2392:. A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey's hydroelectricity production. In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second, or 16 cubic kilometres (3.8 cu mi) per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries. Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey. In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris–Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect. On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish–Syrian border. This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of water per second at the Turkish–Syrian border.
1081:
1738:) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces. GAP affects a total area of 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey's total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams – including the Keban Dam – and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1,700,000 hectares (6,600 sq mi) of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey. C. 910,000 hectares (3,500 sq mi) of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin. By far the largest dam in GAP is the
1836:; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) in Turkey, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) in Syria and 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) in Iraq. Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields. The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water. The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile
2362:
1395:
a high 766,000 square kilometres (296,000 sq mi). Recent estimates put the basin area at 388,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi), 444,000 square kilometres (171,000 sq mi) and 579,314 square kilometres (223,674 sq mi). The greater part of the
Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey's share is 28 percent, Syria's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent. Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively. Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within
49:
2308:
1180:
Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 cubic metres (12,600 cu ft) per second (11.2 cubic kilometres (2.7 cu mi) per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7,510 cubic metres (265,000 cu ft) per second, while after 1990 it is only 2,514 cubic metres (88,800 cu ft) per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 cubic metres (1,900 cu ft) per second before 1990 to 58 cubic metres (2,000 cu ft) per second afterward.
1430:
683:
1806:
1824:
resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people. A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient. The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "
1650:
2377:
1987:
1374:
7972:
7353:
7363:
1784:
5671:
7600:
7960:
7431:
1189:
6233:
2396:
7373:
7383:
5410:
1746:. This 184-and-1,820-metre-long (604 and 5,971 ft) dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 cubic kilometres (11.7 cu mi), the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates. Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the
65:
2358:) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation. An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris–Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.
5420:
1721:) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only 100,000–124,000 hectares (390–480 sq mi) had been realized. Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.
1823:
The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the
Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP – in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins – have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been
1445:
zones. Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the
Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation
1394:
of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi) and 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), respectively. Estimates of the area of the
Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low 233,000 square kilometres (90,000 sq mi) to
1163:
in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the
Euphrates, or even 60–70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn. The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records
1929:
In Islam, hadiths say
Muhammad said "The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps he would be the one who would be saved" and that "he who
2387:
Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the
Euphrates – the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively – within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 cubic
1179:
The discharge regime of the
Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation.
1139:, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of 693 metres (2,274 ft) amsl. From Keban to the Syrian–Turkish border, the river drops another 368 metres (1,207 ft) over a distance of less than 600 kilometres (370 mi). Once the Euphrates enters the
2445:
stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of
2045:
in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area. Occupation of lower
Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at
1761:, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called "Third River;" constructed between 1953 and 1992. This 565-kilometre-long (351 mi) canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of
1080:
2388:
kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the
1907:
were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake
Qadisiya in Iraq. Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for
1831:
Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased
2216:(1365–1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians. Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The
1855:
as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of
4275:
1582:
and bull hunts in fertile landscapes. Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like
1176:, just north of the Syro–Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to a high of 42.7 cubic kilometres (10.2 cu mi) in 1963.
2450:, 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the west of the river valley. The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry. Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.
4482:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works (2006a), "Volume I: Overview of Present Conditions and Current Use of the Water in the Marshlands Area/Book 1: Water Resources",
1084:
Plan, topographic representation of Babylon. The clay tablet depicts "Tu-ba", a suburb of the ancient city of Babylon. The River Euphrates is represented by the water-lined band. 660-500 BCE. British Museum
684:
4284:
922:) as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.
4492:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works (2006b), "Annex III: Main Water Control Structures (Dams and Water Diversions) and Reservoirs",
2025:
that were dated to 450,000 years old. In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by
2220:(935–605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.
766:
in Asia and the longest in Western Asia, at about 2,780 km (1,730 mi), with a drainage area of 440,000 km (170,000 sq mi) that covers six countries.
1871:
has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press. The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by
6615:
1883:
period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include
2365:
Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959 depicting the two rivers, the confluence Shatt al-Arab and the date palm forest, which used to be the largest in the world
1407:
in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert (220 square kilometres (85 sq mi)) drains toward the east rather than to the west.
5313:
1673:
and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the
1251:. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.
4902:
3955:
847:; many cuneiform signs have a Sumerian pronunciation and an Akkadian pronunciation, taken from a Sumerian word and an Akkadian word that mean the same. The Akkadian
2114:(3100–2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including
1215:
along the Syro–Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near
2173:
empires, which controlled – either directly or indirectly through vassals – large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria. Following their collapse, the
2223:
In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived
1875:
to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the
5451:
2177:(1975–1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like
6644:
1891:
and Abu Hureyra. A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important
1750:
has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.
7566:
6914:
6044:
1446:
that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a
4194:
Archaeology of the Upper Syrian Euphrates, the Tishrin Dam area: Proceedings of the International Symposium held at Barcelona, January 28th–30th, 1998
4090:
2094:
has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials.
2037:
became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward. In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where
7397:
6528:
4973:
2086:
grew to over 100 hectares (250 acres) in size and displayed monumental architecture. The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and
1159:
The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May.
5189:"Protecting one of the best Roman Mosaic Collections in the World: Ownership and Protection in the Case of the Roman Mosaics from Zeugma, Turkey"
5169:
Steele, Caroline (2005), "Who Has not Eaten Cherries with the Devil? Archaeology under Challenge", in Pollock, Susan; Bernbeck, Reinhard (eds.),
2436:
2134:. Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from
2041:
was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey. Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of
5090:
4714:
8058:
5211:
4259:
2054:, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares (25 acres). In Iraq, sites like
1677:
and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the
1415:
In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts.
1239:. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around
6039:
4530:
2594:
1104:
in southeastern Turkey. Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the
5057:
4501:
Isaev, V.A.; Mikhailova, M.V. (2009), "The Hydrology, Evolution, and Hydrological Regime of the Mouth Area of the Shatt al-Arab River",
7588:
2691:
1931:
4464:
1528:. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a
7419:
6532:
788:
2552:
1491:
vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro–Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by
6904:
6095:
5444:
2347:
1753:
Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah,
5656:
3783:
1851:
and other places of cultural significance. Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered
4830:
2632:
2441:
Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large
1999:
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the
2959:
2495:
1072:
in modern-day Iraq was also written UD.KIB.NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river.
