Expert - Knowledge

747:. The ongoing dialogue between contributors on Knowledge not only results in the emergence of truth; it also explicates the topics one can be an expert of. As Hartelius explains, "the very act of presenting information about topics that are not included in traditional encyclopedias is a construction of new expertise." While Knowledge insists that contributors must only publish preexisting knowledge, the dynamics behind dialogic expertise creates new information nonetheless. Knowledge production is created as a function of dialogue. According to Hartelius, dialogic expertise has emerged on Knowledge not only because of its interactive structure but also because of the site's hortative discourse which is not found in traditional encyclopedias. By Knowledge's hortative discourse, Hartelius means various encouragements to edit certain topics and instructions on how to do so that appear on the site. One further reason to the emergence of dialogic expertise on Knowledge is the site's 372:

involved in adjusting and adapting pedagogy for learner understanding. This expert blind spot is in part due to an assumption that novices' cognitive schemata are less elaborate, interconnected, and accessible than experts' and that their pedagogical reasoning skills are less well developed. Essential knowledge of subject matter for practicing educators consists of overlapping knowledge domains: subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content matter. Pedagogical content matter consists of an understanding of how to represent certain concepts in ways appropriate to the learner contexts, including abilities and interests. The expert blind spot is a pedagogical phenomenon that is typically overcome through educators' experience with instructing learners over time.

100: 444:(computer software designed to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted) typically is grounded on the premise that expertise is based on acquired repertoires of rules and frameworks for decision making which can be elicited as the basis for computer supported judgment and decision-making. However, there is increasing evidence that expertise does not work in this fashion. Rather, experts recognize situations based on experience of many prior situations. They are in consequence able to make rapid decisions in complex and dynamic situations. 919:" in new media. An expert can be an authority if through relationships to people and technology, that expert is allowed to control access to his expertise. However, a person who merely wields authority is not by right an expert. In new media, users are being misled by the term "authority". Many sites and search engines such as Google and Technorati use the term "authority" to denote the link value and traffic to a particular topic. However, this authority only measures populist information. It in no way assures that the author of that site or blog is an expert. 43: 686:

knowledge." With these two categories, Hartelius isolates the rhetorical problems faced by experts: just as someone with autonomous expertise may not possess the skill to persuade people to hold their points of view, someone with merely attributed expertise may be persuasive but lack the actual knowledge pertaining to a given subject. The problem faced by audiences follows from the problem facing experts: when faced with competing claims of expertise, what resources do non-experts have to evaluate claims put before them?

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collaborative digital spaces. Predicated upon the notion that "truth emerges from dialogue", Knowledge challenges traditional expertise both because anyone can edit it and because no single person, regardless of their credentials, can end a discussion by fiat. In other words, the community, rather than single individuals, direct the course of discussion. The production of knowledge, then, as a process of dialogue and argumentation, becomes an inherently rhetorical activity.

396:", concerns expertise. Plato did not believe most people were clever enough to look after their own and society's best interest, so the few clever people of the world needed to lead the rest of the flock. Therefore, the idea was born that only the elite should know the truth in its complete form and the rulers, Plato said, must tell the people of the city "the noble lie" to keep them passive and content, without the risk of upheaval and unrest. 733:

fundamentally contingent on a struggle for ownership and legitimacy." Effective communication is an inherent element in expertise in the same style as knowledge is. Rather than leaving each other out, substance and communicative style are complementary. Hartelius further suggests that Knowledge's dialogic construction of expertise illustrates both the instrumental and the constitutive dimensions of rhetoric; instrumentally as it challenges

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important than knowing how to find something. As he puts it, "With the internet, the historical power of subject matter expertise is eroded: the archival nature of the Web means that what and how to information is readily available." The rhetorical authority previously afforded to subject matter expertise, then, is given to those with the procedural knowledge of how to find information called for by a situation.

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revealed that all subjects retrieved about the same number of chunks, but the size of the chunks varied with subjects' prior experience. Experts' chunks contained more individual pieces than those of novices. This research did not investigate how experts find, distinguish, and retrieve the right chunks from the vast number they hold without a lengthy search of long-term memory.

