Executive dysfunction

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dysfunction in this area over their behavior, reduced flexibility and self-control and their difficulty to conceive behavioral consequences, which may conclude in unstable (or criminal) behavior. In a 2008 study conducted by Barbosa & Monteiro, it was discovered that the recurrent criminals that were considered in this study had executive dysfunction. In view of the fact that abnormalities in executive function can limit how people respond to rehabilitation and re-socialization programs these findings of the recurrent criminals are justified. Statistically significant relations have been discerned between anti-social behavior and executive function deficits. These findings relate to the emotional instability that is connected with executive function as a detrimental symptom that can also be linked towards criminal behavior. Conversely, it is unclear as to the specificity of anti-social behavior to executive function deficits as opposed to other generalized neuropsychological deficits. The uncontrollable deficiency of executive function has an increased expectancy for aggressive behavior that can result in a criminal deed. Orbitofrontal injury also hinders the ability to be risk avoidant, make social judgments, and may cause reflexive aggression. A common retort to these findings is that the higher incidence of cerebral lesions among the criminal population may be due to the peril associated with a life of crime. Along with this reasoning, it would be assumed that some other personality trait is responsible for the disregard of social acceptability and reduction in social aptitude.

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is among the most critical external influences on child reactivity. In Mahoney's study of maternal communication, results indicated that the way mothers interacted with their children accounted for almost 25% of variability in children's rate of development. Every child is unique, making parenting an emotional challenge that should be most closely related to the child's level of emotional self-regulation (persistence, frustration and compliance). A promising approach that was being investigated in 2006 amid intellectually disabled children and their parents is responsive teaching. Responsive teaching is an early intervention curriculum designed to address the cognitive, language, and social needs of young children with developmental problems. Based on the principle of "active learning", responsive teaching is a method that is was being applauded in 1980s as adaptable for individual caregivers, children and their combined needs The effect of parenting styles on the development of children is an important area of research that seems to be forever ongoing and altering. There is no doubt that there is a prominent link between parental interaction and child development but the best child-rearing technique continues to vary amongst experts.

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academic, occupational and social deficits. Psychosocial treatment facilitates marked improvements in major symptoms of executive dysfunction such as time management, organization and self-esteem. One kind of psychosocial treatment has been found to be particularly helpful, Behavioral Parent Training (BPT). Behavioral Parent Training (BPT) helps parents learn, through the help of a trained mental health professional, how to help their child behave better. This outlines proper use of reward and punishment with the child, mostly using methods of positive and negative reinforcement rather than punishment. For example, taking away a positive reinforcement such as praise, as opposed to adding a punishment. Psychosocial treatments are effective for adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as well. One study shows that there are a number of useful psychosocial interventions that help adults with ADHD live better lives too. These included mindfulness training, cognitive based behavioral therapy, as well as education to help the participants recognize problem behaviors in their lives.

543:(ADHD). Individuals with ADHD often experience problems with organization, discipline, and setting priorities, and these difficulties often persist from childhood through adulthood. In both children and adults with ADHD, an underlying executive dysfunction involving the prefrontal regions and other interconnected subcortical structures has been found. As a result, people with ADHD commonly perform more poorly than matched controls on interference control, mental flexibility and verbal fluency. Also, a more central impairment in self-regulation is noted in cases of ADHD. However, some research has suggested the possibility that the severity of executive dysfunction in individuals with ADHD declines with age as they learn to compensate for the aforementioned deficits. Thus, a decrease in executive dysfunction in adults with ADHD as compared to children with ADHD is thought reflective of compensatory strategies employed on behalf of the adults (e.g. using schedules to organize tasks) rather than neurological differences. 394:

different colour than what the written word reads. For example, the word "red" is written in a blue font. One must verbally classify the colour that the word is displayed/printed in, while ignoring the information provided by the written word. In the aforementioned example, this would require the participant to say "blue" when presented with the stimulus. Although the majority of people will show some slowing when given incompatible text versus font colour, this is more severe in individuals with deficits in inhibition. The Stroop task takes advantage of the fact that most humans are so proficient at reading colour words that it is extremely difficult to ignore this information, and instead acknowledge, recognize and say the colour the word is printed in. The Stroop task is an assessment of attentional vitality and flexibility. More modern variations of the Stroop task tend to be more difficult and often try to limit the sensitivity of the test.

406:. This test is composed of two main parts (Part A & Part B). Part B differs from Part A specifically in that it assesses more complex factors of motor control and perception. Part B of the Trail-making test consists of multiple circles containing letters (A-L) and numbers (1-12). The participant's objective for this test is to connect the circles in order, alternating between number and letter (e.g. 1-A-2-B) from start to finish. The participant is required not to lift their pencil from the page. The task is also timed as a means of assessing speed of processing. Set-switching tasks in Part B have low motor and perceptual selection demands, and therefore provide a clearer index of executive function. Throughout this task, some of the executive function skills that are being measured include impulsivity, visual attention and motor speed. 648:, a component of executive functioning. Cognitive deficits found in early PD process appear to involve primarily the fronto-executive functions. Moreover, studies of the role of dopamine in the cognition of PD patients have suggested that PD patients with inadequate dopamine supplementation are more impaired in their performance on measures of executive functioning. This suggests that dopamine may contribute to executive control processes. Increased distractibility, problems in set formation and maintaining and shifting attentional sets, deficits in executive functions such as self-directed planning, problems solving, and working memory have been reported in PD patients. In terms of working memory specifically, persons with PD show deficits in the areas of: a) spatial working memory; b) 355:

the frontal lobes in other primates also mediate and regulate emotion, but do not demonstrate the metacognitive abilities that are demonstrated in humans. This uniqueness of the executive system to humans implies that there was also something unique about the environment of ancestral humans, which gave rise to the need for executive functions as adaptations to that environment. Some examples of possible adaptive problems that would have been solved by the evolution of an executive system are: social exchange, imitation and observational learning, enhanced pedagogical understanding, tool construction and use, and effective communication.

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falsely localize the problem at perception (input) rather than focusing on the inner processes involved in producing appropriate behaviour (output). Moreover, others have theorized that the appropriate development of inhibition (something that is seen to be lacking in individuals with ADHD) is essential for the normal performance of other neuropsychological abilities such as working memory, and emotional self-regulation. Thus, within this model, deficits in inhibition are conceptualized to be developmental and the result of atypically operating executive systems.

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developing physical and emotional complications. The cognitive ability to develop a comprehensive self-construct and the ability to demonstrate capable emotion regulation is a core deficit observed in people with ADHD and is linked to deficits in executive function. Overall, low executive functioning seen in individuals with ADHD has been correlated with tendencies to overeat, as well as with emotional eating. This particular interest in the relationship between ADHD and obesity is rarely clinically assessed and may deserve more attention in future research.

342:) codes for an enzyme that degrades catecholamine neurotransmitters (DA and NE), and its Val158Met polymorphism is linked with the modulation of task-oriented cognition and behavior (including set shifting) and the experience of reward, which are major aspects of executive functioning. COMT is also linked to methylphenidate (stimulant medication) response in children with ADHD. Both the DRD4/7R and COMT/Val158Met polymorphisms are also correlated with executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and schizotypal behaviour. 620:

individuals with bipolar disorder, particularly in executive function and verbal learning. Moreover, these cognitive deficits appear to be consistent cross-culturally, indicating that these impairments are characteristic of the disorder and not attributable to differences in cultural values, norms, or practice. Functional neuroimaging studies have implicated abnormalities in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex as being volumetrically different in individuals with bipolar disorder.

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clock drawing are classified according to the following categories: omissions, perseverations, rotations, misplacements, distortions, substitutions and additions. Memory, concentration, initiation, energy, mental clarity and indecision are all measures that are scored during this activity. Those with deficits in executive functioning will often make errors on the first clock but not the second. In other words, they will be unable to generate their own example, but will show proficiency in the copying task.

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cognitive neuroscience suggest that executive functions are widely distributed throughout the brain, though a few areas have been isolated as primary contributors. Executive dysfunction is studied extensively in clinical neuropsychology as well, allowing correlations to be drawn between such dysexecutive symptoms and their neurological correlates. A 2015 study confirmed that executive dysfunction has a positive correlation with neurodevelopmental disorders such as

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children such as ADHD, along with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, high functioning autism and Tourette's syndrome have all been suggested to involve executive functioning deficits. The main focus of research in the 2000s had been on working memory, planning, set shifting, inhibition, and fluency. This research suggests that differences exist between typically functioning, matched controls and clinical groups, on measures of executive functioning.

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originated as a form of public behaviour directed at the external environment, but then became self-directed, and then finally, became private to the individual, over the course of the development of self-regulation. These shifts in function illustrate the evolutionarily salient strategy of maximizing longer-term social consequences over near-term ones, through the development of an internal control of behaviour.

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deficits in bipolar disorder are typically less severe and more restricted. It has been suggested that a "stable dys-regulation of prefrontal function or the subcortical-frontal circuitry may underlie the cognitive disturbances of bipolar disorder". Executive dysfunction in bipolar disorder is suggested to be associated particularly with the manic state, and is largely accounted for in terms of the

597:, for example, has been unimpaired relative to matched controls. An alternative explanation has suggested that executive function tests that demonstrate a clear rationale are passed by autistic individuals. In this light, it is the design of the measures of inhibition that have been implicated in the observation of impaired performance rather than inhibition being a core deficit. 741:(CBT) is a frequently suggested treatment for executive dysfunction, but has shown limited effectiveness. However, a study of CBT in a group rehabilitation setting showed a significant increase in positive treatment outcome compared with individual therapy. Patients' self-reported symptoms on 16 different ADHD/executive-related items were reduced following the treatment period. 1024:

they have already mastered, and have difficulty with initiating new non-routine tasks. Although an estimated 25–40% of people with autism also have a learning disability, many will demonstrate an impressive rote memory and memory for factual knowledge. As such, repetition is the primary and most successful method for instruction when teaching people with autism.