8053:
8003:
6220:
5343:
5160:
5142:
5047:
4756:
4696:
4674:
4243:
4201:
4117:
2666:
6198:
5266:
4628:
6656:
6563:
2412:
452:
5098:
Schmid, P.; Rentzel, Ph.; Renault-Miskovsky, J.; Muhesen, Sultan; Morel, Ph.; Le Tensorer, Jean Marie; Jagher, R. (1997),
4925:
3947:
1064:: UD.KIB.NUN). The name could also be written KIB.NUN.(NA) or KIB.NUN, with the prefix "" indicating that the river was a
6558:
5786:
5437:
2111:
1636:
7596:
4665:
Kolars, John (1994), "Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates", in Biswas, Asit K. (ed.),
8033:
6909:
6825:
6548:
6513:
2339:
1847:
The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many
1778:
3894:
7427:
6953:
5513:
5392:
5178:
4986:
4892:
4812:
4774:
4738:
4656:
4491:
4481:
4387:
4183:
4063:
4045:
3090:
2887:
2839:
2734:
2626:
2588:
2302:
1385:
708:
690:
594:
4108:
Bilen, Özden (1994), "Prospects for Technical Cooperation in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin", in Biswas, Asit K. (ed.),
2580:
Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture
7041:
7026:
6622:
6610:
6177:
1116:
and 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) in Iraq. The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova. The length of the
6899:
6885:
6637:
6287:
4019:
Archaeological Survey of Ancient Settlements and Irrigation Systems in the Middle Euphrates Region of Mesopotamia
2408:
911:
17:
7581:
6503:
6090:
6074:
4396:
Hole, F.; Zaitchik, B.F. (2007), "Policies, Plans, Practice, and Prospects: Irrigation in Northeastern Syria",
2355:
2286:
1909:
1147:
drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163 metres (535 ft) while over the last stretch between
763:
4707:"National Aquaculture Sector Overview. Syrian Arab Republic. National Aquaculture Sector Overview Fact Sheets"
2415:
from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in
1816:, once perched on a hilltop overlooking the Euphrates valley but now turned into an island by the flooding of
374:
216:
7412:
6116:
5100:"Découvertes de Restes Humains dans les Niveaux Acheuléens de Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar (El Kowm, Syrie Centrale)"
4531:"Nouveaux Aménagements Hydrauliques sur le Moyen Euphrate Syrienne. Appel à Projets Archéologiques d'Urgence"
2012:
1702:
1644:
296:
2342:. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey,
8073:
8068:
8018:
6649:
6126:
5861:
4073:
1447:
7749:
4038:
Heartland of Cities. Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates
2361:
1100:
or Eastern Euphrates (650 kilometres (400 mi)) 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) upstream from the town of
7198:
6963:
6926:
6858:
6627:
6182:
6064:
6059:
5994:
5670:
5010:
Rahi, Khayyun A.; Halihan, Todd (2009), "Changes in the Salinity of the Euphrates River System in Iraq",
4307:"Revision of the species of Trionychidae found in Asia and Africa, with descriptions of some new species"
4176:
Le Partage des Eaux entre la Syrie, l'Irak et la Turquie. Négociation, Sécurité et Asymétrie des Pouvoirs
4033:
2150:, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like
1900:
4992:
3476:
1766:
1164:
as 20.9 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) at Keban, 36.6 cubic kilometres (8.8 cu mi) at
8063:
7376:
7051:
7031:
6873:
6863:
6853:
6553:
6543:
6322:
6187:
5796:
5424:
5414:
5099:
2424:
1564:
48:
31:
2098:
on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.
1010:. In Mandaean scriptures, the Euphrates is considered to be the earthly manifestation of the heavenly
8028:
7754:
7574:
7003:
6848:
6418:
6213:
5871:
5686:
4306:
2331:
4056:
The Archaeology of Syria. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC)
8023:
7604:
7478:
7405:
7090:
7061:
6705:
5826:
5468:
4706:
4609:"The Euphrates–Tigris Basin: An Overview and Opportunities for Cooperation under International Law"
4323:
2420:
7643:
4253:
2165:
Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the
1464:(rose/plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and
8013:
7658:
7435:
7318:
7066:
6730:
6463:
6136:
6069:
5963:
5816:
5734:
5729:
5188:
3932:
1892:
7021:
6880:
6750:
6725:
6595:
6347:
6167:
6019:
5778:
4796:
4784:
4559:
Jawad, Laith A. (2003), "Impact of Environmental Change on the Freshwater Fish Fauna of Iraq",
4311:
Proceedings of the General Meetings for Scientific Business of the Zoological Society of London
3488:
Hosseinizadeh, Abdol Majid (15 December 2012). "The Four Rivers of Eden in Judaism and Islam".
2275:
2213:
2008:
1977:
1240:
7792:
4587:
Jongerden, Joost (2010), "Dams and Politics in Turkey: Utilizing Water, Developing Conflict",
4541:
2578:
8038:
7802:
7663:
7386:
7125:
6993:
6605:
6478:
6457:
6377:
6337:
6228:
5836:
5066:
2228:
1913:
1701:
in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense
1160:
902:). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded
5229:
Thomason, A.K. (2001), "Representations of the North Syrian Landscape in Neo-Assyrian Art",
1595:
lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the
1235:
spring near 'Ayn al-'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of
8008:
7220:
7102:
7036:
6998:
6894:
6820:
6815:
6740:
6588:
6206:
6054:
6014:
5493:
5281:
5130:
4425:
2370:
2240:
1958:
writes about the Euphrates river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the
1837:
1825:
1678:
1560:
1492:
1424:
1132:
907:
794:
7842:
3452:
3439:
3091:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006b
2888:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a
2840:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a
2735:
Iraqi Ministries of Environment, Water Resources and Municipalities and Public Works 2006a
2307:
8:
7782:
7162:
7120:
7046:
6921:
6843:
6372:
6342:
6327:
6141:
6049:
6024:
5831:
5806:
5331:
3899:
2541:
2464:
2236:
2217:
2174:
2170:
2038:
1848:
1809:
1757:, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the
1575:
1533:
1434:
1001:
5285:
5134:
4211:
8043:
7998:
7943:
7734:
7513:
7293:
7288:
7273:
7235:
7210:
7147:
7008:
6943:
6578:
6387:
6302:
6131:
6100:
5999:
5846:
5763:
5369:
5305:
5254:
5246:
5027:
4961:
4953:
4883:
Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001), "Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land",
4685:
4576:
4518:
4456:
4413:
4367:
4359:
4135:
3505:
2459:
2107:
2067:
1904:
1795:
1348:
1274:
1208:
1093:
1053:
903:
618:
269:
120:
54:
7135:
4494:
New Eden Master Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Marshlands Areas
4485:
New Eden Master Plan for Integrated Water Resources Management in the Marshlands Areas
3777:
2200:
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between
1947:
1930:
finds it should not take anything out of that." This is said to be one of the future
7769:
7451:
7362:
7313:
7278:
7115:
7056:
6958:
6868:
6838:
6833:
6700:
6695:
6679:
6568:
6508:
6428:
6423:
6332:
6121:
5978:
5973:
5958:
5893:
5811:
5768:
5488:
5483:
5388:
5373:
5339:
5297:
5258:
5203:
5174:
5156:
5138:
5084:
5043:
4982:
4965:
4917:
4888:
4872:
4822:
4808:
4770:
4752:
4734:
4692:
4670:
4652:
4645:
4620:
4600:
4522:
4448:
4417:
4383:
4371:
4331:
4239:
4223:
4197:
4179:
4163:
4113:
4082:
4059:
4041:
4022:
3513:
2672:
2662:
2622:
2616:
2584:
2279:
2232:
2139:
1880:
1857:
1852:
1670:
1616:
1503:. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of
1140:
930:
852:
844:
836:
5309:
4729:
McClellan, Thomas L. (1997), "Euphrates Dams, Survey of", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.),
4580:
4460:
1429:
1022:
being the earthly manifestation of its heavenly counterpart, or the ‘Sacred House’
7837:
7205:
7140:
7130:
6804:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6715:
6690:
6034:
6029:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5913:
5908:
5898:
5714:
5571:
5556:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5508:
5361:
5289:
5238:
5114:
5031:
5019:
4945:
4854:
4800:
4596:
4568:
4510:
4440:
4405:
4351:
4302:
4159:
4155:
3497:
2491:
2471:
2404:
2267:
2034:
2000:
1876:
1726:
1624:
1232:
1212:
1108:
at 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), of which 1,230 kilometres (760 mi) is in
970:
966:
956:
889:
811:
649:
7817:
7812:
3895:"A new Turkish aggression against Syria: Ankara suspends pumping Euphrates' water"
1555:
are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total. Among the Cyprinids, the
1172:. However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at
8048:
7976:
7673:
7303:
7268:
7157:
7152:
7071:
6982:
6720:
6573:
6485:
6473:
6397:
6392:
6382:
6317:
6292:
6277:
6264:
6252:
5968:
5943:
5938:
5918:
5866:
5856:
5851:
5841:
5821:
5791:
5743:
5739:
5709:
4608:
4380:
Rivers of Eden: the Struggle for Water and the Quest for Peace in the Middle East
2654:
2312:
2271:
2251:
2247:
2166:
2115:
2026:
1981:
1965:
1943:
1682:
1666:
1620:
1592:
1131:
at elevations of 3,290 metres (10,790 ft) and 3,520 metres (11,550 ft)
1042:
878:
867:
856:
7638:
4572:
1769:
from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.