1963: 384:; that is, experts have the ability to influence others as a result of their defined social status. By a similar token, a fear of experts can arise from fear of an intellectual elite's power. In earlier periods of history, simply being able to read made one part of an intellectual elite. The introduction of the 589:

Their findings also suggest that while the schemas of both novices and experts are activated by the same features of a problem statement, the experts' schemas contain more procedural knowledge which aid in determining which principle to apply, and novices' schemas contain mostly declarative knowledge

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states that experts develop memory mechanisms called retrieval structures to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. These mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can later be regenerated to retrieve the stored

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The role of long-term memory in the skilled memory effect was first articulated by Chase and Simon in their classic studies of chess expertise. They asserted that organized patterns of information stored in long-term memory (chunks) mediated experts' rapid encoding and superior retention. Their study

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rather than a "one to one" model of communication, he notes how expertise likewise shifts to become a quality of a group rather than an individual. With the information traditionally associated with individual experts now stored within a text produced by a collective, knowing about something is less

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in Europe during the fifteenth century and the diffusion of printed matter contributed to higher literacy rates and wider access to the once-rarefied knowledge of academia. The subsequent spread of education and learning changed society, and initiated an era of widespread education whose elite would

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Hartelius and other scholars have also noted the challenges that projects such as Knowledge pose to how experts have traditionally constructed their authority. In "Knowledge and the Emergence of Dialogic Expertise", she highlights Knowledge as an example of the "dialogic expertise" made possible by

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Skilled memory enables experts to rapidly encode, store, and retrieve information within the domain of their expertise and thereby circumvent the capacity limitations that typically constrain novice performance. For example, it explains experts' ability to recall large amounts of material displayed

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If one asks an expert for the rules he or she is using, one will, in effect, force the expert to regress to the level of a beginner and state the rules learned in school. Thus, instead of using rules he or she no longer remembers, as the knowledge engineers suppose, the expert is forced to remember

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In The Rhetoric of Expertise, E. Johanna Hartelius defines two basic modes of expertise: autonomous and attributed expertise. While an autonomous expert can "possess expert knowledge without recognition from other people," attributed expertise is "a performance that may or may not indicate genuine

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In the second view, expertise is a characteristic of individuals and is a consequence of the human capacity for extensive adaptation to physical and social environments. Many accounts of the development of expertise emphasize that it comes about through long periods of deliberate practice. In many

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One of the most cited works in this area examines how experts (PhD students in physics) and novices (undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics) categorize and represent physics problems. They found that novices sort problems into categories based upon surface features (e.g.,

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who grouped together short random sequences of digits and encoded the groups in terms of their meaning as running times, dates, and ages. He was thus able to recall over 84% of all digit groups presented in a session totaling 200–300 digits. His expertise was limited to digits; when a switch from

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who can accurately remember up to 20 complete dinner orders in an actual restaurant setting by using mnemonic strategy, patterns, and spatial relations (position of the person ordering). At the time of recall all items of a category (e.g., all salad dressings, then all meat temperatures, then all

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In contemporary society, doctors and scientists, for example, are considered to be experts in that they hold a body of dominant knowledge that is, on the whole, inaccessible to the layman. However, this inaccessibility and perhaps even mystery that surrounds expertise does not cause the layman to

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and Andrew Petrosino. Newly practicing educators with advanced subject-area expertise of an educational content area tend to use the formalities and analysis methods of their particular area of expertise as a major guiding factor of student instruction and knowledge development, rather than being

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Research in this area attempts to understand the relation between expert knowledge, skills and personal characteristics and exceptional performance. Some researchers have investigated the cognitive structures and processes of experts. The fundamental aim of this research is to describe what it is

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have also turned their attention to the concept of the expert. Considered an appeal to ethos or "the personal character of the speaker", established expertise allows a speaker to make statements regarding special topics of which the audience may be ignorant. In other words, the expert enjoys the

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Marie-Line Germain developed a psychometric measure of perception of employee expertise called the Generalized Expertise Measure. She defined a behavioral dimension in experts, in addition to the dimensions suggested by Swanson and Holton. Her 16-item scale contains objective expertise items and

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The blind spot metaphor refers to the physiological blind spot in human vision in which perceptions of surroundings and circumstances are strongly impacted by their expectations. Beginning practicing educators tend to overlook the importance of novice levels of prior knowledge and other factors

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Expertise characteristics, skills and knowledge of a person (that is, expert) or of a system, which distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people. In many domains there are objective measures of performance capable of distinguishing experts from novices: expert chess players will

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An important feature of expert performance seems to be the way in which experts are able to rapidly retrieve complex configurations of information from long-term memory. They recognize situations because they have meaning. It is perhaps this central concern with meaning and how it attaches to

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states that experts exploit prior knowledge to durably encode information needed to perform a familiar task successfully. Experts form more elaborate and accessible memory representations than novices. The elaborate semantic memory network creates meaningful memory codes that create multiple

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framework, Hartelius posits that Knowledge is an example of an epistemic network that is driven by the view that individuals' ideas clash with one another so as to generate expertise collaboratively. Hartelius compares Knowledge's methodology of open-ended discussions of topics to that of

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are important dimensions of expertise but posits that the concept is more complex than sociologists and psychologists suggest. Arguing that expertise is rhetorical, then, Hartelius explains that expertise "is not simply about one person's skills being different from another's. It is also

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disregard the opinion of the experts on account of the unknown. Instead, the complete opposite occurs whereby members of the public believe in and highly value the opinion of medical professionals or of scientific discoveries, despite not understanding it.

