & Skeat 28). Papyrus fragments of a 'Treatise of the Empirical School' dated by its editor to the centuries AD 1â2 is also attested in the Berlin collection (inv. # 9015, Pack\2 # 2355)âTurner, Typology # 389, and Roberts & Skeat 71, call it a 'medical manual
735:
at points around the circumference. The skin attaches to the herse by cords. To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin. After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a
229:, by the fifth century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature. The change from rolls to codices roughly coincides with the transition from
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396:
in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat's notion when stating, "its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory", and that "early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt." Early codices of
492:
in the 8th century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost. The codex improved on the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page for easier reading, pages could be written on both front and back
378:, this might be the first recorded known case of an entire edition of a literary work (not just a single copy) being published in codex form, though it was likely an isolated case and was not a common practice until a much later time.
453:
in Egypt demonstrates that the surviving evidence is insufficient to conclude whether
Christians played a major or central role in the development of early codicesâor if they simply adopted the format to distinguish themselves from
237:
as the preferred writing material, but the two developments are unconnected. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible and common in the historical record.
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emerged. They would receive commissions for texts, which they would contract out to scribes, illustrators, and binders, to whom they supplied materials. Due to the systematic format used for assembly by the
342:
may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to bound pages in the form of a note-book, possibly even as a papyrus codex. At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called
627:
dynasties (1644â1912), and finally the adoption of
Western-style bookbinding in the 20th century. The initial phase of this evolution, the accordion-folded palm-leaf-style book, most likely came from
461:
The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt, and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd. This group includes the
2695:
867:
Watermarks may provide, although often approximate, dates for when the copying occurred. The layoutâ size of the margin and the number of linesâ is determined. There may be textual articulations,
2195:
2196:
Medieval and
Renaissance manuscripts, including Vulgates, Breviaries, Contracts, and Herbal Texts from 12 -17th century, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries
879:. Space was reserved for illustrations and decorated guide letters. The apparatus of books for scholars became more elaborate during the 13th and 14th centuries when chapter, verse,
708:
Traditional bookbinders would call one of these assembled, trimmed and bound folios (that is, the "pages" of the book as a whole, comprising the front matter and contents) a
1649:
906:
By a close examination of the physical attributes of a codex, it is sometimes possible to match up long-separated elements originally from the same book. In 13th-century
193:
praised its convenient use, the codex achieved numerical parity with the scroll around 300 CE, and had completely replaced it throughout what was by then a
Christianized
1327:
1544:. From Robert A Kraft (see link): "A fragment of a Latin parchment codex of an otherwise unknown historical text dating to about AD 100 was also found at Oxyrhynchus (
181:. The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that has lasted ever since. The spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of
591:-style and pasted together at the back and books that were printed only on one side of the paper. This replaced traditional Chinese writing mediums such as
205:
542:(Mexico and Central America) had a similar appearance when closed to the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (
272:
The codex provided considerable advantages over other book formats, primarily its compactness, sturdiness, economic use of materials by using both sides (
328:, used a unique connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords. A first evidence of the use of papyrus in codex form comes from the
119:
and other Pre-Columbian manuscripts. Library practices have led to many
European manuscripts having "codex" as part of their usual name, as with the
572:
paper. There are significant codices produced in the colonial era, with pictorial and alphabetic texts in
Spanish or an indigenous language such as
1468:
2044:
1524:
1249:"L'instrvmentvm Scriptorivm Nei Monumenti Pompeiani Ed Ercolanesi." in Pompeiana. Raccolta di studi per il secondo centenario degli di Pompei
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lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns.
720:. In the hardcover bookbinding process, the procedure of binding the codex is very different to that of producing and attaching the case.
177:. The gradual replacement of the scroll by the codex has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of the
381:
690:
made to this day for ritual use. This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion. The next evolutionary step was to cut the
1600:
1561:
Murray, S. (2009). The library: An illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse
Publishing, Inc. Chicago: ALA Editions 2009. (p. 27).
1214:
1392:
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441:, hidden about AD 390, all texts (Gnostic) are codices. Despite this comparison, a fragment of a non-Christian parchment codex of
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1324:
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Among the experiments of earlier centuries, scrolls were sometimes unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns. The
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medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a
138:. At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous
1679:
158:, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages. In Japan, concertina-style codices called
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2110:
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2016:
1985:
1956:
1927:
1898:
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1806:
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1001:
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2182:
1278:"'The Graz Mummy Book': The Oldest Known Codex Fragment from 260 BC Discovered at Graz University Library, Austria"
488:, the codex gradually replaced the scroll. Between the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, and the
500:
The ancients stored codices with spines facing inward, and not always vertically. The spine could be used for the
2222:
963:
405:
appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero
2663:
1608:
1148:
1139:
1042:
766:. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered.