7797:
7787:
7701:
7693:
7610:
7463:
7441:
7283:
7258:
6538:
6468:
5948:
5365:
4788:
4342:
Helbaek, Hans (1972), "Samarran Irrigation Agriculture at Choga Mami in Iraq",
4146:
Coad, B.W. (1996), "Zoogeography of the Fishes of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin",
2351:
2335:
2290:
2135:
2070:
indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period. The
2047:
1955:
1743:
1694:
1690:
1674:
1514:
by its inhabitants. Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true
1391:
989:
588:
74:
5173:, Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology, Malden: Blackwell, pp. 45–65,
5023:
4514:
4444:
3926:
2676:
1739:
7992:
7964:
7887:
7852:
7827:
7739:
7628:
7555:
7473:
7459:
7356:
7308:
7298:
7263:
7215:
7192:
7167:
6931:
6760:
6755:
6632:
6433:
6282:
5748:
5596:
5503:
4624:
4452:
4426:"Using Shuttle Radar Topography to Map Ancient Water Channels in Mesopotamia"
4335:
4227:
4167:
4126:
Bounni, Adnan (1979), "Campaign and Exhibition from the Euphrates in Syria",
4086:
4026:
3517:
3509:
2224:
2095:
2087:
2074:, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly
2063:
2016:
1959:
1951:
1896:
1794:, the first dam on the Euphrates after it emerges from the confluence of the
1758:
1754:
1697:. Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The
1604:
1556:
1529:
1500:
1469:
1144:
1117:
748:
576:
467:
454:
425:
389:
376:
311:
298:
231:
218:
7777:
5338:, Blackwell History of the Ancient World (2nd ed.), Malden: Blackwell,
5293:
5207:
5118:
4921:
4804:
3501:
2542:"Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Substrates, Migrations and Trade"
2492:"Euphrates River | Definition, Location, & Facts | Britannica"
2231:(612–539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the
7938:
7902:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7857:
7633:
7550:
7509:
7493:
7483:
7182:
6948:
6745:
6453:
6448:
6438:
6272:
5753:
5566:
5498:
5380:
5301:
4876:
4319:
2389:
2263:
2262:
came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the
2255:
2182:
2127:
2079:
2051:
2021:
1861:
1710:
1705:, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the
1568:
1396:
1329:
1204:
1121:
1089:
756:
704:
614:
580:
7648:
4075:
Group Denial. Repression of Kurdish Political and Cultural Rights in Syria
3904:
1986:
7930:
7882:
7832:
7759:
7744:
7706:
7668:
7653:
7505:
7467:
7366:
7328:
7177:
7013:
6938:
6735:
6297:
6172:
6162:
5953:
5885:
5758:
5646:
5460:
4859:
2327:
2159:
2155:
2123:
2071:
2062:
were already occupied during the Ubaid period. Clay boat models found at
1868:
1833:
1799:
1714:
1686:
1511:
1310:
1292:
1228:
1200:
1193:
1097:
1006:
779:
716:
630:
420:
189:
138:
7892:
1653:
Map (in French) showing the locations of dams and barrages built in the
1649:
1551:
Among the fish species in the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the family of the
7920:
7847:
7807:
7716:
6443:
5704:
5699:
5250:
4957:
4363:
4139:
2442:
2131:
1817:
1747:
1718:
1563:
qualities, leading the British to nickname it the "Tigris salmon." The
1552:
1442:
1244:
154:
7862:
5429:
4667:
International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile
4110:
International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile
2376:
1468:. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including
1124:, is given by various sources as 145–195 kilometres (90–121 mi).
703:) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of
7678:
7620:
7253:
7225:
7172:
6402:
6362:
6009:
5694:
5581:
5097:
4236:
Irrigation in the Middle East Region in Figures. AQUASTAT Survey 2008
3542:
2194:
2190:
2189:
before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of
2004:
1787:
1706:
1698:
1640:
1627:
in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.
1596:
1518:. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of
1224:
1216:
1136:
1038:
1034:
828:
437:
170:
5387:, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 287–290,
5242:
4949:
4733:, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 290–292,
4409:
4355:
1623:
has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of
1373:
1151:
and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only 55 metres (180 ft).
30:
This article is about the river in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see
6770:
6600:
6583:
6357:
6352:
6146:
5801:
5724:
5719:
5626:
5611:
5606:
5561:
4192:
del Olmo Lete, Gregorio; Montero Fenollós, Juan Luis, eds. (1999),
2259:
2209:
2201:
2075:
1884:
1619:
can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of
1545:
1460:
1455:
1248:
1128:
1065:
1061:
1030:
being the earthly manifestation of the heavenly Al-Bayt Al-Mamur).
281:
158:
7822:
7683:
5153:
Rivers of Discord: International Water Disputes in the Middle East
4687:
The Euphrates River and the Southeast Anatolia Development Project
2395:
1450:. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various
7729:
7724:
7230:
7187:
6367:
6312:
5903:
5631:
5621:
5586:
5576:
4767:
Village on the Euphrates. From Foraging to Farming at Abu Hureyra
2205:
2147:
2143:
2042:
1841:
1762:
1669:
on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer
1612:
1608:
1584:
1541:
1537:
1247:, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near
1173:
1169:
896:
166:
146:
142:
130:
5056:
Sahan, Emel; Zogg, Andreas; Mason, Simon A.; Gilli, Adi (2001),
4845:
Mutin, Georges (2003), "Le Tigre et l'Euphrate de la Discorde",
2659:
The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought
7915:
7599:
7545:
7519:
7110:
6765:
5651:
5601:
5523:
5409:
5385:
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East
4731:
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Ancient Near East
3037:
2447:
2343:
2119:
2030:
1872:
1864:
1791:
1658:
1588:
1515:
1488:
1404:
1400:
1378:
1377:
French map from the 17th century showing the Euphrates and the
1220:
1109:
1105:
1069:
1056:. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called
1045:
1019:
1015:
1011:
995:
986:
974:
736:
712:
150:
102:
70:
1912:, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the
1805:
1724:
With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (
1165:
1148:
670:
527:
201:
7535:
7430:
7323:
6307:
6004:
5641:
5636:
5616:
4191:
3406:
2960:"Why Is The Euphrates River Drying Up And What Does It Mean?"
2416:
2381:
2246:
Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the
2186:
2055:
1813:
1654:
1504:
1473:
1236:
1199:
In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the
1113:
1101:
1027:
1023:
786:
740:
359:
134:
110:
4212:"Dry Aquifers in Arab Countries and the Looming Food Crisis"
3948:"Mideast Water Wars: In Iraq, A Battle for Control of Water"
2293:(the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC).
1532:. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the
1096:
or Western Euphrates (450 kilometres (280 mi)) and the
652:
64:
7540:
6518:
6495:
6238:
6232:
5591:
4866:
3043:
2690:
Manouchehri, Faramarz Haj; Waley, M. I. (4 December 2013),
2235:(539–333 BC). The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by
2178:
2151:
2091:
2083:
1888:
1783:
1709:
and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam – the
1600:
1579:
1508:
1188:
1049:
752:
744:
664:
162:
106:
3935:
from the original on 11 December 2021 – via YouTube.