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and constitutively as a function of its knowledge production. Going over the historical development of the encyclopedic project, Hartelius argues that changes in traditional encyclopedias have led to changes in traditional expertise. Knowledge's use of

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based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be believed, by virtue of

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for them to be accepted as an expert. In this respect, a shepherd with fifty years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from

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C. Nadine Wathen and Jacquelyn Burkell, Believe it or not: Factors influencing credibility on the Web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, VL. 53, NO. 2. PG 134–144. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. DOI

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for only brief study intervals, provided that the material comes from their domain of expertise. When unfamiliar material (not from their domain of expertise) is presented to experts, their recall is no better than that of novices.

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confronts the paradox of expertise and claims that people not only acquire content knowledge as they practice cognitive skills, they also develop mechanisms that enable them to use a large and familiar knowledge base efficiently.

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Hartelius calls attention to two competing norm systems of expertise: “network norms of dialogic collaboration” and “deferential norms of socially sanctioned professionalism”; Knowledge being evidence of the first. Drawing on a

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to connect one topic to another depends on, and develops, electronic interactivity meaning that Knowledge's way of knowing is dialogic. Dialogic expertise then, emerges from multiple interactions between utterances within the

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that experts know and how they use their knowledge to achieve performance that most people assume requires extreme or extraordinary ability. Studies have investigated the factors that enable experts to be fast and accurate.

2497: 424:(Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures) has simulated in detail a number of phenomena in chess expertise (eye movements, performance in a variety of memory tasks, development from novice to expert) and in other domains. 1955:

Germain, M.-L. (2006c). What experts are not: Factors identified by managers as disqualifiers for selecting subordinates for expert team membership. Academy of Human Resource Development Conference. Columbus, OH. February

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or 'greenhorn') is any person that is new to any science or field of study or activity or social cause and who is undergoing training in order to meet normal requirements of being regarded a mature and equal participant.

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Ikujiro Nonaka, Georg von Krogh, and Sven Voelpel, Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory: Evolutionary Paths and Future Advances. Organization Studies, Vol. 27, No. 8, 1179-1208 (2006). SAGE Publications, 2006. DOI

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keywords in the problem statement or visual configurations of the objects depicted). Experts, however, categorize problems based upon their deep structures (i.e., the main physics principle used to solve the problem).

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subjective expertise items. Objective items were named Evidence-Based items. Subjective items (the remaining 11 items from the measure below) were named Self-Enhancement items because of their behavioral component.

348:. In this view expertise is socially constructed; tools for thinking and scripts for action are jointly constructed within social groups enabling that group jointly to define and acquire expertise in some domain. 1951:

Germain, M.-L. (2006b). Perception of Instructors’ Expertise by College Students: An Exploratory Qualitative Research Study. American Educational Research Association annual conference, San Francisco, CA. April

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The ability to rearrange or construct a higher dimension of creativity. Due to such familiarity or advanced knowledge experts can develop more abstract perspectives of their concepts and/or performances.

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Germain, M.-L. (2009). The impact of perceived administrators' expertise on subordinates' job satisfaction and turnover intention. Academy of Human Resource Development. Arlington, VA. February 18–22.

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rules he or she no longer uses. ... No amount of rules and facts can capture the knowledge an expert has when he or she has stored experience of the actual outcomes of tens of thousands of situations.

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states that long-term memory encoding and retrieval operations speed up with practice, so that their speed and accuracy approach the speed and accuracy of short-term memory storage and retrieval.

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and often employed to assist experts. A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields. The concepts of experts and expertise are debated within the field of

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A characterization of this practice as "deliberate practice", which forces the practitioner to come up with new ways to encourage and enable themselves to reach new levels of performance

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Much of the research regarding expertise involves the studies of how experts and novices differ in solving problems. Mathematics and physics are common domains for these studies.

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Germain, M.-L. (2005). Apperception and self-identification of managerial and subordinate expertise. Academy of Human Resource Development. Estes Park, CO. February 24–27.