2171:
958:
2838:
953:
504:, before the concept of a proper title developed in medieval times. Though most early codices were made of
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2080:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing
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675:
662:
462:
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almost as soon as it was invented, although new finds add three centuries to its history (see below). In
1079:"CBAA the Association for Book Art Education - A HISTORY OF THE ACCORDION BOOK: PART II // Peter Thomas"
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2384:
2172:
The Codex and Canon Consciousness â Draft paper by Robert Kraft on the change from scroll to codex
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1277:
1017:
822:. The quality, size, and choice of support determine the status of a codex. Papyrus is found only in
410:
Parchments whose writing was no longer needed were commonly washed or scraped for re-use, creating a
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theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East.
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508:, papyrus was fragile and supplied from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew. The more durable
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1977:
1948:
1919:
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1861:
1832:
1798:
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1177:
592:
489:
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2436:
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1545:
852:
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20:
1046:
562:). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded
209:
The scroll was the document form which was replaced by the codex during the late Roman Empire.
2722:
2653:
2348:
1753:
McCormick, Michael; Gamillscheg, Ernst (1991). "Codicology". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.).
968:
485:
375:
352:
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842:(its quires or gatherings), consisting of sheets folded a number of times, often twice- a
8:
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1206:
438:
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88:. Technically the vast majority of modern books use the codex format of a stack of pages
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at one edge, along the side of the text. But the term "codex" is now reserved for older
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1518:
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973:
938:
884:
450:
434:
333:
221:, meaning "trunk of a tree", "block of wood" or "book". The codex began to replace the
1972:
Smith, Margaret M. (2010). "Catchword". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.).
497:), and the protection of durable covers made it more compact and easier to transport.
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Gamillscheg, Ernst; Ĺ evÄenko, Ihor (1991). "Quire". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.).
465:, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160.
370:
meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of
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2737:
2705:
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1793:
Pearsal, Derek (2010). "Codicology". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.).
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52:
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The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization
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Zammit Lupi, Theresa; Krämer, Lena; Csanådy, Thomas; Renhart, Erich (2024-01-02).
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from the early 16th century, showing the tribute obligations of particular towns
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2004:
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The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics
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are a famous example of this format, and it is the standard format for Jewish
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As early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codexâusually of
385:
339:
277:
155:
1734:
Thompson, Daniel. "Medieval Parchment-Making." The Library 16, no. 4 (1935).
189:. First described in the 1st century of the Common Era, when the Roman poet
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In his discussion of one of the earliest parchment codices to survive from
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305:
182:
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1035:
Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts, revised: A Guide to Technical Terms
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658:
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430:
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266:
258:
174:
120:
112:
89:
31:
433:(buried in AD 79), all the texts (of Greek literature) are scrolls (see
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2250:
907:
588:
563:
411:
371:
309:
297:
262:
250:
147:
93:
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115:, although the earlier examples do not actually use the codex format,
19:
This article is about ancient and medieval books. For other uses, see
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472:
Early medieval bookcase containing about ten codices depicted in the
398:
313:
246:
234:
127:
101:
1598:
Several intermediate Chinese bookbinding forms from the 10th century
1262:
694:
and sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the
26:
2700:
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2605:
2503:
2476:
2416:
2400:
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2031:
The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins
928:
888:
803:
794:
The materials codices are made with are their support, and include
741:
604:
242:
131:
2190:
Catalogue of New Testament Papyri & Codices 2ndâ10th Centuries
1651:
Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism
1631:
1629:
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2488:
2481:
2267:
1943:
Hunter, Timothy (2001). "Codicology". In Brigstocke, Hugh (ed.).
815:
795:
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573:
505:
501:
418:
402:
388:
is an example of a codex that was created during the Middle Ages.
367:
363:
230:
190:
105:
1143:, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 473.