2162:
grew to prominence for the first time during this period.
1717:. The Tabqa Dam is Syria's largest dam and its reservoir (
5059:
Case-Study: Southeastern Anatolia Project in Turkey – GAP
1524:
1481:
1477:
1451:
805:
5171:
Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical Perspectives
5127:
Water Resources and Hydrometeorology of the Arab Region
4128:
The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research
3617:
3594:
2059:
1994:
1120:, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the
980:
4054:
Akkermans, Peter M. M. G.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (2003),
1571:
that is limited to the Tigris–Euphrates river system.
1127:
Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from
5265:
Ur, Jason A.; Karsgaard, Philip; Oates, Joan (2007),
5231:
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
3178:
2787:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2779:
1742:, located c. 55 kilometres (34 mi) northwest of
822:
691:
673:
658:
4936:
Oates, Joan (1960), "Ur and Eridu, the Prehistory",
3686:
3640:
3571:
2576:
2330:, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the
667:
661:
5336:
A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC
5055:
4975:
The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem
3559:
3256:
3244:
2285:In the north, the river served as a border between
2282:took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD.
1772:
1168:and 21.5 cubic kilometres (5.2 cu mi) at
1033:The earliest references to the Euphrates come from
655:
5423:, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The
5042:, Routledge World Archaeology, London: Routledge,
4765:Moore, A.M.T.; Hillman, G.C.; Legge, A.J. (2000),
4684:
4644:
3802:
3800:
3547:
2869:
2845:
2797:
2776:
2577:Gamkrelidze, Thomas; V. Ivanov, Vjaceslav (1995),
1578:palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict
4764:
4053:
4021:(PhD thesis), Ann Arbor: University of Michigan,
3692:
3646:
3623:
3600:
3577:
3565:
3066:
3008:
2996:
2984:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2724:
1487:South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-
1441:The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct
1399:, while a small part falls inside the borders of
888:) and in other nearby languages of the time (cf.
505:Approx. 500,000 km (190,000 sq mi)
7990:
5264:
3652:
3635:
3142:
3084:
2689:
5383:(1997), "Euphrates", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.),
5352:Woods, Christopher (2005), "On the Euphrates",
4647:Water Resources and Conflict in the Middle East
4500:
3797:
3758:
3746:
3734:
3722:
3710:
3184:
2875:
2851:
2803:
2791:
2437:List of cities and towns on the Euphrates River
2046:several sites dating to this period, including
1231:. The Balikh receives most of its water from a
5330:
5037:
4785:"The Earliest Paleolithic Occupation in Syria"
4683:Kolars, John F.; Mitchell, William A. (1991),
4682:
4561:International Journal of Environmental Studies
4423:
4255:Drought Reveals Iraqi Archaeological Treasures
4251:
3812:
3779:Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne
3764:
3752:
3740:
3728:
3716:
3704:
3698:
3681:
3658:
3553:
3490:Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies
3428:
3250:
3238:
3148:
2881:
2833:
2721:
2411:, much of the Euphrates was controlled by the
2011:have been found in the Sajur basin and in the
934:
827:. The Elamite name is ultimately derived from
7582:
7413:
6214:
5445:
4793:Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia
3874:
3850:
3487:
3422:
2138:imagery. A similar development took place in
1990:A fishing boat in the Euphrates Southern Iraq
1685:. Iraq's largest dam on the Euphrates is the
1243:, from where the Khabur flows southeast past
960:
950:
4395:
4112:, Oxford University Press, pp. 95–116,
3970:
3190:
3154:
2911:
2905:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2647:
2078:settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like
1211:. These rivers rise in the foothills of the
944:
6040:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
5009:
4882:
4669:, Oxford University Press, pp. 44–94,
4273:
4216:Middle East Review of International Affairs
3880:
3806:
3328:
3322:
3310:
3274:
3262:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2516:
720:
7589:
7575:
7420:
7406:
6221:
6207:
5452:
5438:
5267:"Early Urban Development in the Near East"
5089:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4900:
4326:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
4238:, Water Reports, vol. 34, Rome: FAO,
4016:
3999:
3862:
3417:
3377:
3166:
1968:2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates.
1932:minor signs of the coming of Judgement Day
1828:" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.
715:, it is one of the two defining rivers of
6529:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
4858:
4728:
4586:
4178:, Moyen-Orient (in French), Paris: CNRS,
4071:
4058:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
3411:
3407:del Olmo Lete & Montero Fenollós 1999
3361:
3298:
3286:
3268:
3226:
3214:
3196:
3160:
2940:
2916:
2759:
2608:
2549:Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World
2050:. During the 5th millennium BCE, or late
559:2,514 m/s (88,800 cu ft/s)
6353:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
5228:
5150:
5038:Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2009),
4903:"Coalition Celebrates Transfer of Power"
4746:
4711:FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
4317:
4040:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
3976:
3892:
3838:
3818:
3280:
3202:
3055:
2893:
2857:
2821:
2740:
2653:
2394:
2375:
2360:
2306:
1985:
1804:
1782:
1648:
1428:
1372:
1356:37,081 km (14,317 sq mi)
1300:40,000 km (15,000 sq mi)
1187:
1092:. It emerges from the confluence of the
1079:
5459:
4782:
4424:Hritz, Carrie; Wilkinson, T.J. (2006),
4341:
4277:Managing the Tigris Euphrates Watershed
4233:
3829:
3827:
3589:
3583:
3530:
3440:Sahih Muslim, Book 041: 6918 & 6920
3316:
3172:
2946:
2928:
2770:
2614:
1337:14,400 km (5,600 sq mi)
1282:22,000 km (8,500 sq mi)
1135:, respectively. At the location of the
1068:. In Sumerian, the name of the city of
539:356 m/s (12,600 cu ft/s)
14:
7991:
5379:
5186:
5168:
5124:
4971:
4704:
4664:
4528:
4377:
4330:(2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill Online,
4209:
4173:
4125:
3988:
3958:from the original on 26 September 2019
3945:
3868:
3856:
3844:
3395:
3389:
3383:
3372:
3366:
3304:
3292:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3130:
3118:
3113:
3107:
3102:
3096:
2934:
2922:
2899:
2863:
2809:
2753:
2715:
2558:from the original on 16 September 2012
2539:
2197:in the early to mid 18th century BCE.