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In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not always necessary for individuals to have a professional or academic

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situations which provides an important link between the individual and social approaches to the development of expertise. Work on "Skilled Memory and Expertise" by

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Hofer, Barbara K.; Pintrich, Paul R. (1997). "The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs about Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning".

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and Kevin Gilmartin proposed a model of learning in chess called MAPP (Memory-Aided Pattern Recognizer). Based on simulations, they estimated that about 50,000

433: 336:, where an expert is invited to decide a disputed issue. The decision may be binding or advisory, according to the agreement between the parties in dispute. 2399:

Shanteau, J.; Weiss, D.J.; Thomas, R.P.; Pounds, J.C. (2002). "Performance-based assessment of expertise: How to decide if someone is an expert or not".

2057: 1904:; Stasewski, James J. (1989). "Chapter 9: Skilled Memory and Expertise: Mechanisms of Exceptional Performance". In David Klahr; Kenneth Kotovsky (eds.). 573:

who can in less than 25 seconds mentally solve 2 × 5 digit multiplication problems (e.g., 23 × 48,856) that have been presented orally by the researcher.

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B Wynne, May the sheep safely graze? A reflexive view of the expert-lay knowledge divide. Risk, Environment and Modernity: Towards a New Ecology, 1996.

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argument. Some factors not fitting the nature-nurture dichotomy are biological but not genetic, such as starting age, handedness, and season of birth.

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domains of expertise estimates of 10 years' experience deliberate practice are common. Recent research on expertise emphasizes the nurture side of the

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Tynjälä, Päivi (1999). "Towards expert knowledge? A comparison between a constructivist and a traditional learning environment in the university".

865:. The opposite of an expert is generally known as a layperson, while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a 1516: 884:

The term is widely used informally, with people being described as 'experts' in order to bolster the relative value of their opinion, when no

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Mats Alvesson, Knowledge work: Ambiguity, image and identity. Human Relations, Vol. 54, No. 7, 863-886 (2001). The Tavistock Institute, 2001.

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Borko, Hilda; Livingston, Carol (1989). "Cognition and Improvisation: Differences in Mathematics Instruction by Expert and Novice Teachers".

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There are two academic approaches to the understanding and study of expertise. The first understands expertise as an emergent property of

363:) in newly practicing educators who are experts in their content area. This is based on the "expert blind spot hypothesis" researched by 2202: 2614:

Brint, Steven. 1994. In an Age of Experts: The Changing Roles of Professionals in Politics and Public Life. Princeton University Press.

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Chi, M. T.; Feltovich, P. J.; Glaser, R. (1981). "Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices".

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arises when experts become convinced that only their opinion is useful, sometimes on matters beyond their personal expertise.

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An early phase of learning which is characterized by enjoyment, excitement, and participation without outcome-related goals.

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digits to letters of the alphabet was made he exhibited no transfer—his memory span dropped back to about six consonants.

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may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In

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Development and preliminary validation of a psychometric measure of expertise: The Generalized Expertise Measure (GEM)

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Borko, Hilda; Eisenhart, Margaret; Brown, Catherine A.; Underhill, Robert G.; Jones, Doug; Agard, Patricia C. (1992).

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Building on Hartelius, Damien Pfister developed the concept of "networked expertise". Noting that Knowledge employs a

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is considered a live event, which is continuously open to new additions and participants. Hartelius acknowledges that

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or experience, to have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may

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now instead be those who produced the written content itself for consumption, in education and all other spheres.

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or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by

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in a specific well-distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or

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Sweller, J.; Mawer, R. F.; Ward, M. R. (1983). "Development of expertise in mathematical problem solving".

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described an expert as "A man fifty miles from home with a briefcase." Danish scientist and Nobel laureate

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A preliminary exploration on the measurement of expertise: An initial development of a psychometric scale

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Le rôle des experts à la Conférence de la Paix. Gestation d'une technocratie en politique internationale

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Chi, M. T. H.; Glasser, R.; Rees, E. (1982). "Expertise in problem solving". In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.).

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In line with the socially constructed view of expertise, expertise can also be understood as a form of

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under the general heading of expert knowledge. In contrast, the opposite of a specialist would be a

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describes expertise as a matter of practicing the correct way for a total of around 10,000 hours.

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in a particular field or area of study. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a

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defined an expert as "A person that has made every possible mistake within his or her field."

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guided by student learning and developmental needs that are prevalent among novice learners.

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deference of the audience's judgment and can appeal to authority where a non-expert cannot.

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Examples of skilled memory research described in the Ericsson and Stasewski study include:

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Simon, H. A.; Gilmartin, K. J. (1973). "A simulation of memory for chess positions".