2710:
1626:
1275:
807:
699:
513:
261:. The scholarly study of these manuscripts is sometimes called
222:
159:
139:
97:
1461:"Biblical literature â Types of writing materials and methods"
587:
world. There were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded
249:
are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for
73:
2732:
2630:
2625:
2426:
1341:
811:
628:
568:
543:
226:
214:
186:
2727:
2231:
1614:
455:
85:
61:
583:, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the
312:
for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient
819:
716:
producing the format of book now colloquially known as a
67:
2200:
2009:
The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental
1916:
A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450â2000
130:(or softback) and those bound with stiff boards, called
1829:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture
611:(618â907), improved by the 'butterfly' bindings of the
1885:
Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. (1991). "Ruling Patterns".
1365:
859:, or any production center, and libraries of codices.
554:
codices were written as late as the 16th century (see
265:. The study of ancient documents in general is called
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
76:
70:
58:
1752:
1406:
64:
1855:
1353:
838:
The structure of a codex includes its size, format/
753:
84:) was the historical ancestor format of the modern
55:
2145:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1714:. Itaca (N. Y.) London: Cornell university press.
1052:
1107:
599:and paper scrolls. The evolution of the codex in
347:in Latin became commonly used for writing in the
142:, which was the dominant form of document in the
2810:
1385:"The Book of Kells | Symbols, History & Art"
855:are also a part of it. They are specific to the
1997:
1827:Hourihane, Colum P., ed. (2013). "Codicology".
566:-style, sometimes written on both sides of the
276:), and ease of reference (a codex accommodates
358:Codices are described in certain works by the
146:. Some codices are continuously folded like a
2216:
2123:The Collected Biblical Writings of T.C. Skeat
1709:
814:. They are written and drawn on with metals,
111:By convention, the term is also used for any
2100:
2070:
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1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1635:
1620:
1541:
1347:
1335:
1234:
1193:
1160:
1125:
1101:
615:(960â1279), the wrapped back binding of the
185:, which early on adopted the format for the
134:. Elaborate historical bindings are called
1907:
1172:Roberts, Colin H., and Skeat, T.C. (1987),
2223:
2209:
2043:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1710:Clemens, Raymond; Graham, Timothy (2007).
1523:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1246:
648:
1936:
1826:
1737:
1293:
619:(1271â1368), the stitched binding of the
546:) or plant fibers, often with a layer of
2183:Encyclopaedia Romana: "Scroll and codex"
2101:Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983).
2011:. New York: Courier Dover Publications.
2003:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
949:List of florilegia and botanical codices
757:
652:
518:
467:
380:
291:
204:
200:
25:
2025:
1884:
1792:
1431:. Thames & Hudson. pp. 36â37.
1021:, 2nd ed.: Codex: "a manuscript volume"
910:, due to secularization, stationers or
2811:
2140:
1942:
1728:
1537:
1488:
1412:
1247:Carratelli, Giovanni Pugliese (1950).
16:Historical ancestor of the modern book
2204:
2119:
2056:. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
2051:
1971:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1788:
1786:
1784:
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1780:
1778:
1694:
1682:from the original on 25 November 2010
1647:
1424:
1371:
1359:
1113:
1065:
712:in contradistinction to the cover or
280:, as opposed to a scroll, which uses
1913:
633:Buddhist missionaries and scriptures
607:in the 9th century, during the late
2105:. London: Oxford University Press.
1945:The Oxford Companion to Western Art
1570:
253:(hand-written) books produced from
96:books, which mostly used sheets of
43:
13:
2167:Centre for the History of the Book
2126:. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 45.
1914:Beal, Peter (2008). "codicology".
1887:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1858:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1815:
1775:
1755:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1712:Introduction to manuscript studies
1131:
14:
2850:
2160:
308:used precursors made of reusable
2792:
2783:
2782:
2772:
1974:The Oxford Companion to the Book
1795:The Oxford Companion to the Book
1654:. Wayne State University Press.
1648:Meyer, Michael A. (1995-04-01).
1495:. Philadelphia, Pa. p. 40.
996:(9th ed.). Chambers. 2003.
780:
754:Preparation of pages for writing
631:and was introduced to China via
516:gained favor, despite the cost.
421:âwas the preferred format among
51:
2773:
2143:The Typology of the Early Codex
1965:
1878:
1849:
1676:"The Making of a Medieval Book"
1668:
1641:
1591:
1564:
1555:
1531:
1492:The Typology of the Early Codex
1482:
1471:from the original on 2015-04-26
1453:
1418:
1395:from the original on 2022-10-28
1377:
1310:
1269:
1255:
1240:
1228:
1217:from the original on 2019-03-06
1199:
1187:
1166:
1154:
964:Traditional Chinese bookbinding
898:
645:, at least for ceremonial use.
166:(794â1185) were made of paper.