2019:; the latter together with remains of
1946:, the Euphrates River is mentioned in
1088:The Euphrates is the longest river of
7570:
7401:
7088:
6980:
6802:
6677:
6250:
6202:
5433:
5351:
4935:
4844:
4833:from the original on 24 February 2009
4787:, in Akazawa, Takeru; Aoki, Kenichi;
4642:
4558:
4382:, New York: Oxford University Press,
4318:Hartmann, R. (2010), "al- Furāt", in
4107:
4032:
3928:Eupherates of Syria Cut Off by Turkey
3670:
3612:
3339:
3333:
3136:
3124:
3078:
3072:
2827:
2815:
2597:from the original on 9 September 2022
2528:
1403:. Finally, some sources also include
549:58 m/s (2,000 cu ft/s)
497:Approx. 2,800 km (1,700 mi)
86:from Akkadian Purattu, from Sumerian
7382:
7324:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
5319:from the original on 4 November 2018
5217:from the original on 24 January 2012
4867:Naval Intelligence Division (1944),
4823:"Iraq Marshes face Grave New Threat"
4820:
4717:from the original on 4 February 2021
4606:
4301:
4145:
3833:
3824:
3786:from the original on 12 January 2013
3350:
3344:
3031:
3020:
3014:
1995:Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods
1318:2,042 km (788 sq mi)
981:
871:
7372:
4769:, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2254:(150–226 AD) (during which several
1689:; a 9-kilometre-long (5.6 mi)
945:
882:
860:
24:
4398:Land Degradation & Development
4096:from the original on 3 August 2018
3450:
2635:from the original on 16 March 2022
2583:, Walter de Gruyter, p. 616,
2101:
2029:but later by some of the earliest
1779:Environmental impact of reservoirs
1599:. Carnivorous species include the
1418:
1112:, 710 kilometres (440 mi) in
25:
8085:
5402:
4540:(in French), DGAM, archived from
4470:from the original on 31 July 2020
4262:from the original on 4 March 2011
2498:from the original on 24 June 2015
2303:Water politics in the Middle East
1410:
1368:
1014:or flowing river (similar to the
7971:
7970:
7958:
7598:
7429:
7381:
7371:
7361:
7352:
7351:
6657:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis
6231:
6178:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
5669:
5408:
5155:, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
4871:, Geographical Handbook Series,
4631:from the original on 6 June 2011
4601:10.1111/j.1475-4967.2010.00432.x
4252:Garcia-Navarro, Lourdes (2009),
4081:, New York: Human Rights Watch,
4017:Abdul-Amir, Sabah Jasim (1988),
3993:
3982:
3939:
3919:
3893:Anjarini, Suhaib (30 May 2014).
3886:
3782:, World War I Document Archive,
3044:Naval Intelligence Division 1944
2243:and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.
1773:Environmental and social effects
648:
63:
47:
27:River in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria
8059:Landforms of Şanlıurfa Province
7136:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
6559:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
6549:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
6288:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
5196:Stanford Journal of Archaeology
3946:Pearce, Fred (25 August 2014).
3770:
3675:
3664:
3629:
3606:
3536:
3524:
3481:
3470:
3444:
3433:
3400:
3355:
3067:Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000
3060:
3049:
3025:
3009:Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000
3002:
2997:Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000
2990:
2985:Moore, Hillman & Legge 2000
2978:
2952:
2551:. University of Hawai'i Press.
2278:of the mid 7th century AD. The
2227:(612–546 BC) and equally brief
1937:
6419:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
5735:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
5730:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
4821:Muir, Jim (24 February 2009),
4160:10.1080/09397140.1996.10637706
3636:Ur, Karsgaard & Oates 2007
2709:
2683:
2621:. Sydney: Living Water Books.
2570:
2533:
2522:
2510:
2484:
2130:, were organized in competing
2033:, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and
1964:The river Phrath mentioned in
1960:Second Coming of Jesus Christ.
1219:and draining the plain around
1183:
739:, the Euphrates flows through
700:
446: • coordinates
368: • coordinates
290: • coordinates
210: • coordinates
13:
1:
6678:
6117:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
5514:Tigris–Euphrates river system
5012:Regional Environmental Change
4795:, New York: Kluwer, pp.
4749:A Modern History of the Kurds
3693:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
3647:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
3624:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
3601:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
3578:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
3566:Akkermans & Schwartz 2003
2477:
2316:
2296:
2239:, who defeated the last king
1703:Southeastern Anatolia Project
1645:Southeastern Anatolia Project
1386:Tigris–Euphrates river system
985:), and is often mentioned as
595:Tigris–Euphrates river system
333:3,290 m (10,790 ft)
253:3,520 m (11,550 ft)
177:Physical characteristics
8054:Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan
8004:International rivers of Asia
6915:in ISIL-controlled territory
6803:
5354:Zeitschrift für Assyriologie
4009:
2547:. In Mair, Victor H. (ed.).
1548:and various wetland plants.
1154:
996:
987:
975:
823:
806:
769:
485: • elevation
407: • elevation
329: • elevation
249: • elevation
7:
7089:
6981:
6826:Council of Representatives
6564:Weapons of mass destruction
6251:
6183:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
6065:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
6060:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
4573:10.1080/0020723032000087934
3185:Isaev & Mikhailova 2009
2876:Isaev & Mikhailova 2009
2852:Isaev & Mikhailova 2009
2804:Isaev & Mikhailova 2009
2792:Isaev & Mikhailova 2009
2453:
2311:Wooden bridge carrying the
1950:, in the final book of the
1919:
1661:part of the Euphrates basin
914:suggest the proto-Sumerian
730:the land between the rivers
523: • location
433: • location
355: • location
277: • location
197: • location
10:
8090:
6554:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
6188:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
5425:National Library of Israel
5366:10.1515/zava.2005.95.1-2.7
4651:, Milton Park: Routledge,
4148:Zoology in the Middle East
3682:Hritz & Wilkinson 2006
3554:Sagona & Zimansky 2009
3149:Kolars & Mitchell 1991
2434:
2430:
2369:The river featured on the
2300:
1975:
1971:
1776:
1634:
1565:Euphrates softshell turtle
1422:
1383:
1353:486 km (302 mi)
1297:650 km (400 mi)
1279:450 km (280 mi)
815:
798:
787:
747:to join the Tigris in the
555: • maximum
545: • minimum
535: • average
411:610 m (2,000 ft)
32:Euphrates (disambiguation)
29:
8034:Sites along the Silk Road
7952:
7929:
7901:
7768:
7715:
7692:
7619:
7528:
7492:
7450:
7347:
7246:
7101:
7097:
7084:
6989:
6976:
6811:
6798:
6686:
6673:
6494:
6411:
6263:
6259:
6246:
6155:
6109:
6083:
5987:
5884:
5777:
5685:
5678:
5667:
5549:
5476:
5467:
5421:Old maps of the Euphrates
5024:10.1007/s10113-009-0083-y
4869:Iraq and the Persian Gulf
4691:, Carbondale: SIU Press,
4515:10.1134/S0097807809040022
4445:10.1017/S0003598X00093728
2332:Treaty of Lausanne (1923)
2204:Babylon in the south and
1731:Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi
1334:100 km (62 mi)
1315:108 km (67 mi)
1223:before emptying into the
1075:
935:
755:, which empties into the
636:
624:
608:
600:
586:
572:
567:
563:
553:
543:
533:
521:
513:
509:
501:
493:
483:
444:
431:
419:
415:
405:
366:
353:
345:
341:
337:
327:
288:
275:
265:
261:
257:
247:
208:
195:
185:
181:
176:
126:
116:
98:
93:
82:
62:
46:
41:
7735:Karamenderes (Scamander)
7479:Nahr al-Kabir al-Shamali
6905:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
6816:Administrative divisions
5125:Shahin, Mamdouh (2007),
5065:, Zürich, archived from
4783:Muhesen, Sultan (2002),
4747:McDowall, David (2004),
2912:Hole & Zaitchik 2007
2615:Gelbert, Carlos (2011).
2540:Witzel, Michael (2006).
2274:(226–638 AD), until the
1924:
1867:by the reservoir of the
1630:
925:The Euphrates is called
851:has been perpetuated in
626: • right
6464:Mandate for Mesopotamia
6338:First Babylonian Empire
5294:10.1126/science.1138728
5187:Tanaka, Eisuke (2007),
5151:Shapland, Greg (1997),
5129:, Dordrecht: Springer,
5119:10.3406/paleo.1997.4646
4972:Partow, Hassan (2001),
4901:O'Hara, Thomas (2004),
4805:10.1007/0-306-47153-1_7
4751:, London: I.B. Tauris,
4529:Jamous, Bassam (2009),
4378:Hillel, Daniel (1994),
4234:Frenken, Karen (2009),
3502:10.11136/jqh.1210.02.03
3329:Rahi & Halihan 2009
2661:. New Delhi: Sterling.