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This person has the drive to become what they are capable of becoming in their field.

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steak types, then all starch type) would be recalled in clockwise for all customers.

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This person shows they have the education necessary to be an expert in the field.

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Some characteristics of the development of an expert have been found to include

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In a critique of the expert systems literature, Dreyfus & Dreyfus suggest:

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In the field of education there is a potential "expert blind spot" (see also

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This person can assess whether a work-related situation is important or not.

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Peter J. Laugharne, Parliament and Specialist Advice, Manutius Press, 1994.

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Jay Liebowitz, Knowledge Management Handbook. CRC Press, 1999. 328 pages.

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This person has the qualifications required to be an expert in the field.

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Thomas H. Davenport, et al., Working knowledge . 1998, knowledge.hut.fi.

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Nico Stehr, Knowledge Societies. Sage Publications, 1994. 304 pages.

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Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sport Expertise

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This person is able to judge what things are important in their job.

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almost always win games against recreational chess players; expert

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is the opposite of a professional, not the opposite of an expert.

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An expert differs from the specialist in that a specialist has to

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This person can deduce things from work-related situations easily.

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to explain the development from novice to expert. In particular,

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Person with broad and profound competence in a particular field

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Complex Information Processing: The Impact of Herbert A. Simon

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defined an expert as "an ordinary fellow from another town".

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on that topic. Historically, an expert was referred to as a

2167:"Five seconds or sixty? Presentation time in expert memory" 1598:(3). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics: 194–222. 1247: 1322: 1274: 1235: 1187: 2624:"Limits of Knowledge and the Limited Importance of Trust" 2398: 1656:(1973a). "The mind's eye in chess". In W.G. Chase (ed.). 1385: 638:

This person is ambitious about their work in the company.

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This person has been trained in their area of expertise.

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A number of computational models have been developed in

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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Ability to assess importance in work-related situations

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Understanding expertise: A multi-disciplinary approach

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Cambridge handbook on expertise and expert performance

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This person has knowledge specific to a field of work.

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which do not aid in determining methods for solution.

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are more likely to diagnose a disease correctly; etc.

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Simon, H. A.; Chase, W.G. (1973). "Skill in chess".

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criteria for their expertise is available. The term