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effective connectivity analyses. The complete circuit underlying executive function includes both a direct and an indirect circuit. The neural circuit responsible for executive functioning is, in fact, located primarily in the frontal lobe. This main circuit originates in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex/orbitofrontal cortex and then projects through the

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Tourette's syndrome have all been suggested to involve executive functioning deficits. The main focus of research in 2000s had been on working memory, planning, set shifting, inhibition, and fluency. This research suggests that differences exist between typically functioning, matched controls, and clinical groups, on measures of executive functioning.

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specific to the disorder, rather than a more global perseveration tendency. These deficits have been exhibited in cross-cultural samples and have been shown to persist over time. Autistic individuals have also been shown to react slower as well as perform slower in tasks that require mental flexibility when compared to their neurotypical peers.

90:, response inhibition, and coordination of complex cognition and motor control for effective performance. Deficits of the executive functions are observed in all populations to varying degrees, but severe executive dysfunction can have devastating effects on cognition and behaviour in both individual and social contexts on a day-to-day basis. 695:

memory. This deficit is also likely to be due to an underlying difficulty in properly retrieving script information. PD patients often exhibit signs of irrelevant intrusions, incorrect ordering of events, and omission of minor components in their script retrieval, leading to disorganized and inappropriate application of script information.

604:. These include: use of desire and emotion words, sequencing behavioural pictures, and the recognition of basic facial emotional expressions. In contrast, autistic individuals typically demonstrated impaired performance on tasks that do require mentalizing. These include: false beliefs, use of belief and idea words, sequencing 1012:

proactive approach in managing behaviour or skill deficits (when possible), rather than adopt a reactive approach. For example, an awareness of where a student may have difficulty throughout the course of the day can aid the teacher in planning to avoid these situations or in planning to accommodate the needs of the student.

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combined conditions were equally effective in symptom reduction, and very large improvements after treatment were reported. Although the mean weighted effect-size of the psychosocial treatment condition was moderate to large, this treatment modality was significantly less effective than the other two treatment modalities.

515:. However, impaired performance was measured on psychometric measures assumed to assess higher order executive function. Working memory and multi-tasking impairments typically characterize the disorder. Persons with schizophrenia also tend to demonstrate deficits in response inhibition and cognitive flexibility. 503:. Observed damage to explicit, consciously accessed memory is generally attributed to the fragmented thoughts that characterize the disorder. These fragmented thoughts are suggested to produce a similarly fragmented organization in memory during encoding and storage, making retrieval more difficult. However, 673:

inability to adopt a new strategy that may be more appropriate in achieving a goal. However, some research from 2007 suggests that PD patients may actually be less persistent in pursuing goals than typical persons and may abandon tasks sooner when they encounter problems of a higher level of difficulty.

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The main concern with individuals with autism regarding learning is in the imitation of skills. This can be a barrier in many aspects such as learning about others intentions, mental states, speech, language, and general social skills. Individuals with autism tend to be dependent on the routines that

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It has been made known that young children with behavioral problems show poor verbal ability and executive functions. The exact distinction between parenting style and the importance of family structure on child development is still somewhat unclear. However, in infancy and early childhood, parenting

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Since 1997, there has been experimental and clinical practice of psychosocial treatment for adults with executive dysfunction, and particularly attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychosocial treatment addresses the many facets of executive difficulties, and as the name suggests, covers

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Poor mental flexibility, as demonstrated in autistic individuals, is characterized by perseverative, stereotyped behaviour, and deficits in both the regulation and modulation of motor acts. Some research has suggested that autistic individuals experience a sort of 'stuck-in-set' perseveration that is

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The Clock drawing test (CDT) is a brief cognitive task that can be used by physicians who suspect neurological dysfunction based on history and physical examination. It is relatively easy to train non-professional staff to administer a CDT. Therefore, this is a test that can easily be administered in

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The emerging view suggests that cognitive processes materialize from networks that span multiple cortical sites with closely collaborative and over-lapping functions. A challenge for future research will be to map the multiple brain regions that might combine with each other in a vast number of ways,

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Stimulants, a first-line treatment for this condition, are among the most effective and most studied psychotropic medications. ... A range of successful treatment options exists. Of these, the stimulants are considered first-line treatments for ADHD, supported by decades of research and a history of

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Moreover, some people with ADHD report experiencing frequent feelings of drowsiness. This can hinder their attention for lectures, readings, and completing assignments. Individuals with this disorder have also been found to require more stimuli for information processing in reading and writing. Slow

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Several factors should be considered in the development of intervention strategies. These include, but are not limited to: developmental level of the child, comorbid disabilities, environmental changes, motivating factors, and coaching strategies. It is also recommended that strategies should take a

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should ultimately be to apply external control, as needed (e.g. adapt the environment to suit the child, provide adult support) in an attempt to modify problem behaviours or supplement skill deficits. Ultimately, executive function difficulties should not be attributed to negative personality traits

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Some research has suggested a link between a child's abilities to gain information about the world around them and having the ability to override emotions in order to behave appropriately. One study required children to perform a task from a series of psychological tests, with their performance used

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Patients with acquired brain injury have also been exposed to goal management training (GMT). GMT skills are associated with paper-and-pencil tasks that are suitable for patients having difficulty setting goals. From these studies there has been support for the effectiveness of GMT and the treatment

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PD patients often demonstrate difficulty in updating changes in spatial information and often become disoriented. They do not keep track of spatial contextual information in the same way that a typical person would do almost automatically. Similarly, they often have trouble remembering the locations

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In a similar vein, some have argued that the unique metacognitive capabilities demonstrated by humans have arisen out of the development of a sophisticated language (symbolization) systems and culture. Moreover, in a developmental context, it has been proposed that each executive function capability

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Furthermore, some think the dysfunction cannot be entirely to blame. There are interacting environmental factors that also have an influence on the likelihood of criminal action. This theory proposes that individuals with this deficit are less able to control impulses or foresee the consequences of

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In the classroom environment, children with executive dysfunction typically demonstrate skill deficits that can be categorized into two broad domains: a) self-regulatory skills; and b) goal-oriented skills. The table below is an adaptation of McDougall's summary and provides an overview of specific

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Planning refers to a complex, dynamic process, wherein a sequence of planned actions must be developed, monitored, re-evaluated and updated. Autistic persons demonstrate impairment on tasks requiring planning abilities relative to typically functioning controls, with this impairment maintained over

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are typically less affected. More specifically, patients with schizophrenia show impairment to the central executive component of working memory, specific to tasks in which the visuospatial system is required for central executive control. The phonological system appears to be more generally spared

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There are several measures that can be employed to assess the executive functioning capabilities of an individual. Although a trained non-professional working outside of an institutionalized setting can legally and competently perform many of these measures, a trained professional administering the

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From an evolutionary perspective, it has been hypothesized that the executive system may have evolved to serve several adaptive purposes. The prefrontal lobe in humans has been associated both with metacognitive executive functions and emotional executive functions. Theory and evidence suggest that

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Doesn't know where to start when given large assignments; easily overwhelmed by task demands; difficulty developing a plan for long-term projects; problem-solving strategies are very limited and haphazard; starts working before adequately considering the demands of a task; difficulty listing steps

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are more effective at treating core ADHD symptoms including executive dysfunction than psychosocial treatment alone. Their efficacy treating ADHD is among the highest of any psychotropic medication treating any psychiatric condition. Treatment with methylphenidate or other ADHD medications reduces

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Although there has been some debate, inhibition is generally no longer considered to be an executive function deficit in autistic people. Autistic individuals have demonstrated differential performance on various tests of inhibition, with results being taken to indicate a general difficulty in the

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Both ADHD and obesity are complicated disorders and each produces a large impact on an individual's social well-being. This being both a physical and psychological disorder has reinforced that obese individuals with ADHD need more treatment time (with associated costs), and are at a higher risk of

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Although ADHD has typically been conceptualized in a categorical diagnostic paradigm, it has also been proposed that this disorder should be considered within a more dimensional behavioural model that links executive functions to observed deficits. Proponents argue that classic conceptions of ADHD

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The prefrontal lobe controls two related executive functioning domains. The first is mediation of abilities involved in planning, problem solving, and understanding information, as well as engaging in working memory processes and controlled attention. In this sense, the prefrontal lobe is involved

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Executive dysfunction appears to consistently involve disruptions in task-oriented behavior, which requires executive control in the inhibition of habitual responses and goal activation. Such executive control is responsible for adjusting behaviour to reconcile environmental changes with goals for

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Executive dysfunction does occur to a minor degree in all individuals on both short-term and long-term scales. In non-clinical populations, the activation of executive processes appears to inhibit further activation of the same processes, suggesting a mechanism for normal fluctuations in executive

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The use of auditory stimuli has been examined in the treatment of dysexecutive syndrome. The presentation of auditory stimuli causes an interruption in current activity, which appears to aid in preventing "goal neglect" by increasing the patients' ability to monitor time and focus on goals. Given

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PD patients often demonstrate deficits in their ability to sequence information, or date events. Part of the problems is hypothesized to be due to a more fundamental difficulty in coordinating or planning retrieval strategies, rather than failure at the level of encoding or storing information in

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Individuals affected by bipolar disorder exhibit deficits in strategic thinking, inhibitory control, working memory, attention, and initiation that are independent of affective state. In contrast to the more generalized cognitive impairment demonstrated in persons with schizophrenia, for example,

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is diagnosed based on the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly restricted or repetitive repertoire of stereotypic movements, activities, and/or interests. It is a disorder that is defined according to behaviour as no specific

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The WCST utilizes a deck of 128 cards that contains four stimulus cards. The figures on the cards differ with respect to color, quantity, and shape. The participants are then given a pile of additional cards and are asked to match each one to one of the previous cards. Typically, children between

