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attitudes, expectations, and behavior". The model includes the following sequence. Teachers form differential expectations for students early in the school year. Based on these expectations, they behave differently toward different students, and as a result of these behaviors the students begin to understand what the teacher expects from them. If students accept the teachers' expectations and behavior toward them then they will be more likely to act in ways that confirm the teacher's initial expectations. This process will ultimately affect student achievement so that teachers' initial expectancies are confirmed.
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there are a number of outcomes, individuals will usually have a preference among those outcomes. Second, there is a belief on the part of that individual that their action(s) will achieve the outcome they desire. Third, any desired outcome was generated by the individual's behavior. Fourth and finally, the actions generated by the individual were generated by the preferred outcome and expectation of the individual.
398:, especially when the information was given to teachers during the first few weeks of school. These findings are particularly relevant because they show a form of the expectancy theory: how teachers have certain expectations of students, and how they treat the students differently because of those expectations.
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Lawler's new proposal for expectancy theory does not contradict Vroom's theory. Lawler argues that since there have been a variety of developments of expectancy theory since its creation in 1964 that the expectancy model needs to be updated. Lawler's new model is based on four claims. First, whenever
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if they believe the technology is a benefit to them. If an employee is mandated to use the technology, the employees will use it but may feel it is not useful. On the other hand, when an employee is not mandated, the employee may be influenced by these other factors (self-confidence and confidence in
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as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation
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makes a reward (such as a financial bonus or promotion) enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward. However, this only works if the employees believe the reward is beneficial to their immediate needs. For example, a $ 2 increase in salary may not be desirable to
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In discussing work related to this model, Brophy made several important observations about teacher expectation effects. First and foremost, he argued that most of the beliefs teachers hold about student are accurate, and so their expectations usually reflect students' actual performance levels. As a
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effects have relatively weak effects on student achievement, changing achievement 5% to 10%, although he did note that such effects usually are negative expectation effects rather than positive effects. Second, he pointed out that various situational and individual difference factors influence the
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expectations could influence children's achievement. Their model posits that teachers' expectations indirectly affect children's achievement: "teacher expectations could also affect student outcomes indirectly by leading to differential teacher treatment of students that would condition student
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In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers should engage in
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Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest result and
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children into the student role. In the upper elementary grades more whole-class teaching methods are used, which may minimize expectation effects. Some evidence supports this claim; expectancy effects in
Rosenthal and Jacobson's study were strongest during the earlier grades. Raudenbush's
446:. For instance, they used worker expectancy and worker instrumentality. Worker expectancy is when supervisors create an equal match between the worker and their job. Worker instrumentality is when an employee knows that any increase in their performance leads to achieving their goal.
200:
Valence is the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and sources of motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome.
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to other locations. In such cases, if the new posting is far from their permanent residence where their family resides, they will not be motivated by such promotions and the results will backfire. As such, the reward is valued negatively to the person receiving it.
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Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.
122:(V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).
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between efforts and performance, the outcome of a favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, a reward from a performance will satisfy an important need, and/or the outcome satisfies their need enough to make the effort worthwhile.
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The expectancy theory of motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over the other. This theory explains that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they believe that there is a positive
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is a product of the individual's expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as
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Perceived control – Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is
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Critics of the expectancy model include Graen, Lawler and Porter. Their criticisms of the theory were based upon the expectancy model being too simplistic in nature; these critics started making adjustments to Vroom's model.
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by Ken G. Smith and
Michael A. Hitt, Vroom himself agreed with some of these criticisms and stated that he felt that the theory should be expanded to include research conducted since the original publication of his book.
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Goal difficulty – when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are
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Stone, R. W. & Henry, J. W. (1998). Computer self-efficacy and outcome expectations and their impacts on behavioral intentions to use computers in non-volitional settings. Journal of
Business and Management, (1),
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process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.
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of findings from different teacher expectancy studies in which expectancies were induced by giving teachers artificial information about children's intelligence showed that expectancy effects were stronger in
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Self efficacy – the person's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieve their
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The self-efficacy theory can be applied to predicting and perceiving an employee's belief for computer use. This theory associates an individual's cognitive state with effective behavioral outcomes.