2496:Swanson, Richard A.; Holton, Elwood F. III (2009). 1472: 1874:; Prietula, Michael J.; Cokely, Edward T. (2007). 1699: 1352: 540:information efficiently without a lengthy search. 2323:Nettleton, S.; Burrows, R.; O'Malley, L. (2005). 1900: 1142: 2779: 2541: 1723:Advances in the psychology of human intelligence 1340: 1163: 1045: – Ability of a person to do a job properly 933: 617:Self-assurance and confidence in their knowledge 2468: 2280: 2013: 1908:. Hillesdale N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1618: 1502: 1253: 1241: 1217: 1205: 1193: 1096: – Every PhD has an equal and opposite PhD 644:This person is capable of improving themselves. 2440: 1780: 1720: 1517:"The troubling flaws in how we select experts" 1328: 1316: 1280: 755:; explicating Knowledge's expert methodology. 2697: 2565:International Journal of Educational Research 2495: 2286:"Expert Blind Spot Among Preservice Teachers" 1856:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1592:Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 1391: 598:Relative to a specific field, an expert has: 2505:. San Francisco: Berrett-Kohler Publishers. 2141:Moves in mind: The psychology of board games 1962:Germain, M.-L., & Tejeda, M. J. (2012). 1623:. Winter 1989, Vol. 26, No. 4 (4): 473–498. 1115: – Cognitive bias about one's own skill 777: 332:The word expertise is used to refer also to 2139:; de Voogt, A. J.; Retschitzki, J. (2004). 2052: 1738:"Dr. Edward Teller's Magnificent Obsession" 1674: 1651: 1181: 1090: – 2017 nonfiction book by Tom Nichols 1051: – Form of government ruled by experts 821:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 602:Specific education, training, and knowledge 527:The first principle of skilled memory, the 292:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2419: 2277:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2218:and the Emergence of Dialogic Expertise". 2157: 1842:Expert Performance and Deliberate Practice 1292: 532:potential cues and avenues for retrieval. 2650: 2576: 2499:Foundations of human resource development 2340: 2254: 2213: 1801: 1556: 1466: 1427: 1415: 1403: 841:Learn how and when to remove this message 507:Learn how and when to remove this message 312:Learn how and when to remove this message 87:Learn how and when to remove this message 2401:European Journal of Operational Research 1942: 1735: 1540: 1379: 892:is likewise used to disparage opinions. 706:Bakhtin's theory of speech communication 456: 202:. The individual was usually a profound 98: 50:This article includes a list of general 2621: 2562: 2357: 1969: 1478: 922:An expert is not to be confused with a 14: 2780: 2469:Starkes, J.L.; Ericsson, K.A. (2003). 1912: 1305:Gobet, de Voogt & Retschitzki 2004 1268: 758: 2295:. Winter 2003, Vol. 40 (4): 905–928. 2293:American Educational Research Journal 2214:Hartelius, E. Johanna (2010-11-09). " 2113: 2058:"Season of birth and chess expertise" 1990: 1621:American Educational Research Journal 1514: 1489: 1487: 1363: 1361: 1169: 689: 577: 117:is somebody who has a broad and deep 952: 819:adding citations to reliable sources 786: 653:This person is intuitive in the job. 489:adding citations to reliable sources 460: 290:adding citations to reliable sources 257: 36: 2121:. London, UK: Palgrave/Macmilland. 1039: – Ability to carry out a task 782: 403: 375: 24: 2603: 2544:Journal of Experimental Psychology 2370:(3). Informa UK Limited: 217–231. 2275:The social psychology of expertise 2226:(5). Informa UK Limited: 505–526. 1783:"Expertise in real world contexts" 1484: 1358: 1107:Dreyfus model of skill acquisition 1055:Tutor expertise in adult education 593: 56:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 2809: 1888:(July–August 2007): 114–21, 193. 1781:Dreyfus, H.; Dreyfus, S. (2005). 339: 2342:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2005.00466.x 1679:(1973b). "Perception in chess". 1353:Chi, Feltovich & Glaser 1981 1121: – Phenomenon in psychology 982: 791: 665:This person has self-confidence. 611:Capability to improve themselves 465: 262: 41: 2329:Sociology of Health and Illness 1736:Coughlan, Robert (1954-09-06). 1604:10.5951/jresematheduc.23.3.0194 1549: 1515:Brady, Justin (June 25, 2014). 1508: 1030: – Ability to do something 476:needs additional citations for 2700:Review of Educational Research 2358:Pfister, Damien Smith (2011). 2255:Hartelius, E. Johanna (2011), 2220:Southern Communication Journal 2143:. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. 1341:Sweller, Mawer & Ward 1983 529:meaningful encoding principle, 13: 1: 2587:10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00012-9 2465:. New York: Basic Books, Inc. 2413:10.1016/S0377-2217(01)00113-8 1976:. London: SAGE Publications. 1973:Visual information processing 1658:Visual information processing 1493:"Definition" Merriam-Webster. 