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With substantial cognitive load, fMRI signals indicate a common network of frontal, parietal and occipital cortices, thalamus, and the cerebellum. This observation suggests that executive function is mediated by dynamic and flexible networks that are characterized using functional integration and

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Executive functioning is not a unitary concept. Many studies have been conducted in an attempt to pinpoint the exact regions of the brain that lead to executive dysfunction, producing a vast amount of often conflicting information indicating wide and inconsistent distribution of such functions. A

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For ADHD symptoms, our carefully crafted medication management was superior to behavioral treatment and to routine community care that included medication. Our combined treatment did not yield significantly greater benefits than medication management for core ADHD symptoms, but may have provided

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An understanding of how executive dysfunction shapes development has implications how we conceptualize executive functions and their role in shaping the individual. Disorders affecting children such as ADHD, along with oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, high functioning autism, and

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Environmental dependency syndrome is a dysexecutive syndrome marked by significant behavioural dependence on environmental cues and is marked by excessive imitation and utilization behaviour. It has been observed in patients with a variety of etiologies including ABI, exposure to phendimetrazine

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The procedure of the CDT begins with the instruction to the participant to draw a clock reading a specific time (generally 11:10). After the task is complete, the test administrator draws a clock with the hands set at the same specific time. Then the patient is asked to copy the image. Errors in

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is a mood disorder that is characterized by both highs (mania) and lows (depression) in mood. These changes in mood sometimes alternate rapidly (changes within days or weeks) and sometimes not so rapidly (within weeks or months). A 2006 study provided strong evidence of cognitive impairments in

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is referred to as directed attention. The Stroop task requires the participant to engage in and allows assessment of processes such as attention management, speed and accuracy of reading words and colours and of inhibition of competing stimuli. The stimulus is a colour word that is printed in a

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processes are involved in the executive system and each may be compromised by a range of genetic and environmental factors. Learning and development of long-term memory play a role in the severity of executive dysfunction through dynamic interaction with neurological characteristics. Studies in

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is a theoretical construct representing a domain of cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes. Executive functioning is not a unitary concept; it is a broad description of the set of processes involved in certain areas of cognitive and behavioural control.

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People with executive dysfunction have a slower cognitive processing speed and thus often take longer to complete tasks than people who demonstrate typical executive function capabilities. This can be frustrating for the individual and can serve to impede academic progress. Disorders affecting

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The present meta-analysis investigated the efficacy of short-acting methylphenidate, psychosocial treatments and their combination on ADHD and ODD/CD symptoms, social behavior and academic functioning in school-aged children with ADHD ... With regard to ADHD symptoms, both methylphenidate and

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Being attentive and focused for people with Tourette's syndrome is a difficult process. People affected by this disorder tend to be easily distracted and act very impulsively. That is why it is very important to have a quiet setting with few distractions for the ultimate learning environment.

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PD is often characterized by a difficulty in regulating and controlling one's stream of thought, and how memories are utilized in guiding future behaviour. Also, persons affected by PD often demonstrate perseverative behaviours such as continuing to pursue a goal after it is completed, or an

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is commonly described as a mental disorder in which a person becomes detached from reality because of disruptions in the pattern of thinking and perception. Although the etiology is not completely understood, it is closely related to dopaminergic activity and is strongly associated with both

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has confirmed the relationship between executive function and functional frontal pathology. Neuroimaging studies have also suggested that some constituent functions are not discretely localized in prefrontal regions. Functional imaging studies using different tests of executive function have

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Prefrontal dysfunction has been found as a marker for persistent, criminal behavior. The prefrontal cortex is involved with mental functions including; affective range of emotions, forethought, and self-control. Moreover, there is a scarcity of mental control displayed by individuals with a

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as a measure of executive function. The tests included assessments of: executive functions (self-regulation, monitoring, attention, flexibility in thinking), language, sensorimotor, visuospatial, and learning, in addition to social perception. The findings suggested that the development of

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Executive processes are closely integrated with memory retrieval capabilities for overall cognitive control; in particular, goal/task-information is stored in both short-term and long-term memory, and effective performance requires effective storage and retrieval of this information.

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Fluency refers to the ability to generate novel ideas and responses. Although adult populations are largely underrepresented in this area of research, findings have suggested that autistic children generate fewer novel words and ideas and produce less complex responses than matched

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with dealing with basic, everyday situations, especially those involving metacognitive functions. The second domain involves the ability to fulfill biological needs through the coordination of cognition and emotions which are both associated with the frontal and prefrontal areas.

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Alfimova MV, Golimbet VE, Gritsenko IK, Lezheiko TV, Abramova LI, Strel'tsova MA, et al. (September 2007). "Interaction of dopamine system genes and cognitive functions in patients with schizophrenia and their relatives and in healthy subjects from the general population".

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actions that seem attractive at the time (see above) and are also typically provoked by environmental factors. One must recognize that the frustrations of life, combined with a limited ability to control life events, can easily cause aggression and/or other criminal activities.

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Makes "careless" errors; does not check work before handing it in; does not stop to evaluate how things are going in the middle of a task or activity; thinks a task was well done, when in fact it was done poorly; thinks a task was poorly done, when in fact it was done well

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Very little work accomplished during a specified period of time; wasting time, then rushing to complete a task at the last minute; often late to class/assignments are often late; difficulty estimating how long it takes to do a task; limited awareness of the passage of time

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control. Decline in executive functioning is also associated with both normal and clinical aging. The decline of memory processes as people age appears to affect executive functions, which also points to the general role of memory in executive functioning.

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Volz HP, Gaser C, Häger F, Rzanny R, Mentzel HJ, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, et al. (October 1997). "Brain activation during cognitive stimulation with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test--a functional MRI study on healthy volunteers and schizophrenics".

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There is some evidence suggesting that executive dysfunction may produce beneficial effects as well as maladaptive ones. Abraham et al. demonstrate that creative thinking in schizophrenia is mediated by executive dysfunction, and they establish a firm

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The executive system's broad range of functions relies on, and is instrumental in, a broad range of neurocognitive processes. Clinical presentation of severe executive dysfunction that is unrelated to a specific disease or disorder is classified as a

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Ottowitz WE, Dougherty DD, Savage CR (January 2002). "The neural network basis for abnormalities of attention and executive function in major depressive disorder: implications for application of the medical disease model to psychiatric disorders".

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Commission of errors at easy levels and success at harder levels; indication that student thinks the task is "easy" then cannot do it correctly; performance improves once the student realized that the task is more difficult than originally thought

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Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate spared performance on measures of visual and verbal attention and concentration, as well as on immediate digit span recall, suggesting that observed deficits cannot be attributed to deficits in attention or

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educational and geriatric settings and can be utilized as a precursory measure to indicate the likelihood of further/future deficits. Also, generational, educational and cultural differences are not perceived as impacting the utility of the CDT.

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Hollocks MJ, Jones CR, Pickles A, Baird G, Happé F, Charman T, Simonoff E (April 2014). "The association between social cognition and executive functioning and symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders".

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paralysis, and in a broader context, it can encompass other cognitive difficulties like planning, organizing, initiating tasks and regulating emotions. It is a core characteristic of ADHD and can elucidate numerous other recognized symptoms.

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The loss of episodic memories in PD patients typically demonstrates a temporal gradient wherein older memories are generally more preserved than newer memories. Also, while forgetting event content is less compromised in Parkinson's than in

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processing may manifest in behavior as signaling a lack of motivation on behalf of the learner. However, slow processing is reflective of an impairment of the ability to coordinate and integrate multiple skills and information sources.

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demonstrated greater impairment on measures of executive functioning and spatial working memory compared with bipolar patients without a history of psychosis suggesting that psychotic symptoms are correlated with executive dysfunction.

644:(PD) primarily involves damage to subcortical brain structures and is usually associated with movement difficulties, in addition to problems with memory and thought processes. Persons affected by PD often demonstrate difficulties in 111:

in clinical patients with executive dysfunction. A 2011 study confirms there is a lack of self-control, greater impulsivity, and greater disorganization with executive dysfunction, leading to greater amounts of aggressive behavior.

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brain regions. This is supported to some extent by the primary literature, which shows both pre-frontal activation and communication between the pre-frontal cortex and other areas associated with executive functions such as the

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Slow to stop one activity and begin another after being instructed to do so; tendency to stay with one plan or strategy even after it is shown to be ineffective; rigid adherence to routines; refusal to consider new information

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biological markers are known. Due to the variability in severity and impairment in functioning exhibited by autistic people, the disorder is typically conceptualized as existing along a continuum (or spectrum) of severity.

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Langley K, Marshall L, van den Bree M, Thomas H, Owen M, O'Donovan M, Thapar A (January 2004). "Association of the dopamine D4 receptor gene 7-repeat allele with neuropsychological test performance of children with ADHD".

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to be the primary site of cortical activation during these tasks. In addition, PET studies of patients with Parkinson's disease have suggested that tests of executive function are associated with abnormal function in the

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for creativity in psychoticism, pinpointing a cognitive preference for broader top-down associative thinking versus goal-oriented thinking, which closely resembles aspects of ADHD. It is postulated that elements of

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ability are a notable feature of executive dysfunction; set shifting is the cognitive ability to dynamically change focus between points of fixation based on changing goals and environmental stimuli. This offers a

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is a classification given to a set of subjectively-determined symptoms implicating executive dysfunction – models from the 1990s and 2000s indicate that such clinical symptoms are caused by executive dysfunction.

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Virta M, Vedenpää A, Grönroos N, Chydenius E, Partinen M, Vataja R, et al. (November 2008). "Adults with ADHD benefit from cognitive-behaviorally oriented group rehabilitation: a study of 29 participants".

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Teachers play a crucial role in the implementation of strategies aimed at improving academic success and classroom functioning in individuals with executive dysfunction. In a classroom environment, the goal of

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Hoffmann MW, Bill PL (March 1992). "The environmental dependency syndrome, imitation behaviour and utilisation behaviour as presenting symptoms of bilateral frontal lobe infarction due to moyamoya disease".