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Instead of simply looking at expectancy and instrumentality, W.F. Maloney and J.M. McFillen found that expectancy theory could explain the motivation of those individuals who were employed by the
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focused on motivation. According to
Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore, Vroom asserts, "intensity of work effort depends on the perception that an individual's effort will result in a desired outcome".
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Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome.
1014:
Raudenbush, Stephen W. (1984). "Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments".
37:) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected
178:. With commissions performance is directly correlated with outcome (how much money is made). If performance is high and many goods are sold, the more money the person will make.
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Valence is one behavioral alternative, where the decision is measured on the value of the reward. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized:
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This theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients.
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an employee if the increase pushes him into a tax bracket in which he believes his net pay is actually reduced (a belief that is typically fallacious, especially in the
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In 1964, Victor H. Vroom developed the expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision-making. This theory is relevant to the study of
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extent to which teacher expectations will act as self-fulfilling prophecies. For instance, Brophy stated that expectancy effects may be larger in the early
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will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the
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Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a
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Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field.
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171:, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given.
300:(self-confidence) and anticipated usefulness. These in turn influenced the decision, or anticipated decision, to use the software.
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Self-efficacy has a direct impact on outcome expectancy and has a larger effect than outcome expectancy. Employees will accept
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Bates, Reid; Khasawneh, Samer (2007). "Self-efficacy and college students' perceptions and use of online learning systems".
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training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance.
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When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF).
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Graen, George (1969). "Instrumentality theory of work motivation: Some experimental results and suggested modifications".
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study on 154 faculty members' reactions to the use of new software. It was found that ease of system use affects both
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but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with their children.
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Holdford, DA; Lovelace-Elmore, B (2001). "Applying the principles of human motivation to pharmaceutical education".
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Chiang, Chun-Fang; Jang, SooCheong (Shawn) (June 2008). "An expectancy theory model for hotel employee motivation".
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Baker-Eveleth, L.; Stone, R.W. (2008). "Expectancy theory and behavioral intentions to use computer applications".
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Self-efficacy is the belief that a person possesses the skills and abilities to successfully accomplish something.
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1135:. McGraw-Hill Series in Industrial Engineering and Management; MacGraw-Hill Series in Psychology. McGraw-Hill.
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Maslow—Move Aside! A Heuristical
Motivation Model for Leaders in Career and Technical Education Pg. 10 – 11
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In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it.
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Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an
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Outcome expectancy is the belief that when a person accomplishes the task, a desired outcome is attained.
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Lawler, Edward E.; Porter, Lyman W. (1967). "Antecedent attitudes of effective managerial performance".
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Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies:
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53:, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of
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Vroom, Victor H. "On the
Origins of Expectancy Theory". In Smith, Ken G.; Hitt, Michael A. (eds.).
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846:"A Self-Efficacy Theory Explanation for the Management of Remote Workers in Virtual Organizations"
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grades, because teachers have more one-on-one interactions with students then, as they attempt to
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Other constructs of the self-efficacy theory that impact attitudes and intentions to perform are:
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Brophy, Jere E. (1983). "Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations".
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is a theory that attempts to explain how and why individuals are able to achieve their goals.
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The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1
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8:
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Bandura, Albert (1977). "Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change".
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https://web.archive.org/web/20101025133032/http://arrod.co.uk/archive/concept_vroom.php
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Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy impact a person's affect and behavior separately:
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Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals
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Trusting the people who will decide who gets what outcome, based on the performance,
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Droar, D. (2006). Expectancy theory of motivation. Retrieved
October 2, 2010, from
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or security agencies is promoted, there is the possibility that he or she will be
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211:-1= avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome +1 = welcomes the outcome
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Oliver, R. (1974). "Expectancy Theory
Predictions of Salesmen's Performance".
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Staples, D. Sandy; Hulland, John S.; Higgins, Christopher A. (1 June 1998).
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In the chapter entitled "On the
Origins of Expectancy Theory" published in
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Rosenthal, Robert; Jacobson, Lenore (1968). "Pygmalion in the classroom".
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Policies understanding of the correlation between performance and outcomes
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are attitudes (cognitions), whereas valence is rooted in an individual's
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Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory which are
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Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory
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Control of how the decision is made, of who gets what outcome, and
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MASLOW, A. H. (1954). "The
Instinctoid Nature of Basic Needs1".