1143:Ericsson & Stasewski 1989 1125: 1100: 934:Developmental characteristics 537:retrieval structure principle 194:) rely upon the individual's 2455:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90024-8 2376:10.1080/02691728.2011.578306 2065:Journal of Biosocial Science 1744:. Quoted by Dr Edward Teller 1693:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 1660:. New York: Academic Press. 1566:The Basic Works of Aristotle 1329:Chi, Glasser & Rees 1982 1060: 899:In contrast to an expert, a 662:This person is self-assured. 253: 7: 2556:10.1037/0096-3445.112.4.639 2203:Knowledge in a Social World 1776:The Public and its Problems 1503:Starkes & Ericsson 2003 1254:Nathan & Petrosino 2003 1242:Borko & Livingston 1989 1218:Borko & Livingston 1989 1206:Nathan & Petrosino 2003 1194:Gobet & Campitelli 2007 975: 672: 647:This person is charismatic. 10: 2814: 2186:10.1207/s15516709cog2404_4 2038:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.159 1714:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 1317:Dreyfus & Dreyfus 2005 1281:Simon & Gilmartin 1973 1015: 762: 535:The second principle, the 29: 2712:10.3102/00346543067001088 2622:Sjöberg, Lennart (2001). 2301:10.3102/00028312040004905 2257:The Rhetoric of Expertise 2232:10.1080/10417940903377169 2077:10.1017/S0021932007002222 2017:; Campitelli, G. (2007). 1876:"The Making of an Expert" 1629:10.3102/00028312026004473 1392:Swanson & Holton 2009 1109: – Model of learning 778:Contrasts and comparisons 735:traditional encyclopedias 543:The third principle, the 2661:10.1111/0272-4332.211101 2618:10.1177/0170840606066312 2284:; Petrosino, A. (2003). 2273:Mieg, Harald A. (2001). 2026:Developmental Psychology 1943:Germain, M.-L. (2006a), 1840:Ericsson, K. A. (2000). 1812:10.1177/0170840605053102 668:This person is outgoing. 2463:Knowledge and decisions 2208:Oxford University Press 2200:Goldman, A. I. (1999). 1881:Harvard Business Review 1560:(2001). "Rhetoric". In 1182:Gobet & Chassy 2008 605:Required qualifications 346:communities of practice 71:more precise citations. 32:Expert (disambiguation) 2793:Social constructionism 2609:Books and publications 1921:. Icon Books. p. 1913:Fuller, Steve (2005). 1762:Merriam Webster Online 1758:"Definition of EXPERT" 1731:The Credential Society 1293:Gobet & Simon 2000 1088:The Death of Expertise 751:, which function as a 454: 238:must be recognized by 110: 2771:U.S. patent 4,803,641 2056:; Chassy, P. (2008). 1113:Dunning–Kruger effect 861:and an expert has to 457:Skilled memory theory 449: 361:Dunning–Kruger effect 102: 2443:Cognitive Psychology 1970:Gibbons, M. (1994). 1790:Organization Studies 1729:Collins, R. (1979). 1681:Cognitive Psychology 1158:Ericsson et al. 2006 1076:Anti-intellectualism 815:improve this section 485:improve this article 334:expert determination 286:improve this section 30:For other uses, see 2643:2001RiskA..21..189S 2461:Sowell, T. (1980). 2434:1973AmSci..61..394S 2364:Social Epistemology 2259:, Lanham: Lexington 1902:Ericsson, Anders K. 1872:Ericsson, Anders K. 1848:Ericsson, Anders K. 1521:The Washington Post 1469:, pp. 505–526. 1067:Rational skepticism 998:Perceptual learning 765:Wisdom of the crowd 759:Networked expertise 745:discourse community 434:James J. Staszewski 327:medical specialists 2475:. Human Kinetics. 2422:American Scientist 1774:Dewey, J. (1927). 690:Dialogic expertise 578:In problem solving 564:running enthusiast 545:speed up principle 354:nature and nurture 206:distinguished for 111: 2749:10.1002/asi.10016 2512:978-1-57675-803-8 2482:978-0-7360-4152-2 2264:Kitsikis, Dimitri 2174:Cognitive Science 2163:Simon, Herbert A. 2150:978-1-84169-336-1 2000:bura.brunel.ac.uk 1983:978-0-8039-7794-5 1863:978-0-521-60081-1 1702:Cognitive Science 1677:Simon, Herbert A. 1667:978-0-12-170150-5 1654:Simon, Herbert A. 1230:Borko et al. 1992 953:Use in literature 863:know its solution 851: 850: 843: 517: 516: 509: 410:cognitive science 322: 321: 314: 97: 96: 89: 16:(Redirected from 2805: 2773: 2723: 2694: 2692: 2691: 2685: 2679:. Archived from 2654: 2628: 2598: 2580: 2559: 2538: 2536: 2535: 2529: 2523:. Archived from 2504: 2492: 2490: 2489: 2458: 2437: 2416: 2395: 2354: 2344: 2319: 2317: 2311:. Archived from 2290: 2260: 2251: 2197: 2171: 2154: 2132: 2110: 2108: 2107: 2101: 2095:. Archived from 2062: 2049: 2023: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1987: 1948: 1936: 1920: 1917:The Intellectual 1909: 1897: 1867: 1837: 1835: 1834: 1828: 1822:. Archived from 1805: 1787: 1771: 1769: 1768: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1726: 1717: 1696: 1671: 1648: 1615: 1589: 1579: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1491: 1482: 1476: 1470: 1464: 1431: 1425: 1419: 1413: 1407: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1383: 1377: 1368: 1365: 1356: 1350: 1344: 1338: 1332: 1326: 1320: 1314: 1308: 1302: 1296: 1290: 1284: 1278: 1272: 1266: 1257: 1251: 1245: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1215: 1209: 1203: 1197: 1191: 1185: 1179: 1173: 1167: 1161: 1155: 1146: 1140: 1119:Pygmalion effect 1072: 1033: 992: 990:Education portal 987: 986: 970:Malcolm Gladwell 894:Academic elitism 