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Manly T, Hawkins K, Evans J, Woldt K, Robertson IH (January 2002). "Rehabilitation of executive function: facilitation of effective goal management on complex tasks using periodic auditory alerts".

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Levine B, Robertson IH, Clare L, Carter G, Hong J, Wilson BA, et al. (March 2000). "Rehabilitation of executive functioning: an experimental-clinical validation of goal management training".

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Ability to comprehend how much time is available, or to estimate how long it will take to complete a task, and keep track of how much time has passed relative to the amount of the task completed

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in many psychiatric illnesses, which often show the same symptoms as the dysexecutive syndrome. It has been assessed and researched extensively in relation to cognitive developmental disorders,

418:(WCST) is used to determine an individual's competence in abstract reasoning, and the ability to change problem-solving strategies when needed. These abilities are primarily determined by the 4178:

Van der Oord S, Prins PJ, Oosterlaan J, Emmelkamp PM (2008). "Efficacy of methylphenidate, psychosocial treatments and their combination in school-aged children with ADHD: A meta-analysis".

1032:, it makes focusing very difficult. Also, these individuals can be found to repeat words or phrases consistently either immediately after they are learned or after a delayed period of time. 2730:

Seidman LJ, Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Weber W, Faraone SV (May 2000). "Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder".

1905:

Berquin PC, Giedd JN, Jacobsen LK, Hamburger SD, Krain AL, Rapoport JL, Castellanos FX (April 1998). "Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a morphometric MRI study".

1463:

Avila C, Barrós A, Ortet G, Antònia Parcet M, Ibañez MI (November 2003). "Set-shifting and sensitivity to reward: A possible dopamine mechanism for explaining disinhibitory disorders".

907:

Seems to act without thinking; frequently interrupts; talks out in class; often out of seat or away from desk; rough play gets out of control; doesn't consider consequences of actions

265:

In most cases of executive dysfunction, deficits are attributed to either frontal lobe damage or dysfunction, or to disruption in fronto-subcortical connectivity. Neuroimaging with

3769:

Robinson LJ, Thompson JM, Gallagher P, Goswami U, Young AH, Ferrier IN, Moore PB (July 2006). "A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder".

4805:"Real-World Executive Functions in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Profiles of Impairment and Associations with Adaptive Functioning and Co-morbid Anxiety and Depression" 4290:"Beneficial Effects of Behavioral Parent Training on Inhibitory Control in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Small-Scale Randomized Controlled Trial" 2631:

Woo BK, Rice VA, Legendre SA, Salmon DP, Jeste DV, Sewell DD (December 2004). "The clock drawing test as a measure of executive dysfunction in elderly depressed patients".

2485:"Wisconsin Card Sorting revisited: distinct neural circuits participating in different stages of the task identified by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging" 968:

Disorganized desk, binder, notebooks, etc.; loses books, papers, assignments, etc.; doesn't write down important information; difficulty retrieving information when needed

3116:

Lhermitte F (April 1986). "Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part II: Patient behavior in complex and social situations: the "environmental dependency syndrome"".

873:

Ability to change focus, adapt to changing conditions or revise plans in the face of obstacles, new information or mistakes (can also be considered as "adaptability")

1382:

Nieuwenhuis S, Broerse A, Nielen MM, de Jong R (November 2004). "A goal activation approach to the study of executive function: an application to antisaccade tasks".

805:

executive function deficits that are commonly observed in a classroom environment. It also offers examples of how these deficits are likely to manifest in behaviour.

5047:

Morgan AB, Lilienfeld SO (January 2000). "A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function".

302:

Not surprisingly, plaques and tangles in the frontal cortex can cause disruption in functions as well as damage to the connections between prefrontal cortex and the

4858:

McDougall A (2001). Executive functions: Practical strategies for supporting students. Psychological Services, DDSB. Symposium conducted at DDSB, Ontario, Canada.

4612:

Hughes C, Ensor R (May 2006). "Behavioural problems in 2-year-olds: links with individual differences in theory of mind, executive function and harsh parenting".

1339:

Bisiacchi PS, Borella E, Bergamaschi S, Carretti B, Mondini S (August 2008). "Interplay between memory and executive functions in normal and pathological aging".

3807:

Glahn DC, Bearden CE, Barguil M, Barrett J, Reichenberg A, Bowden CL, et al. (October 2007). "The neurocognitive signature of psychotic bipolar disorder".

334:(7R) has been repeatedly shown to correlate strongly with impulsive response style on psychological tests of executive dysfunction, particularly in clinical 5007:

Ogilvie JM, Stewart AL, Chan RC, Shum DH (1 November 2011). "Neuropsychological Measures of Executive Function and Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis".

4925: 1656:

Perrotin A, Tournelle L, Isingrini M (June 2008). "Executive functioning and memory as potential mediators of the episodic feeling-of-knowing accuracy".

4261:

Ramsay JR, Rostain AL (2007). "Psychosocial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: Current evidence and future directions".

3992:

Owen AM, Iddon JL, Hodges JR, Summers BA, Robbins TW (April 1997). "Spatial and non-spatial working memory at different stages of Parkinson's disease".

1702:

Abraham A, Windmann S, McKenna P, Güntürkün O (May 2007). "Creative thinking in schizophrenia: the role of executive dysfunction and symptom severity".

4531:

Sergeant JA, Geurts H, Oosterlaan J (March 2002). "How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?".

4650:

Dennis T (January 2006). "Emotional self-regulation in preschoolers: The interplay of child approach reactivity, parenting, and control capacities".

1745:

Keshavan MS, Sujata M, Mehra A, Montrose DM, Sweeney JA (January 2003). "Psychosis proneness and ADHD in young relatives of schizophrenia patients".

1549:

Schmeichel BJ, Volokhov RN, Demaree HA (December 2008). "Working memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience".

771:

in younger children is linked to executive control abilities with development impaired in individuals who exhibit signs of executive dysfunction.

2236:"Catechol-o-methyltransferase inhibition improves set-shifting performance and elevates stimulated dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex" 890:

Forgets instructions (especially if multi-step); frequently asks for information to be repeated; forgets books at home or at school; can not do

3949:

Grossman M, Lee C, Morris J, Stern MB, Hurtig HI (March 2002). "Assessing resource demands during sentence processing in Parkinson's disease".

3344: 2840:

Arbuthnott K, Frank J (August 2000). "Trail making test, part B as a measure of executive control: validation using a set-switching paradigm".

150:, which is compulsive manipulation/use of nearby objects due simply to their presence and accessibility (rather than a functional reason); and 3528:

Gilotty L, Kenworthy L, Sirian L, Black DO, Wagner AE (December 2002). "Adaptive skills and executive function in autism spectrum disorders".

1265:

Schmeichel BJ (May 2007). "Attention control, memory updating, and emotion regulation temporarily reduce the capacity for executive control".

1428:

Verbruggen F, Logan GD (October 2008). "Long-term aftereffects of response inhibition: memory retrieval, task goals, and cognitive control".

4222:

Jensen SP, et al. (1999). "A 14-Month Randomized Clinical Trial of Treatment Strategies for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder".

3670:

Turner MA (February 1999). "Generating Novel Ideas: Fluency Performance in High-functioning and Learning Disabled Individuals with Autism".

1870:

Glosser G, Gallo JL, Clark CM, Grossman M (April 2002). "Memory encoding and retrieval in frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease".

163: 3345:"Interference control, working memory, concept shifting, and verbal fluency in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)" 3286:

Thoma P, Daum I (May 2008). "Working memory and multi-tasking in paranoid schizophrenia with and without comorbid substance use disorder".

1593:

Barkley RA (January 1997). "Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD".

322:

Certain genes have been identified with a clear correlation to executive dysfunction and related psychopathologies. According to Friedman

3008:

Jodzio K, Biechowska D (October 2010). "Wisconsin card sorting test as a measure of executive function impairments in stroke patients".

1008:

or characteristics (e.g. laziness, lack of motivation, apathy, and stubbornness) as these attributions are neither useful nor accurate.

863:

Initiates the task, but doesn't continue to work steadily; easily distracted; fatigues easily; complains task is too long or too boring

3086:

Chan RC (August 2001). "Dysexecutive symptoms among a non-clinical sample: A study with the use of the Dysexecutive Questionnaire".

2921:

Conn HO (June 1977). "Trailmaking and number-connection tests in the assessment of mental state in portal systemic encephalopathy".

581:

time. As might be suspected, in the case of autism comorbid with learning disability, an additive deficit is observed in many cases.

2811: 1028:

Focusing is particularly difficult for those who are affected by Tourette's syndrome comorbid with other disorders such as ADHD or

721:

core ADHD symptoms equally well with or without psychosocial treatment. However, psychosocial treatment may confer other benefits.

540: 205: 61:, as well as short-term and long-term changes in non-clinical executive control. Executive dysfunction is the mechanism underlying 4902: 3853:

Dixon T, Kravariti E, Frith C, Murray RM, McGuire PK (July 2004). "Effect of symptoms on executive function in bipolar illness".

326:(2008), the heritability of executive functions is among the highest of any psychological trait. The dopamine receptor D4 gene ( 5217: 4880: 3585: 3224: 2552: 1805: 519: 2883:

Gaudino EA, Geisler MW, Squires NK (August 1995). "Construct validity in the Trail Making Test: what makes Part B harder?".

1171:

Jurado MB, Rosselli M (September 2007). "The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding".

3243:

Oram J, Geffen GM, Geffen LB, Kavanagh DJ, McGrath JJ (June 2005). "Executive control of working memory in schizophrenia".

4339:

Geurts, Dirk; den Ouden, Hanneke; Janssens, Lotte; Swart, Jennifer; Froböse, Monja Isabel; Cools, Roshan; Speckens, Anne.

664:

of objects that they have recently seen, and thus also have trouble with encoding this information into long-term memory.