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Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
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Bandura, A. (1982). Self-Efficacy mechanism in human agency.
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http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JITE/v44n2/pdf/kroth.pdf
1101:(2, Pt.2). American Psychological Association (APA): 1–25.
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Pay and Organizational Effectiveness: a Psychological View
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Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding
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926:(5). American Psychological Association (APA): 631–661.
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Personnel and Human Resource Management – Text and cases
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Teacher-Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences
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and Thomas Good provided a comprehensive model of how
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emotional or physiological arousal regarding the task;
979:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 16–20.
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Handbook of Human Resources Management in Government
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565:(4th ed.). Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
273:in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants.
1361:Herzberg, F.; Mausner, B.; Snyderman, B. (1959).
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764:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
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1022:(1). American Psychological Association: 85–97.
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419:). Similarly, a promotion that provides higher
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1058:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
561:Montana, Patrick J; Charnov, Bruce H (2008).
426:As an additional example, if a person in the
257:Victor Vroom's expectancy theory is one such
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715:. University of Rhode Island. Archived from
163:Instrumentality: performance → outcome (P→O)
132:Instrumentality: performance → outcome (P→O)
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1049:Lawler, Edward E; Suttle, J.Lloyd (1973).
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956:Schunk, Dale H.; Meece, Judith L. (2012).
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850:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
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904:(4th ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
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336:vicarious experience performing the task;
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781:Interdisciplinary Journal of Information
125:Expectancy theory has three components:
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889:. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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1181:. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.
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140:Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)
129:Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)
1177:Porter, L. W.; Lawler, E. E. (1968).
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342:social persuasion to perform the task
288:Lori Baker-Eveleth and Robert Stone,
1179:Managerial Attitudes and Performance
1051:"Expectancy theory and job behavior"
960:. Mahwah: Routledge. pp. 96–97.
958:Student Perceptions in the Classroom
347:Models of teacher expectancy effects
244:effectiveness out of the workplace.
900:Brophy, Jere; Good, Thomas (1987).
885:Brophy, Jere; Good, Thomas (1974).
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856:(4). Oxford University Press.
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363:result, Brophy contended that
135:Valence: V(R) outcome → reward
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1095:Journal of Applied Psychology
713:Schmidt Labor Research Center
617:. Himalaya Publishing House.
523:Journal of Marketing Research
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1379:The Human Side of Enterprise
1163:10.1016/0030-5073(67)90026-8
1070:10.1016/0030-5073(73)90066-4
798:. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
740:Journal of Pharmacy Teaching
471:Expectancy Violations Theory
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1365:(2nd ed.). John Wiley.
1157:(2). Elsevier BV: 122–142.
817:(1). Elsevier BV: 175–191.
811:Computers in Human Behavior
484:Maslow's hierarchy of needs
10:
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535:10.1177/002224377401100302
1267:Great Minds in Management
1028:10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.85
823:10.1016/j.chb.2004.04.004
478:Self-Actualization Theory
451:Great Minds in Management
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67:Yale School of Management
61:theory first proposed by
57:, expectancy theory is a
365:self-fulfilling prophecy
55:organizational behavior
1363:The motivation to work
1320:Journal of Personality
754:(inactive 2024-09-12).
613:Rao, P. Subba (2000).
592:. Wiley. p. 482.
586:Condrey, S.E. (2005).
75:
1468:Motivational theories
1437:American Psychologist
1376:McGregor, D. (1960).
1326:(3). Wiley: 326–347.
902:Looking in classrooms
752:10.3109/J060v08n04_01
498:Theory X and theory Y
444:construction industry
292:in 2008 conducted an
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1463:Communication theory
1399:Psychological Review
794:Bandura, A. (1986).
27:Psychological theory
707:Scholl, Richard W.
686:"Expectancy Theory"
329:past experience or
290:University of Idaho
985:10.1007/bf02322211
1473:Expectancy theory
1288:www.antalhaans.nl
1142:978-0-07-036700-5
599:978-0-7879-7715-3
572:978-0-7641-3931-4
491:Two-factor theory
464:Motivation Theory
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1064:(3): 482.
563:Management
505:References
402:Criticisms
370:elementary
316:technology
253:Management
230:Expectancy
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82:motivation
59:motivation
18:Expectancy
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