855:be able to solve 846: 839: 835: 832: 826: 795: 787: 783:Associated terms 708:, where genuine 571:math enthusiasts 512: 505: 501: 498: 492: 469: 461: 414:Herbert A. Simon 404:Related research 376:Historical views 317: 310: 306: 303: 297: 266: 258: 224:computer science 104:Adolf von Becker 92: 85: 81: 78: 72: 67:this article by 58:inline citations 45: 44: 37: 21: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2778: 2777: 2769: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2652:10.1.1.321.4451 2626: 2606: 2604:Further reading 2601: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2513: 2502: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2315: 2288: 2169: 2151: 2129: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2060: 2021: 2004: 2002: 1984: 1933: 1864: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1785: 1766: 1764: 1756: 1747: 1745: 1668: 1587: 1576: 1562:McKeon, Richard 1552: 1547: 1539: 1535: 1525: 1523: 1513: 1509: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1485: 1477: 1473: 1465: 1434: 1426: 1422: 1414: 1410: 1402: 1398: 1390: 1386: 1378: 1371: 1367:Chi et al. 1981 1366: 1359: 1351: 1347: 1339: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1315: 1311: 1303: 1299: 1291: 1287: 1279: 1275: 1267: 1260: 1252: 1248: 1240: 1236: 1228: 1224: 1216: 1212: 1204: 1200: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1176: 1168: 1164: 1156: 1149: 1141: 1132: 1128: 1103: 1070: 1063: 1031: 1018: 988: 981: 978: 955: 936: 847: 836: 830: 827: 812: 796: 785: 780: 767: 761: 749:community pages 692: 675: 596: 594:Germain's scale 580: 513: 502: 496: 493: 482: 470: 459: 430:Anders Ericsson 406: 378: 365:Mitchell Nathan 342: 318: 307: 301: 298: 283: 267: 256: 93: 82: 76: 73: 63:Please help to 62: 46: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 2811: 2801: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2776: 2775: 2766: 2765: 2761: 2760: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2695: 2637:(1): 189–198. 2619: 2615: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2599: 2578:10.1.1.58.2038 2571:(5): 357–442. 2560: 2550:(4): 639–661. 2539: 2511: 2493: 2481: 2466: 2459: 2438: 2428:(4): 394–403. 2417: 2407:(2): 253–263. 2396: 2355: 2335:(7): 972–992. 2320: 2318:on 2015-04-24. 2278: 2271: 2261: 2252: 2211: 2198: 2180:(4): 651–682. 2155: 2149: 2133: 2127: 2111: 2071:(2): 313–316. 2050: 2032:(1): 159–172. 2011: 1992:Gobet, Fernand 1988: 1982: 1967: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1940: 1937: 1931: 1910: 1898: 1868: 1862: 1844: 1838: 1803:10.1.1.471.180 1796:(5): 779–792. 1778: 1772: 1754: 1733: 1727: 1718: 1708:(2): 121–152. 1697: 1672: 1666: 1649: 1616: 1580: 1574: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1545: 1533: 1507: 1495: 1483: 1471: 1467:Hartelius 2010 1432: 1428:Hartelius 2010 1420: 1416:Hartelius 2011 1408: 1404:Aristotle 2001 1396: 1384: 1369: 1357: 1345: 1333: 1321: 1319:, p. 788. 1309: 1297: 1285: 1273: 1271:, p. 141. 1258: 1246: 1234: 1232:, p. 195. 1222: 1220:, p. 474. 1210: 1208:, p. 906. 1198: 1186: 1174: 1162: 1147: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1110: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1091: 1085: 1079: 1073: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1046: 1040: 1034: 1025: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1006: 1000: 994: 993: 977: 974: 954: 951: 950: 949: 946: 943: 935: 932: 849: 848: 799: 797: 790: 784: 781: 779: 776: 771:"many to many" 760: 757: 691: 688: 674: 671: 670: 669: 666: 663: 660: 657: 654: 651: 648: 645: 642: 639: 636: 633: 630: 627: 619: 618: 615: 612: 609: 606: 603: 595: 592: 579: 576: 575: 574: 568: 560: 515: 514: 473: 471: 464: 458: 455: 442:expert systems 405: 402: 386:printing press 377: 374: 341: 340:Academic views 338: 320: 319: 270: 268: 261: 255: 252: 236:expert witness 108:The Art Expert 95: 94: 49: 47: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2810: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2783: 2772: 2768: 2767: 2763: 2762: 2759: 2758:0-8039-7892-8 2755: 2751: 2747: 2745: 2744:0-8493-0238-2 2741: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2706:(1): 88–140. 2705: 2701: 2696: 2686:on 2017-08-08 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2631:Risk Analysis 2625: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2530:on 2021-01-26 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2501: 2500: 2494: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2128:9780230276246 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2102:on 2011-07-18 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1938: 1934: 1932:9781840467215 1928: 1924: 1919: 1918: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1882: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1829:on 2017-09-22 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1743: 1742:Life Magazine 1739: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1675:Chase, W.G.; 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