2517:Negev & Gibson 2001
2399:Euphrates in Iraq, 2005
2212:in the north, with the
1893:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
1840:and on freshwater fish
1359:45 m/s (1,600 cu ft/s)
764:fifteenth-longest river
610: • left
6623:Insurgency (2011–2013)
6544:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
6348:Middle Assyrian Empire
6020:Babylonian mathematics
4607:Kaya, Ibrahim (1998),
4328:Encyclopaedia of Islam
4174:Daoudy, Marwa (2005),
2696:Encyclopaedia Islamica
2425:Western Iraq offensive
2400:
2384:
2366:
2323:
2214:Middle Assyrian Empire
2112:Early Dynastic periods
1991:
1978:History of Mesopotamia
1820:
1802:
1730:
1662:
1438:
1381:
1321:4.1 m/s (145 cu ft/s)
1196:
1085:
961:
951:
489:1 m (3.3 ft)
6910:in post-invasion Iraq
6616:U.S. troop withdrawal
6378:Neo-Babylonian Empire
4643:Kliot, Nurit (1994),
4613:Arid Lands Newsletter
4210:Elhadj, Elie (2008),
3453:"48 signs of Qiyamah"
2655:Nasoraia, Brikha H.S.
2398:
2379:
2364:
2310:
2229:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1989:
1976:Further information:
1901:archaeological survey
1808:
1786:
1652:
1432:
1384:Further information:
1376:
1191:
1083:
762:The Euphrates is the
468:31.00500°N 47.44194°E
6859:Council of Ministers
6741:Mesopotamian Marshes
6015:Babylonian astronomy
5494:Mesopotamian Marshes
5417:at Wikimedia Commons
5332:van de Mieroop, Marc
4860:10.4000/vertigo.3869
4274:Geopolicity (2010),
2371:coat of arms of Iraq
2315:over the Euphrates,
2289:(331 BC–428 AD) and
2110:(3600–3100 BCE) and
2090:far into Turkey and
1849:archaeological sites
1838:Mesopotamian Marshes
1713:– between Raqqa and
1591:and the now-extinct
1561:recreational fishing
1497:Artemisia herba-alba
1425:Mesopotamian Marshes
1340:6 m/s (212 cu ft/s)
1052:and date to the mid-
908:Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze
69:Map of the combined
8074:Rivers in Mandaeism
8069:Hebrew Bible rivers
8019:Rivers of Kurdistan
7121:Mesopotamian Arabic
6927:Freedom of religion
6373:Neo-Assyrian Empire
6343:Old Assyrian Period
6328:Neo-Sumerian Empire
6096:Destruction by ISIL
6050:Sumerian literature
6025:Akkadian literature
5461:Ancient Mesopotamia
5286:2007Sci...317.1188U
5135:2007wrha.book.....S
4998:on 15 December 2017
4705:Krouma, I. (2006),
4196:, Barcelona: AUSA,
3765:van de Mieroop 2007
3753:van de Mieroop 2007
3741:van de Mieroop 2007
3729:van de Mieroop 2007
3717:van de Mieroop 2007
3705:van de Mieroop 2007
3659:van de Mieroop 2007
3429:Garcia-Navarro 2009
2692:"al-Bayt al-Maʿmūr"
2465:Mountains of Ararat
2423:and in Iraq in the
2373:from 1932 to 1959.
2237:Alexander the Great
2218:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2175:Old Assyrian Empire
2169:(2335–2154 BC) and
2039:rainfed agriculture
1569:soft-shelled turtle
1435:Rafetus euphraticus
1002:Mandaean scriptures
918:"copper" (Sumerian
568:Basin features
464: /
386: /
308: /
228: /
7644:Kızılırmak (Halys)
7052:Telecommunications
7027:Foreign Investment
6964:Wars and conflicts
6900:in pre-Saddam Iraq
6864:Presidency Council
6650:2019–2021 protests
6579:Invasion of Kuwait
6403:Sassanid Asorestan
6398:Parthian Babylonia
6393:Seleucid Babylonia
6388:Achaemenid Assyria
6303:Jemdet Nasr period
6132:Mesopotamian myths
5072:on 9 February 2005
4589:Middle East Policy
4072:Anonymous (2009),
4034:Adams, Robert McC.
3859:, pp. 169–170
3821:, pp. 117–118
3626:, pp. 167–168
3603:, pp. 163–166
3543:Schmid et al. 1997
3187:, pp. 383–384
3046:, pp. 203–205
2460:Armenian highlands
2401:
2385:
2367:
2324:
2208:, Assyria and the
1992:
1905:rescue excavations
1821:
1803:
1663:
1615:and the lion. The
1439:
1382:
1197:
1141:Upper Mesopotamian
1086:
1054:3rd millennium BCE
943:in modern Hebrew (
904:substrate language
735:). Originating in
473:31.00500; 47.44194
121:Armenian highlands
55:Gaziantep Province
8064:Upper Mesopotamia
7986:
7985:
7965:Turkey portal
7911:Fırat (Euphrates)
7853:Mezitli (Liparis)
7770:Mediterranean Sea
7564:
7563:
7395:
7394:
7343:
7342:
7339:
7338:
7329:Mandaean New Year
7080:
7079:
6972:
6971:
6954:Political parties
6849:Foreign relations
6794:
6793:
6701:Lower Mesopotamia
6696:Upper Mesopotamia
6669:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6429:Abbasid Caliphate
6424:Umayyad Caliphate
6333:Isin-Larsa period
6196:
6195:
6147:Ziggurat (Temple)
6122:Sumerian religion
5880:
5879:
5827:Middle Babylonian
5769:Kish civilization
5665:
5664:
5489:Lower Mesopotamia
5484:Upper Mesopotamia
5413:Media related to
5345:978-1-4051-4911-2
5162:978-0-312-16522-2
5144:978-1-4020-5414-3
5049:978-0-415-48123-6
4981:, Nairobi: UNEP,
4758:978-1-85043-416-0
4698:978-0-8093-1572-7
4676:978-0-19-854862-1
4322:; Bianquis, Th.;
4245:978-92-5-106316-3
4203:978-84-88810-43-4
4119:978-0-19-854862-1
3257:Sahan et al. 2001
3245:Sahan et al. 2001
2668:978-81-950824-1-4
2421:Battle of Baghouz
2280:Battle of Karbala
2266:, its succeeding
2233:Achaemenid Empire
2140:Upper Mesopotamia
1853:cultural heritage
1767:soil salinization
1671:William Willcocks
1617:Syrian brown bear
1567:is an endangered
1366:
1365:
912:Vyacheslav Ivanov
853:Semitic languages
821:
804:
778:derives from the
640:
639:
390:39.729°N 40.257°E
346:Source confluence
312:40.190°N 41.507°E
232:39.729°N 41.223°E
53:The Euphrates in
16:(Redirected from
8081:
8029:Rivers of Turkey
7974:
7973:
7963:
7962:
7961:
7707:Susurluk (Simav)
7614:
7613:
7605:Rivers of Turkey
7603:
7602:
7591:
7584:
7577:
7568:
7567:
7445:
7444:
7434:
7433:
7422:
7415:
7408:
7399:
7398:
7385:
7384:
7375:
7374:
7365:
7355:
7354:
7099:
7098:
7086:
7085:
7017:
6978:
6977:
6829:
6800:
6799:
6786:Sinjar Mountains
6776:Zagros Mountains
6716:Hamrin Mountains
6675:
6674:
6638:Mosul liberation
6611:Iraqi insurgency
6533:National Command
6522:
6358:Simurrum culture
6261:
6260:
6248:
6247:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6223:
6216:
6209:
6200:
6199:
6045:Sumerian cuisine
6035:Warfare in Sumer
6030:Economy of Sumer
5683:
5682:
5673:
5557:Fertile Crescent
5541:Sinjar Mountains
5536:Hamrin Mountains
5531:Zagros Mountains
5509:Taurus Mountains
5474:
5473:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5431:
5430:
5412:
5397:
5376:
5348:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5318:
5271:
5261:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5216:
5193:
5183:
5165:
5147:
5121:
5104:
5094:
5088:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5071:
5064:
5052:
5034:
5006:
5005:
5003:
4997:
4991:, archived from
4980:
4968:
4932:
4930:
4924:, archived from
4910:Essayons Forward
4907:
4897:
4879:
4863:
4862:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4817:
4779:
4761:
4743:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4701:
4690:
4679:
4661:
4650:
4639:
4638:
4636:
4603:
4583:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4546:
4535:
4525:
4497:
4496:, New Eden Group
4488:
4487:, New Eden Group
4478:
4477:
4475:
4469:
4439:(308): 415–424,
4430:
4420:
4392:
4374:
4338:
4314:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4289:
4283:, archived from
4282:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4248:
4230:
4206:
4188:
4170:
4142:
4122:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4080:
4068:
4050:
4029:
4003:
3997:
3991:
3986:
3980:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3943:
3937:
3936:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3903:. Archived from
3890:
3884:
3881:Geopolicity 2010
3878:
3872:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3831:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3809:, pp. 11–12
3807:Geopolicity 2010
3804:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3668:
3662:
3661:, pp. 38–39
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3556:, pp. 49–54
3551:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3485:
3479:
3477:Revelation 16:12
3474:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3448:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3426:
3420:
3415:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3393:
3387:
3386:, pp. 52–53
3381:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3359:
3353:
3348:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3326:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3302:
3296:
3290:
3284:
3278:
3272:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3100:
3094:
3093:, pp. 20–21
3088:
3082:
3076:
3070:
3069:, pp. 85–91
3064:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3034:, pp. 81–82
3029:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3011:, pp. 69–71
3006:
3000:
2999:, pp. 63–65
2994:
2988:
2987:, pp. 52–58
2982:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2909:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2867:
2861:
2855:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2774:
2768:
2757:
2751:
2738:
2732:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2557:
2546:
2537:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2488:
2472:Zagros Mountains
2405:Syrian civil war
2321:
2318:
2276:Islamic conquest
2268:Byzantine Empire
2027:hunter-gatherers
2001:Fertile Crescent
1948:Revelation 16:12
1860:with its unique
1625:Tell Abu Hureyra
1538:Euphrates poplar
1254:
1253:
1213:Taurus Mountains
999:
993:
984:
983:
978:
964:
954:
948:
947:
938:
937:
884:
873:
862:
831:𒌓𒄒𒉣; read as
826:
820:romanized:
819:
817:
809:
803:romanized:
802:
800:
793:), adapted from
792:
791:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
695:
689:
688:
687:
686:
679:
676:
675:
672:
669:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
627:
611:
591:
556:
546:
536:
524:
479:
478:
476:
475:
474:
469:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
408:
401:
400:
398:
397:
396:
391:
387:
384:
383:
382:
379:
369:
356:
330:
323:
322:
320:
319:
318:
313:
309:
306:
305:
304:
301:
291:
278:
250:
243:
242:
240:
239:
238:
233:
229:
226:
225:
224:
221:
211:
198:
67:
51:
39:
38:
21:
8089:
8088:
8084:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8079:
8078:
8024:Rivers of Syria
7989:
7988:
7987:
7982:
7959:
7957:
7948:
7925:
7897:
7868:Berdan (Tarsus)
7764:
7725:Meriç (Maritsa)
7711:
7688:
7615:
7608:
7607:
7597:
7595:
7565:
7560:
7524:
7488:
7446:
7439:
7438:
7436:Rivers of Syria
7428:
7426:
7396:
7391:
7335:
7319:Public holidays
7242:
7093:
7076:
7015:
6985:
6968:
6827:
6807:
6790:
6721:Iraqi Kurdistan
6711:Euphrates river
6682:
6661:
6628:War (2014–2017)
6574:Operation Opera
6520:
6490:
6486:Arab Federation
6474:Kingdom of Iraq
6407:
6383:Fall of Babylon
6318:Akkadian Empire
6293:Samarra culture
6278:Hassuna culture
6255:
6242:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6197:
6192:
6151:
6105:
6079:
5988:Culture/society
5983:
5876:
5872:Muslim conquest
5842:Fall of Babylon
5773:
5674:
5661:
5545:
5463:
5458:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5346:
5322:
5320:
5316:
5269:
5243:10.2307/1357592
5220:
5218:
5214:
5191:
5181:
5163:
5145:
5102:
5082:
5081:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5062:
5050:
5001:
4999:
4995:
4989:
4978:
4950:10.2307/4199667
4931:on 19 June 2009
4928:
4905:
4895:
4836:
4834:
4815:
4789:Bar-Yosef, Ofer
4777:
4759:
4741:
4720:
4718:
4699:
4677:
4659:
4634:
4632:
4550:
4548:
4547:on 28 July 2011
4544:
4538:Studia Orontica
4533:
4503:Water Resources
4473:
4471:
4467:
4428:
4410:10.1002/ldr.772
4390:
4356:10.2307/4199929
4293:
4291:
4290:on 20 July 2011
4287:
4280:
4265:
4263:
4246:
4204:
4186:
4120:
4099:
4097:
4093:
4078:
4066:
4048:
4012:
4007:
4006:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3983:
3975:
3971:
3961:
3959:
3944:
3940:
3931:. 30 May 2014.