518:

Patients often demonstrate noticeable deficits in the central executive component of working memory as conceptualized by

4341:"Aversive inhibition in adult ADHD and its restoration by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: A behavioral pilot study" 2440:

Barkley RA (March 2001). "The executive functions and self-regulation: an evolutionary neuropsychological perspective".

2094:"Memory and executive function in aging and AD: multiple factors that cause decline and reserve factors that compensate" 1797: 1157: 628:

that is a feature of mania. It is important to note, however, that patients with bipolar disorder with a history of

223:

and neurodegenerative diseases there is a clear neurological etiology producing dysexecutive symptoms. Conversely,

1216:"Executive dysfunctions mediate between altered sensory processing and daily activity performance in older adults" 231:

are defined and diagnosed based on their symptomatology rather than etiology. Thus, while Parkinson's disease, a

143:, which has served as the basis for much research of both ADHD and broader implications of the executive system. 275: 5145: 4929: 1029: 738: 495:

neurocognitive and genetic elements of executive dysfunction. Individuals with schizophrenia may demonstrate

4954:

Santos Barbosa MF, Coelho Monteiro LM (May 2008). "Recurrent criminal behavior and executive dysfunction".

992:

Ability to stand back and evaluate how you are doing (can also be thought of as "metacognitive" abilities)

894:; difficulty making connections with previously learned information; difficulty with reading comprehension 266: 426:, which are crucial components of executive functioning; making the WCST a good measure for this purpose. 3440:

Dempsey A, Dyehouse J (24 July 2008). "The Relationship Between Executive Function, AD/HD, and Obesity".

415: 2283:

Sengupta S, Grizenko N, Schmitz N, Schwartz G, Bellingham J, Polotskaia A, et al. (December 2008).

1792:

Nigg JT (2006). What causes ADHD?: Understanding what goes wrong and why. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

5222: 5170: 2584:"Visuospatial deficits predict rate of cognitive decline in autopsy-verified dementia with Lewy bodies" 2853: 45:

that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes. Executive dysfunction can refer to both

1004: 4384: 2285:"COMT Val108/158Met polymorphism and the modulation of task-oriented behavior in children with ADHD" 54: 5212: 4089:"Using Stimulants for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Clinical Approaches and Challenges" 2765:

MacLeod CM (March 1991). "Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review".

1054: 201: 5097:"Neuropsychiatry of frontal lobe dysfunction in violent and criminal behaviour: a critical review" 3621: 625: 600:

In general, autistic individuals show relatively spared performance on tasks that do not require

249:

common assumption is that disrupted executive control processes are associated with pathology in

132: 120: 4720:"Responsive teaching: early intervention for children with Down syndrome and other disabilities" 5227: 641: 605: 527: 331: 4371: 3903:

Schneider JS (March 2007). "Behavioral persistence deficit in Parkinson's disease patients".

2582:

Hamilton JM, Salmon DP, Galasko D, Raman R, Emond J, Hansen LA, et al. (November 2008).

1954: 476: 444: 431: 220: 74: 4803:

Wallace GL, Kenworthy L, Pugliese CE, Popal HS, White EI, Brodsky E, Martin A (March 2016).

3051:

Chelune GJ, Baer RA (June 1986). "Developmental norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting test".

2815: 566:

Autistic individuals commonly show impairment in three main areas of executive functioning:

147: 108: 4688:

Mahoney G (January 1988). "Maternal communication style with mentally retarded children".

2787: 8: 468: 464: 42: 38: 3741: 3714: 3480:"Profiling executive dysfunction in adults with autism and comorbid learning disability" 920:

Temper outbursts; cries easily; very easily frustrated; very quick to anger; acts silly

139:

proposed a hybrid model of the role of behavioural disinhibition in the presentation of

5183: 5121: 5096: 5072: 4989: 4829: 4804: 4785: 4556: 4510: 4467: 4424: 4352: 4316: 4289: 4113: 4088: 4061: 4036: 4017: 3974: 3928: 3878: 3832: 3652: 3553: 3510: 3457: 3415: 3268: 3141: 3033: 2990: 2946: 2865: 2700: 2675: 2656: 2608: 2583: 2564: 2511: 2501: 2484: 2465: 2413: 2361: 2309: 2284: 2260: 2235: 2216: 2167: 2142: 2123: 2069: 2044: 1982: 1930: 1844: 1835: 1819: 1770: 1727: 1681: 1526: 1499: 1480: 1407: 1364: 1242: 1215: 1196: 891: 155: 5060: 4544: 4455: 4005: 2978: 1970: 1758: 887:

Ability to hold information in memory while performing complex tasks with information

539:

A triad of core symptoms – inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity – characterize

5175: 5126: 5064: 5020: 4993: 4981: 4876: 4834: 4777: 4741: 4697: 4667: 4629: 4625: 4548: 4502: 4459: 4416: 4356: 4321: 4239: 4195: 4157: 4118: 4066: 4009: 3966: 3920: 3916: 3882: 3870: 3824: 3786: 3746: 3695: 3687: 3644: 3581: 3545: 3502: 3419: 3407: 3403: 3367: 3303: 3299: 3260: 3220: 3182: 3133: 3068: 3037: 3025: 2982: 2938: 2900: 2857: 2792: 2747: 2705: 2648: 2613: 2556: 2516: 2457: 2405: 2353: 2314: 2265: 2208: 2172: 2143:"Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin" 2115: 2074: 2025: 1974: 1922: 1887: 1849: 1801: 1793: 1762: 1719: 1673: 1638: 1610: 1566: 1531: 1484: 1445: 1399: 1356: 1321: 1282: 1247: 1200: 1188: 1112: 653: 649: 523: 512: 403: 250: 232: 124: 4873:

Learning Disabilities and Related Disorders: Characteristics and Teaching Strategies

4560: 4514: 4471: 4428: 4021: 3978: 3836: 3514: 3461: 3272: 3145: 2994: 2869: 2660: 2568: 2539:

Shulman KI (June 2000). "Clock-drawing: is it the ideal cognitive screening test?".

2417: 2365: 2220: 2127: 1934: 1685: 1368: 1301: 5187: 5165: 5157: 5116: 5108: 5076: 5056: 5024: 5016: 4971: 4963: 4824: 4816: 4789: 4769: 4731: 4659: 4621: 4592: 4540: 4494: 4451: 4408: 4344: 4311: 4301: 4270: 4231: 4187: 4149: 4108: 4100: 4056: 4048: 4001: 3958: 3932: 3912: 3862: 3820: 3816: 3778: 3736: 3726: 3679: 3656: 3636: 3557: 3537: 3494: 3449: 3399: 3359: 3295: 3256: 3252: 3172: 3125: 3095: 3060: 3017: 2974: 2950: 2930: 2892: 2849: 2782: 2774: 2739: 2695: 2687: 2640: 2603: 2595: 2548: 2506: 2496: 2469: 2449: 2397: 2345: 2304: 2296: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2200: 2162: 2154: 2105: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2017: 1966: 1914: 1879: 1839: 1831: 1774: 1754: 1731: 1711: 1665: 1602: 1558: 1521: 1511: 1472: 1437: 1411: 1391: 1348: 1313: 1274: 1237: 1227: 1180: 1102: 616: 472: 107:

explanation for the common occurrence of impulsive, hyperactive, disorganized, and

4037:"Episodic recognition memory and the hippocampus in Parkinson's disease: A review" 1986: 4052: 3021: 2110: 2093: 2045:"Different activation patterns for working memory load and visual attention load" 1317: 860:

Ability to focus on a task or situation despite distractions, fatigue or boredom

709: 504: 500: 452: 280: 228: 159: 136: 83: 58: 5146:"Differences in executive functioning between violent and non-violent offenders" 4235: 2778: 2743: 2401: 2158: 1669: 1441: 1395: 1278: 4581:"Executive control and higher-order theory of mind in children at risk of ADHD" 4274: 3640: 3541: 2691: 2388:

Ardila A (October 2008). "On the evolutionary origins of executive functions".

2204: 1883: 1606: 1232: 904:

Capacity to think before acting (deficits are often observed as "impulsivity")

768: 683: 645: 196: 116: 82:, particularly in the areas of goal formation, planning, goal-directed action, 79: 46: 5161: 4967: 4820: 4663: 4498: 4306: 4191: 3866: 3782: 3363: 3064: 2896: 2453: 2349: 2141:

Friedman NP, Miyake A, Young SE, DeFries JC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK (May 2008).

1715: 1476: 1352: 1184: 215:

Executive dysfunction characterizes many of the symptoms observed in numerous

5207: 5201: 4736: 4719: 4412: 3691: 3498: 3453: 3161:"Transient environmental dependency syndrome due to phendimetrazine tartrate" 2644: 1516: 788: 750:

such stimuli, subjects no longer performed below their age group average IQ.

601: 491: 423: 419: 284: 255: 4348: 3683: 3099: 5179: 5130: 5068: 4985: 4838: 4781: 4745: 4671: 4633: 4552: 4506: 4463: 4420: 4325: 4243: 4199: 4161: 4122: 4070: 3970: 3962: 3924: 3874: 3828: 3790: 3750: 3699: 3648: 3549: 3506: 3411: 3371: 3307: 3264: 3186: 3029: 2861: 2751: 2709: 2652: 2617: 2560: 2520: 2461: 2409: 2357: 2318: 2269: 2212: 2176: 2119: 2078: 2029: 2021: 1978: 1891: 1853: 1766: 1723: 1677: 1570: 1535: 1449: 1403: 1360: 1325: 1286: 1251: 1192: 1116: 460: 448: 310:

images link the severity of white matter lesions to deficits in cognition.

158:. Research also suggests that executive set shifting is a co-mediator with 104: 99: 26: 5112: 4701: 4013: 3137: 3129: 3072: 2986: 2904: 2796: 1926: 1918: 1642: 1614: 1498:

Krämer UM, Kopyciok RP, Richter S, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Münte TF (2011).