1609:International Dunhuang Project
1140:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
1119:
1095:
1071:
1024:
1010:
985:
723:
300:, from which the codex evolved
213:The word codex comes from the
126:Modern books are divided into
1:
1428:Books : a living history
1295:10.1080/18680860.2023.2292721
1282:Journal of Paper Conservation
959:List of New Testament uncials
883:, marginalia finding guides,
665:, produced ca. AD 870 at the
477:
2696:Conservation and restoration
1998:General and cited references
1037:, 2018, Getty Publications,
979:
954:List of New Testament papyri
833:
789:
366:. He wrote a series of five
7:
2179:Maya Codex and Paper Making
1678:. The J. Paul Getty Trust.
1207:"Definition of PALEOGRAPHY"
922:
676:Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
663:Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram
463:Rylands Library Papyrus P52
332:in Egypt, as a find at the
310:wax-covered tablets of wood
10:
2855:
2084:Cambridge University Press
802:(sometimes referred to as
727:
287:
18:
2819:1st-century introductions
2768:
2646:
2580:
2519:
2367:
2238:
2230:
1018:Oxford English Dictionary
296:Reproduction Roman-style
241:Technically, even modern
1636:Needham & Tsien 1985
1621:Needham & Tsien 1985
1542:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1489:Turner, Eric G. (2016).
1348:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1336:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1235:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1194:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1161:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1126:Roberts & Skeat 1983
1102:Roberts & Skeat 1983
862:
550:applied before writing.
425:. In the library of the
173:developed the form from
2354:Collection (publishing)
2278:Illuminated manuscripts
2054:Books: A Living History
1978:Oxford University Press
1949:Oxford University Press
1920:Oxford University Press
1891:Oxford University Press
1862:Oxford University Press
1833:Oxford University Press
1799:Oxford University Press
1759:Oxford University Press
1465:Encyclopedia Britannica
1211:www.merriam-webster.com
1178:Oxford University Press
994:The Chambers Dictionary
705:as with a modern book.
649:From scrolls to codices
603:began with folded-leaf
593:bamboo and wooden slips
490:Carolingian Renaissance
34:, 13th century, Bohemia
2103:The Birth of the Codex
2052:Lyons, Martyn (2011).
1425:Lyons, Martyn (2013).
1174:The Birth of the Codex
1083:www.collegebookart.org
778:
767:
679:
669:, during the reign of
532:
481:
389:
301:
210:
35:
21:Codex (disambiguation)
2723:Intellectual property
2349:Volume (bibliography)
2141:Turner, Eric (1977).
1571:Lee, Jongsoo (2008).
969:Volume (bibliography)
773:
761:
728:Further information:
656:
522:
471:
384:
376:Theodore Cressy Skeat
353:Theodore Cressy Skeat
295:
208:
201:Etymology and origins
162:developed during the
123:, while most do not.
108:, rather than paper.
29:
2120:Skeat, T.C. (2004).
345:pugillares membranei
197:by the 6th century.
150:, in particular the
2839:Manuscripts by type
1638:, pp. 227â229.
439:Nag Hammadi library
437:). However, in the
427:Villa of the Papyri
2834:Italian inventions
2760:World Book Capital
2076:Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin
1603:2016-01-10 at the
1330:2022-12-26 at the
1251:. pp. 166â78.
974:Index (publishing)
939:History of scrolls
893:tables of contents
768:
680:
641:still retains the
533:
482:
447:De Falsa Legatione
435:Herculaneum papyri
390:
334:University of Graz
302:
211:
36:
2806:
2805:
2638:Coffee table book
2469:Bookworm (insect)
2152:978-0-8122-7696-1
2063:978-1-60606-083-4
1721:978-0-8014-3863-9
1661:978-0-8143-3755-4
1584:978-0-8263-4337-6
1502:978-1-5128-0786-8
1438:978-0-500-29115-3
1374:, pp. 45â46.
1350:, pp. 15â22.
1263:"Graz Mummy Book"
1031:Michelle P. Brown
828:early Middle Ages
661:gospel book, the
657:The cover of the
386:The Book of Kells
282:sequential access
195:Greco-Roman world
136:treasure bindings
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934:History of books
895:were developed.
684:Dead Sea Scrolls
671:Charles the Bald
667:Palace of Aachen
623:(1368â1644) and
479:
330:Ptolemaic period
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2310:limited edition
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2072:Needham, Joseph
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535:The codices of
495:recto and verso
486:Western culture
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2273:Illustration
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