1107: 1090: 846:

Awareness of the amount of effort needed to perform a task (successfully)

4249:

modest advantages for non-ADHD symptom and positive functioning outcomes.

4104: 4041:

Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior

2942: 716:-based medications are first-line treatments for ADHD. On average, these 713: 594: 390: 303: 166:(FOK) accuracy, such that executive dysfunction may reduce FOK accuracy. 3715:"Cognitive flexibility in autism: Evidence from young autistic children" 3390:

Rosenman S (June 2006). "Reconsidering the attention deficit paradigm".

2300: 1631:

South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde

733: 5029: 4976: 4153: 2934: 1500:"The role of executive functions in the control of aggressive behavior" 1497: 717: 259: 180: 146:

Other common and distinctive symptoms of executive dysfunction include

22: 3177: 3160: 4773: 3731: 2599: 1562: 629: 368:

test in a standardized setting will yield the most accurate results.

224: 176: 151: 87: 4597: 4580: 4177: 2676:"Does the Clock Drawing Test have focal neuroanatomical correlates?" 2553:

10.1002/1099-1166(200006)15:6<548::AID-GPS242>3.0.CO;2-U

1430:

Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance

744: 4128:

robust response, good tolerability, and safety across the lifespan.

2483:

Monchi O, Petrides M, Petre V, Worsley K, Dagher A (October 2001).

1955:"Working memory and executive function: evidence from neuroimaging" 1338: 456: 296: 292: 184: 171: 4614:

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines

3478:

Barnard L, Muldoon K, Hasan R, O'Brien G, Stewart M (March 2008).

1131: 965:

Ability to arrange information or materials according to a system

2334: 2189: 784: 496: 154:

behaviour, a tendency to rely on imitation as a primary means of

128: 50: 3768: 951:

Ability to list steps needed to reach a goal or complete a task

402:

Another prominent test of executive dysfunction is known as the

3712: 3343:

Marchetta ND, Hurks PP, Krabbendam L, Jolles J (January 2008).

2282: 2233: 1701: 1381: 593:

inhibition of a habitual response. However, performance on the

559: 4397: 4340: 3477: 3342: 2729: 2234:

Tunbridge EM, Bannerman DM, Sharp T, Harrison PJ (June 2004).

1462: 4953: 4802: 1904: 836:

Doesn't "see" what is happening; doesn't "hear" instructions

608:

pictures, and recognizing complex emotions such as scheming.

195:

The cause of executive dysfunction is heterogeneous, as many

2674:

Tranel D, Rudrauf D, Vianna EP, Damasio H (September 2008).

306:. Another important point is in the finding that structural 235:

condition, causes executive dysfunction, a disorder such as

4717: 4082: 4080: 3527: 1744: 534: 339: 335: 327: 270: 236: 140: 62: 5143: 4484: 4173: 4171: 3806: 3713:

Andreou M, Konstantopoulos K, Peristeri E (October 2022).

2673: 2581: 2482: 2140: 2043:

Tomasi D, Chang L, Caparelli EC, Ernst T (February 2007).

1655: 4928:. University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics. Archived from 4758: 4718:

Mahoney G, Perales F, Wiggers B, Herman B (August 2006).

3852: 2042: 1869: 1548: 1158:"Mother Wound: Understanding Its Impact on Men and Woman" 307: 4530: 4338: 4077: 3242: 1817: 1132:"ADHD Paralysis Is Real: Here Are 8 Ways to Overcome it" 5144:

Meijers J, Harte JM, Meynen G, Cuijpers P (July 2017).

4487:

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society

4168: 4140:

Dodson WW (May 2005). "Pharmacotherapy of adult ADHD".

3571: 3569: 3567: 2006: 1830:(3 Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry): 646–659. 507:

is generally preserved in patients with schizophrenia.

5006: 4441: 4287: 3991: 3948: 791:

problems are more likely to be related to depression.

783:

Flexibility problems are more likely to be related to

4866: 4864: 2882: 2812:"Stroop task: A test of capacity to direct attention" 2630: 734:

Cognitive-behavioral therapy and group rehabilitation

4217: 4215: 4213: 3564: 3053:

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology

2963: 2885:

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology

2842:

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology

1952: 1341:

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology

1213: 833:

Awareness of something happening in the environment

522:. However, performance on tasks associated with the 483:

tartrate, stroke, and various frontal lobe lesions.

4578: 4526: 4524: 4254: 1818:Rabinovici GD, Stephens ML, Possin KL (June 2015). 1423: 1421: 455:. As a result, executive dysfunction is implicated 5101:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 4861: 4086: 4210: 3111: 3109: 745:Treatment for patients with acquired brain injury 5199: 5046: 4521: 3279: 3007: 2330: 2328: 1953:Carpenter PA, Just MA, Reichle ED (April 2000). 1418: 1299: 3575: 3439: 2854:10.1076/1380-3395(200008)22:4;1-0;FT518 2839: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 1697: 1695: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1542: 1427: 686:, the opposite is true for event data memories. 4903:"Describing Six Aspects of a Complex Syndrome" 4263:Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 4034: 3106: 1300:Zelazo PD, Craik FI, Booth L (February 2004). 1258: 1170: 1164: 794: 409: 119:capacity, may also lead to varying degrees of 16:Difficulty keeping organised to complete tasks 4809:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 4288:Yao A, Shimada K, Kasaba R, Tomoda A (2022). 4260: 3217:The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience 3152: 2835: 2833: 2633:Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology 2541:International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2325: 2276: 2134: 1136:ADDA - Attention Deficit Disorder Association 5042: 5040: 4854: 4852: 4850: 4848: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4093:The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders 3898: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3325:. United States of America: Allyn and Bacon. 2424: 2183: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1898: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1692: 1627: 1577: 1551:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1214:Engel-Yeger B, Rosenblum S (February 2021). 475:, as well as neurodegenerative diseases and 447:, and often appears following damage to the 216: 5171:1871.1/371bdff2-a6df-45ee-a1fd-90995ea811d7 5094: 4870: 4611: 4579:Perner J, Kain W, Barchfeld P (June 2002). 4478: 4133: 3944: 3942: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3050: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2147:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 1293: 1267:Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 554: 345: 179:are present in both ADHD and schizophrenia/ 78:Executive processes are integral to higher 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4683: 4681: 4435: 4391: 3672:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 3580:(3rd ed.). 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The catechol-o-methyl transferase gene ( 5169: 5120: 5090: 5088: 5086: 5037: 5028: 4975: 4845: 4828: 4735: 4713: 4711: 4645: 4643: 4596: 4567: 4315: 4305: 4112: 4060: 4035:Das T, Hwang JJ, Poston KL (April 2019). 3902: 3889: 3740: 3730: 3329: 3320: 3314: 3285: 3176: 3115: 3079: 2786: 2699: 2607: 2510: 2500: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2308: 2259: 2227: 2166: 2109: 2068: 1993: 1941: 1843: 1781: 1525: 1515: 1302:"Executive function across the life span" 1241: 1231: 1106: 1091:"Executive functions and their disorders" 1084: 1082: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1072: 1070: 724: 37:, is a disruption to the efficacy of the 4896: 4894: 4892: 4087:Stevens JR, Wilens TE, Stern TA (2013). 3939: 3848: 3846: 3802: 3800: 3757: 3389: 3378: 3158: 2809: 2716: 1865: 1863: 1738: 1649: 1332: 1130:Team, ADDA Editorial (7 December 2022). 917:Ability to modulate emotional responses 757: 541:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 535:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 389:The cognitive mechanism involved in the 237:attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 206:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 4936: 4923: 4912: 4687: 4678: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3521: 3468: 3426: 3238: 3236: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3044: 2916: 2914: 2764: 2667: 2538: 2527: 2439: 2091: 1621: 1592: 1155: 1088: 283:and appear to be the genuine result of 115:Executive dysfunction, particularly in 5200: 5083: 4708: 4690:American Journal of Mental Retardation 4649: 4640: 4221: 4139: 3669: 2476: 2387: 2372: 2338:Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology 1375: 1067: 652:aspects of working memory; c) loss of 636: 5095:Brower MC, Price BH (December 2001). 4900: 4889: 3843: 3797: 2624: 1860: 1456: 1035: 754:of executive dysfunction due to ABI. 371: 4724:Downs Syndrome Research and Practice 3619: 3594: 3233: 3214: 3193: 3085: 2920: 2911: 1129: 397: 314:depending on the task requirements. 299:to return to the prefrontal cortex. 98:effective behaviour. 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Psychology Press. 927:Goal-oriented skills 901:Response inhibition. 857:Sustained attention. 330:) with 7'-repeating 217:clinical populations 109:aggressive behaviour 4926:"Tourette Syndrome" 4924:Gaffney GR (2005). 4224:Arch Gen Psychiatry 3245:Psychiatry Research 3159:Hoffmann M (2007). 3118:Annals of Neurology 2967:Psychiatry Research 2810:de Young R (2009). 2390:Brain and Cognition 2301:10.1038/npp.2008.85 1658:Brain and Cognition 1384:Brain and Cognition 1108:10.1093/bmb/65.1.49 642:Parkinson's disease 637:Parkinson's disease 469:affective disorders 465:psychotic disorders 43:cognitive processes 39:executive functions 4154:10.1002/jclp.20122 3951:Brain and Language 3165:European Neurology 2935:10.1007/BF01072510 2818:on 5 November 2020 1036:Criminal behaviour 520:Baddeley and Hitch 372:Clock drawing test 164:feeling-of-knowing 156:social interaction 5223:Cognitive science 5156:(10): 1784–1793. 4932:on 29 March 2009. 4882:978-0-618-47402-8 4230:(12): 1073–1086. 3725:(12): 2296–2309. 3587:978-0-13-129837-8 3226:978-1-84169-535-8 3178:10.1159/000102167 2495:(19): 7733–7741. 2295:(13): 3069–3077. 2246:(23): 5331–5335. 1806:978-1-59385-267-2 1306:Acta Psychologica 1000: 999: 924: 923: 892:mental arithmetic 654:episodic memories 650:central executive 524:phonological loop 513:short-term memory 473:conduct disorders 404:Trail-making test 398:Trail-making test 233:neurodegenerative 219:. In the case of 133:hyperemotionality 55:psychopathologies 5235: 5192: 5191: 5173: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5124: 5092: 5081: 5080: 5044: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5015:(4): 1063–1107. 5004: 4998: 4997: 4979: 4951: 4934: 4933: 4921: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4898: 4887: 4886: 4868: 4859: 4856: 4843: 4842: 4832: 4815:(3): 1071–1083. 4800: 4794: 4793: 4774:10.1002/aur.1361 4756: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4685: 4676: 4675: 4647: 4638: 4637: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4576: 4565: 4564: 4528: 4519: 4518: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4444:Neuropsychologia 4439: 4433: 4432: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4382: 4377: 4375: 4367: 4365: 4363: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4319: 4309: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4219: 4208: 4207: 4175: 4166: 4165: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4116: 4084: 4075: 4074: 4064: 4032: 4026: 4025: 3994:Neuropsychologia 3989: 3983: 3982: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3900: 3887: 3886: 3850: 3841: 3840: 3804: 3795: 3794: 3777:(1–3): 105–115. 3766: 3755: 3754: 3744: 3734: 3732:10.1002/aur.2828 3710: 3704: 3703: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3626: 3617: 3592: 3591: 3573: 3562: 3561: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3484: 3475: 3466: 3465: 3448:(8): 1026–1027. 3437: 3424: 3423: 3387: 3376: 3375: 3349: 3340: 3327: 3326: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3240: 3231: 3230: 3212: 3191: 3190: 3180: 3156: 3150: 3149: 3113: 3104: 3103: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2918: 2909: 2908: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2837: 2828: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2814:. Archived from 2807: 2801: 2800: 2790: 2762: 2756: 2755: 2727: 2714: 2713: 2703: 2671: 2665: 2664: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2611: 2600:10.1037/a0012949 2579: 2573: 2572: 2536: 2525: 2524: 2514: 2504: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2437: 2422: 2421: 2385: 2370: 2369: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2312: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2263: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2187: 2181: 2180: 2170: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2113: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2072: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2004: 1991: 1990: 1950: 1939: 1938: 1913:(4): 1087–1093. 1902: 1896: 1895: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1847: 1815: 1809: 1790: 1779: 1778: 1742: 1736: 1735: 1699: 1690: 1689: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1625: 1619: 1618: 1590: 1575: 1574: 1563:10.1037/a0013345 1557:(6): 1526–1540. 1546: 1540: 1539: 1529: 1519: 1495: 1489: 1488: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1436:(5): 1229–1235. 1425: 1416: 1415: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1312:(2–3): 167–183. 1297: 1291: 1290: 1262: 1256: 1255: 1245: 1235: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1168: 1162: 1161: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1127: 1121: 1120: 1110: 1086: 989:Self-monitoring. 975:Time management. 931: 813: 617:Bipolar disorder 612:Bipolar disorder 59:mental disorders 5243: 5242: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5213:Neuropsychology 5198: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5142: 5138: 5093: 5084: 5045: 5038: 5005: 5001: 4952: 4937: 4922: 4913: 4905: 4899: 4890: 4883: 4869: 4862: 4857: 4846: 4801: 4797: 4762:Autism Research 4757: 4753: 4716: 4709: 4686: 4679: 4648: 4641: 4610: 4606: 4598:10.1002/icd.302 4577: 4568: 4529: 4522: 4483: 4479: 4440: 4436: 4396: 4392: 4380: 4378: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4359: 4337: 4333: 4286: 4282: 4259: 4255: 4220: 4211: 4176: 4169: 4138: 4134: 4085: 4078: 4033: 4029: 3990: 3986: 3947: 3940: 3901: 3890: 3851: 3844: 3805: 3798: 3767: 3758: 3719:Autism Research 3711: 3707: 3668: 3664: 3624: 3618: 3595: 3588: 3574: 3565: 3526: 3522: 3482: 3476: 3469: 3438: 3427: 3388: 3379: 3352:Neuropsychology 3347: 3341: 3330: 3319: 3315: 3284: 3280: 3241: 3234: 3227: 3215:Ward J (2006). 3213: 3194: 3157: 3153: 3114: 3107: 3084: 3080: 3049: 3045: 3006: 3002: 2962: 2958: 2919: 2912: 2881: 2877: 2838: 2831: 2821: 2819: 2808: 2804: 2763: 2759: 2728: 2717: 2680:Neuropsychology 2672: 2668: 2629: 2625: 2588:Neuropsychology 2580: 2576: 2537: 2528: 2481: 2477: 2438: 2425: 2386: 2373: 2333: 2326: 2281: 2277: 2232: 2228: 2188: 2184: 2139: 2135: 2090: 2086: 2041: 2037: 2005: 1994: 1951: 1942: 1903: 1899: 1872:Neuropsychology 1868: 1861: 1816: 1812: 1791: 1782: 1743: 1739: 1700: 1693: 1654: 1650: 1626: 1622: 1591: 1578: 1547: 1543: 1496: 1492: 1461: 1457: 1426: 1419: 1380: 1376: 1337: 1333: 1298: 1294: 1263: 1259: 1212: 1208: 1169: 1165: 1154: 1150: 1140: 1138: 1128: 1124: 1087: 1068: 1063: 1051: 1038: 884:Working memory. 802: 797: 781: 760: 747: 736: 727: 710:Methylphenidate 707: 702: 639: 614: 557: 537: 505:implicit memory 501:episodic memory 489: 453:cerebral cortex 440: 412: 400: 387: 374: 365: 348: 320: 281:globus pallidus 274:implicated the 246: 244:Neurophysiology 193: 160:episodic memory 137:Russell Barkley 84:self-monitoring 72: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5241: 5231: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5194: 5193: 5136: 5107:(6): 720–726. 5082: 5055:(1): 113–136. 5036: 4999: 4962:(1): 259–265. 4935: 4911: 4888: 4881: 4860: 4844: 4795: 4768:(2): 216–228. 4751: 4707: 4696:(4): 352–359. 4677: 4639: 4620:(5): 488–497. 4604: 4591:(2): 141–158. 4566: 4520: 4493:(3): 299–312. 4477: 4450:(3): 271–281. 4434: 4407:(3): 218–226. 4390: 4381:|journal= 4331: 4280: 4269:(4): 338–346. 4253: 4209: 4186:(5): 783–800. 4167: 4148:(5): 589–606. 4132: 4076: 4027: 4000:(4): 519–532. 3984: 3957:(3): 603–616. 3938: 3911:(3): 300–304. 3888: 3861:(5): 811–821. 3842: 3815:(8): 910–916. 3796: 3756: 3705: 3678:(2): 189–201. 3662: 3593: 3586: 3563: 3536:(4): 241–248. 3520: 3493:(2): 125–141. 3467: 3425: 3398:(2): 127–132. 3377: 3328: 3313: 3294:(5): 774–786. 3278: 3232: 3225: 3192: 3151: 3124:(4): 335–343. 3105: 3094:(3): 551–565. 3078: 3059:(3): 219–228. 3043: 3016:(4): 267–277. 3000: 2973:(3): 145–157. 2956: 2929:(6): 541–550. 2910: 2891:(4): 529–535. 2875: 2848:(4): 518–528. 2829: 2802: 2773:(2): 163–203. 2757: 2738:(2): 252–265. 2715: 2686:(5): 553–562. 2666: 2639:(4): 190–194. 2623: 2594:(6): 729–737. 2574: 2547:(6): 548–561. 2526: 2475: 2423: 2371: 2344:(7): 643–650. 2324: 2275: 2226: 2199:(1): 133–138. 2182: 2153:(2): 201–225. 2133: 2104:(1): 195–208. 2084: 2055:(1): 158–165. 2049:Brain Research 2035: 1992: 1965:(2): 195–199. 1940: 1897: 1878:(2): 190–196. 1859: 1810: 1780: 1737: 1710:(3): 235–258. 1691: 1648: 1637:(5): 271–273. 1620: 1576: 1541: 1490: 1471:(6): 951–959. 1455: 1417: 1390:(2): 198–214. 1374: 1347:(6): 723–733. 1331: 1292: 1273:(2): 241–255. 1257: 1220:BMC Geriatrics 1206: 1179:(3): 213–233. 1163: 1148: 1122: 1065: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1050: 1047: 1037: 1034: 998: 997: 993: 984: 983: 979: 970: 969: 966: 957: 956: 952: 943: 942: 937: 922: 921: 918: 909: 908: 905: 896: 895: 888: 879: 878: 874: 865: 864: 861: 852: 851: 847: 838: 837: 834: 825: 824: 819: 801: 798: 796: 793: 780: 777: 769:theory of mind 759: 756: 746: 743: 735: 732: 726: 723: 706: 703: 701: 698: 697: 696: 692: 688: 687: 679: 675: 674: 670: 666: 665: 661: 646:working memory 638: 635: 613: 610: 590: 589: 582: 575: 556: 553: 536: 533: 488: 485: 439: 436: 411: 408: 399: 396: 386: 383: 373: 370: 364: 361: 347: 344: 319: 316: 245: 242: 197:neurocognitive 192: 189: 117:working memory 80:brain function 71: 68: 47:neurocognitive 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5240: 5229: 5228:Motor control 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5140: 5132: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5089: 5087: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5041: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4940: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4918: 4916: 4904: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4884: 4878: 4874: 4867: 4865: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4840: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4799: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4714: 4712: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4684: 4682: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4644: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4539:(1–2): 3–28. 4538: 4534: 4527: 4525: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4438: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4394: 4386: 4373: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4172: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4081: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3980: 3976: 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916: 915: 911: 910: 906: 903: 902: 898: 897: 893: 889: 886: 885: 881: 880: 875: 872: 871: 867: 866: 862: 859: 858: 854: 853: 848: 845: 844: 840: 839: 835: 832: 831: 827: 826: 823: 820: 818: 815: 814: 811: 810: 806: 792: 790: 789:metacognition 786: 776: 772: 770: 764: 755: 751: 742: 740: 731: 722: 719: 715: 711: 693: 690: 689: 685: 680: 677: 676: 671: 668: 667: 662: 659: 658: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 634: 631: 627: 621: 618: 609: 607: 603: 602:mentalization 598: 596: 586: 583: 579: 576: 572: 569: 568: 567: 564: 561: 552: 548: 544: 542: 532: 529: 525: 521: 516: 514: 508: 506: 502: 498: 493: 492:Schizophrenia 487:Schizophrenia 484: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457:etiologically 454: 450: 449:frontal lobes 446: 435: 433: 427: 425: 424:basal ganglia 421: 420:frontal lobes 417: 407: 405: 395: 392: 382: 378: 369: 360: 356: 352: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 315: 311: 309: 305: 300: 298: 294: 288: 286: 285:basal ganglia 282: 277: 272: 268: 263: 261: 257: 256:basal ganglia 252: 241: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 213: 209: 207: 203: 198: 188: 186: 182: 178: 173: 167: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 144: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 110: 106: 101: 95: 91: 89: 85: 81: 76: 67: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 24: 19: 5153: 5149: 5139: 5104: 5100: 5052: 5048: 5012: 5008: 5002: 4959: 4955: 4930:the original 4872: 4812: 4808: 4798: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4730:(1): 18–28. 4727: 4723: 4693: 4689: 4658:(1): 84–97. 4655: 4651: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4588: 4584: 4536: 4532: 4490: 4486: 4480: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4372:cite journal 4360:. 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Retrieved 1135: 1125: 1101:(1): 49–59. 1098: 1094: 1043: 1039: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1005:intervention 1001: 988: 987: 974: 973: 961: 960: 947: 946: 939: 934: 926: 925: 913: 912: 900: 899: 883: 882: 870:Flexibility. 869: 868: 856: 855: 842: 841: 829: 828: 821: 816: 808: 807: 803: 782: 773: 765: 761: 752: 748: 737: 728: 708: 640: 622: 615: 599: 591: 585:Flexibility. 584: 577: 570: 565: 558: 549: 545: 538: 517: 509: 490: 481: 441: 428: 413: 401: 388: 379: 375: 366: 357: 353: 349: 332:polymorphism 323: 321: 312: 301: 289: 264: 247: 214: 210: 194: 168: 145: 114: 105:parsimonious 100:set shifting 96: 92: 73: 34: 30: 27:neuroscience 20: 18: 5030:10072/42010 5009:Criminology 4977:10216/18021 4047:: 191–209. 2448:(1): 1–29. 843:Modulation. 830:Perception. 779:Comorbidity 714:amphetamine 684:Alzheimer's 606:mentalistic 595:Stroop task 461:co-morbidly 391:Stroop task 385:Stroop task 304:hippocampus 5202:Categories 4362:4 December 4300:: 859249. 1226:(1): 132. 1061:References 718:stimulants 705:Medication 260:cerebellum 251:prefrontal 181:schizotypy 125:depression 23:psychology 4994:204330097 4357:245845637 3883:143358283 3692:0021-9630 3420:208501945 3288:Addiction 3038:205615311 1907:Neurology 1824:Continuum 1485:143887153 1201:207222990 948:Planning. 800:Education 700:Treatment 630:psychosis 578:Planning. 574:controls. 531:overall. 229:disorders 225:syndromes 204:(ASD) or 187:overlap. 177:psychosis 152:imitation 88:attention 5180:28173890 5131:11723190 5069:10660831 4986:18630666 4908:. CHADD. 4839:26572659 4782:24737743 4746:17048806 4672:16420120 4634:16671932 4561:35062995 4553:11864714 4515:15633310 4507:10824502 4472:42175257 4464:11684160 4429:19844131 4421:18192618 4326:35573335 4244:10591283 4200:18068284 4162:15723384 4123:23930227 4071:30660957 4022:11577147 3979:34141712 3971:11896660 3925:17355551 3875:15500302 3837:36603785 3829:17543288 3791:16677713 3751:36193816 3742:10092108 3700:10188701 3649:14697400 3550:12759821 3515:17394248 3507:18308763 3462:56522437 3412:16734638 3372:18211157 3308:18412756 3273:33009576 3265:15923044 3187:17483586 3146:46441945 3030:21154040 2995:38891642 2870:24526246 2862:10923061 2822:31 March 2752:10895563 2710:18763875 2661:35863654 2653:15533989 2618:18999346 2569:23989184 2561:10861923 2521:11567063 2462:11392560 2418:16391054 2410:18397818 2366:23033415 2358:17763983 2319:18580877 2270:15190105 2221:25892078 2213:14702261 2177:18473654 2128:11679646 2120:15450170 2079:17169343 2030:11897749 1979:10753796 1935:24771696 1892:11949711 1854:26039846 1767:12413647 1724:17453904 1686:25826386 1678:18206284 1571:19025300 1536:21747775 1450:18823207 1404:15518936 1369:20708594 1361:18608665 1326:14962399 1287:17500649 1252:33618664 1193:17786559 1117:12697616 1049:See also 571:Fluency. 318:Genetics 297:thalamus 293:striatum 287:damage. 208:(ADHD). 185:dopamine 172:etiology 70:Overview 51:symptoms 5188:4481557 5122:1737651 5077:8544684 4830:5111802 4790:5499308 4702:3342137 4317:9094443 4114:3733520 4062:6445686 4014:9106280 3933:1211986 3657:7338050 3558:9714808 3138:3707085 3073:3722348 2987:9437772 2951:1668584 2905:7593473 2797:2034749 2701:2834527 2609:2587484 2512:6762921 2470:5367406 2310:2885152 2261:6729311 2168:2762790 2070:1831676 1927:9566399 1845:4455841 1775:2437970 1732:5739810 1643:1542821 1615:9000892 1527:3130185 1510:: 152. 1412:1876331 1243:7898742 785:anxiety 497:amnesia 479:(ABI). 459:and/or 451:of the 183:due to 129:anxiety 5186: 5178: 5129: 5119: 5075: 5067: 4992: 4984: 4879: 4837: 4827: 4788: 4780: 4744: 4700: 4670: 4632: 4559: 4551: 4513: 4505: 4470: 4462: 4427: 4419: 4355: 4324: 4314: 4242: 4198: 4160: 4121: 4111: 4069: 4059: 4020: 4012: 3977: 3969: 3931: 3923: 3881: 3873: 3835: 3827: 3789: 3749: 3739: 3698: 3690: 3655: 3647: 3584: 3556: 3548: 3513: 3505: 3487:Autism 3460: 3418: 3410: 3370: 3306: 3271: 3263: 3223: 3185: 3144: 3136: 3071: 3036: 3028: 2993: 2985: 2949: 2943:868833 2941: 2903: 2868: 2860: 2795: 2750: 2708: 2698: 2659: 2651: 2616: 2606: 2567: 2559: 2519: 2509: 2468: 2460: 2416: 2408: 2364: 2356: 2317: 2307: 2268: 2258: 2219: 2211: 2175: 2165: 2126: 2118: 2098:Neuron 2077: 2067: 2028: 1987:109197 1985: 1977: 1933: 1925: 1890: 1852: 1842: 1804: 1796: 1773: 1765: 1730: 1722: 1684: 1676: 1641: 1613: 1569: 1534: 1524: 1483: 1448: 1410: 1402: 1367: 1359: 1324: 1285: 1250: 1240: 1199: 1191: 1115: 787:, and 712:- and 560:Autism 471:, and 324:et al. 5184:S2CID 5073:S2CID 4990:S2CID 4906:(PDF) 4786:S2CID 4557:S2CID 4511:S2CID 4468:S2CID 4425:S2CID 4353:S2CID 4099:(2). 4018:S2CID 3975:S2CID 3929:S2CID 3879:S2CID 3833:S2CID 3653:S2CID 3625:(PDF) 3554:S2CID 3511:S2CID 3483:(PDF) 3458:S2CID 3416:S2CID 3348:(PDF) 3269:S2CID 3142:S2CID 3034:S2CID 2991:S2CID 2947:S2CID 2866:S2CID 2657:S2CID 2565:S2CID 2466:S2CID 2414:S2CID 2362:S2CID 2217:S2CID 2124:S2CID 1983:S2CID 1931:S2CID 1771:S2CID 1728:S2CID 1682:S2CID 1481:S2CID 1408:S2CID 1365:S2CID 1197:S2CID 1141:2 May 191:Cause 131:, or 33:, or 5208:Self 5176:PMID 5127:PMID 5065:PMID 4982:PMID 4877:ISBN 4835:PMID 4778:PMID 4742:PMID 4698:PMID 4668:PMID 4630:PMID 4549:PMID 4503:PMID 4460:PMID 4417:PMID 4385:help 4364:2022 4322:PMID 4240:PMID 4196:PMID 4158:PMID 4119:PMID 4067:PMID 4010:PMID 3967:PMID 3921:PMID 3871:PMID 3825:PMID 3787:PMID 3747:PMID 3696:PMID 3688:ISSN 3645:PMID 3582:ISBN 3546:PMID 3503:PMID 3408:PMID 3368:PMID 3304:PMID 3261:PMID 3221:ISBN 3183:PMID 3134:PMID 3069:PMID 3026:PMID 2983:PMID 2939:PMID 2901:PMID 2858:PMID 2824:2009 2793:PMID 2748:PMID 2706:PMID 2649:PMID 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