3925:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3908:
3907:on 16 June 2018
3891:
3887:
3879:
3875:
3867:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3817:
3813:
3805:
3798:
3789:
3787:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3751:
3747:
3739:
3735:
3727:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3691:
3687:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3665:
3657:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3630:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3607:
3599:
3595:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3572:
3564:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3471:
3461:
3459:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3434:
3427:
3423:
3418:Abdul-Amir 1988
3416:
3412:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3382:
3378:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3345:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3323:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3291:
3287:
3279:
3275:
3267:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3207:
3203:
3195:
3191:
3183:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3147:
3143:
3135:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3108:
3101:
3097:
3089:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2969:
2967:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2945:
2941:
2933:
2929:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2886:
2882:
2874:
2870:
2862:
2858:
2850:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2777:
2769:
2760:
2752:
2741:
2733:
2722:
2714:
2710:
2701:
2699:
2688:
2684:
2669:
2652:
2648:
2638:
2636:
2629:
2613:
2609:
2600:
2598:
2591:
2575:
2571:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2501:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2456:
2439:
2433:
2409:Iraqi Civil War
2380:Euphrates near
2356:mandate of Iraq
2319:
2313:Baghdad Railway
2305:
2299:
2287:Greater Armenia
2272:Sassanid Empire
2258:states such as
2252:Parthian Empire
2248:Seleucid Empire
2167:Akkadian Empire
2116:Sumero-Akkadian
2104:
2102:Ancient history
2015:in the central
1997:
1984:
1982:History of Iraq
1974:
1944:Christian Bible
1940:
1927:
1922:
1781:
1775:
1683:Lake Habbaniyah
1667:Hindiya Barrage
1647:
1635:Main articles:
1633:
1621:Eurasian beaver
1593:Arabian ostrich
1530:riverine forest
1456:pistachio trees
1427:
1421:
1419:Natural history
1413:
1392:drainage basins
1388:
1371:
1263:Watershed size
1186:
1157:
1078:
1037:texts found in
772:
732:
729:
726:
723:
693:
682:
681:
651:
647:
625:
609:
587:
554:
544:
534:
522:
486:
472:
470:
466:
463:
458:
455:
453:
451:
450:
447:
434:
406:
394:
392:
388:
385:
380:
377:
375:
373:
372:
367:
354:
328:
316:
314:
310:
307:
302:
299:
297:
295:
294:
289:
276:
248:
236:
234:
230:
227:
222:
219:
217:
215:
214:
209:
196:
78:
58:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Euphrates River
15:
12:
11:
5:
8087:
8077:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8036:
8031:
8026:
8021:
8016:
8014:Rivers of Iraq
8011:
8006:
8001:
7984:
7983:
7981:
7980:
7968:
7953:
7950:
7949:
7947:
7946:
7941:
7935:
7933:
7927:
7926:
7924:
7923:
7918:
7916:Dicle (Tigris)
7913:
7907:
7905:
7899:
7898:
7896:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7858:Efrenk (Müftü)
7855:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7835:
7833:Alata (Sorgun)
7830:
7825:
7820:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7774:
7772:
7766:
7765:
7763:
7762:
7757:
7755:Büyük Menderes
7752:
7750:Küçük Menderes
7747:
7742:
7737:
7732:
7727:
7721:
7719:
7713:
7712:
7710:
7709:
7704:
7698:
7696:
7690:
7689:
7687:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7666:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7625:
7623:
7617:
7616:
7611:drainage basin
7594:
7593:
7586:
7579:
7571:
7562:
7561:
7559:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7532:
7530:
7526:
7525:
7523:
7522:
7517:
7498:
7496:
7490:
7489:
7487:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7456:
7454:
7448:
7447:
7442:drainage basin
7425:
7424:
7417:
7410:
7402:
7393:
7392:
7390:
7389:
7379:
7369:
7359:
7348:
7345:
7344:
7341:
7340:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7333:
7332:
7331:
7326:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7261:
7256:
7250:
7248:
7244:
7243:
7241:
7240:
7239:
7238:
7233:
7228:
7223:
7218:
7208:
7203:
7202:
7201:
7196:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7145:
7144:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7113:
7107:
7105:
7095:
7094:
7082:
7081:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7074:
7069:
7064:
7059:
7057:Transportation
7054:
7049:
7047:Stock Exchange
7044:
7042:Reconstruction
7039:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7022:Infrastructure
7019:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6974:
6973:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6935:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6907:
6902:
6892:
6891:
6890:
6889:
6888:
6881:Prime Minister
6878:
6877:
6876:
6866:
6861:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6823:
6818:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6796:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6789:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6687:
6684:
6683:
6671:
6670:
6667:
6666:
6663:
6662:
6660:
6659:
6654:
6653:
6652:
6642:
6641:
6640:
6635:
6625:
6620:
6619:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6598:
6593:
6592:
6591:
6589:1991 uprisings
6581:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6539:Saddam Hussein
6536:
6525:
6524:
6516:
6511:
6506:
6500:
6498:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6488:
6483:
6482:
6481:
6471:
6469:Mandatory Iraq
6466:
6461:
6458:Mamluk dynasty
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6415:
6413:
6409:
6408:
6406:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6323:Gutian dynasty
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6269:
6267:
6257:
6256:
6244:
6243:
6226:
6225:
6218:
6211:
6203:
6194:
6193:
6191:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6168:Assyriologists
6165:
6159:
6157:
6153:
6152:
6150:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6113:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6087:
6085:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6077:
6075:List of rulers
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5991:
5989:
5985:
5984:
5982:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5964:Proto-Armenian
5961:
5956:
5951:
5949:Middle Persian
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5890:
5888:
5882:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5837:Neo-Babylonian
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5817:Old Babylonian
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5787:Early Dynastic
5783:
5781:
5775:
5774:
5772:
5771:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5691:
5689:
5680:
5676:
5675:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5553:
5551:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5480:
5478:
5471:
5465:
5464:
5457:
5456:
5449:
5442:
5434:
5428:
5427:
5418:
5404:
5403:External links
5401:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5377:
5349:
5344:
5328:
5280:(5842): 1188,
5262:
5237:(323): 63–96,
5226:
5184:
5179:
5166:
5161:
5148:
5143:
5122:
5095:
5053:
5048:
5040:Ancient Turkey
5035:
5007:
4987:
4969:
4933:
4898:
4893:
4880:
4864:
4842:
4818:
4813:
4780:
4775:
4762:
4757:
4744:
4739:
4726:
4702:
4697:
4680:
4675:
4662:
4657:
4640:
4604:
4595:(1): 137–143,
4584:
4567:(6): 581–593,
4556:
4526:
4509:(4): 380–395,
4498:
4489:
4479:
4421:
4404:(2): 133–152,
4393:
4388:
4375:
4339:
4324:Bosworth, C.E.
4315:
4299:
4271:
4249:
4244:
4231:
4207:
4202:
4189:
4184:
4171:
4143:
4123:
4118:
4105:
4069:
4064:
4051:
4046:
4030:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4004:
3992:
3981:
3969:
3938:
3918:
3885:
3873:
3871:, pp. 172
3861:
3849:
3837:
3823:
3811:
3796:
3769:
3757:
3745:
3733:
3721:
3709:
3697:
3685:
3674:
3663:
3651:
3639:
3628:
3616:
3605:
3593:
3582:
3570:
3558:
3546:
3535:
3523:
3480:
3469:
3457:Islamic Finder
3451:Anwaar, Amna.
3443:
3432:
3421:
3410:
3399:
3388:
3376:
3365:
3362:McClellan 1997
3354:
3343:
3332:
3321:
3309:
3297:
3285:
3273:
3269:Anonymous 2009
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3201:
3197:Jongerden 2010
3189:
3177:
3165:
3161:Jongerden 2010
3153:
3141:
3129:
3117:
3106:
3095:
3083:
3071:
3059:
3048:
3036:
3024:
3013:
3001:
2989:
2977:
2966:. 21 July 2023
2951:
2939:
2927:
2915:
2904:
2892:
2880:
2868:
2856:
2844:
2832:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2775:
2758:
2739:
2720:
2708:
2682:
2667:
2646:
2627:
2607:
2589:
2569:
2532:
2521:
2509:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2455:
2452:
2432:
2429:
2427:respectively.
2352:United Kingdom
2348:Syrian mandate
2336:Ottoman Empire
2298:
2295:
2291:Lesser Armenia
2250:(312–150 BC),
2210:Hittite Empire
2136:remote sensing
2103:
2100:
2048:Tell es-Sawwan
1996:
1993:
1973:
1970:
1956:John of Patmos
1939:
1936:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1774:
1771:
1695:Lake Qadisiyah
1691:earth-fill dam
1675:Ramadi Barrage
1632:
1629:
1534:Oriental plane
1520:Chenopodiaceae
1493:white wormwood
1448:xeric woodland
1420:
1417:
1412:
1411:Climate change
1409:
1370:
1369:Drainage basin
1367:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1185:
1182:
1156:
1153:
1077:
1074:
810:, itself from
771:
768:
638:
637:
634:
633:
628:
622:
621:
612:
606:
605:
602:
598:
597:
592:
584:
583:
574:
570:
569:
565:
564:
561:
560:
557:
551:
550:
547:
541:
540:
537:
531:
530:
525:
519:
518:
515:
511:
510:
507:
506:
503:
499:
498:
495:
491:
490:
487:
484:
481:
480:
448:
445:
442:
441:
435:
432:
429:
428:
423:
417:
416:
413:
412:
409:
403:
402:
395:39.729; 40.257
370:
364:
363:
357:
351:
350:
347:
343:
342:
339:
338:
335:
334:
331:
325:
324:
317:40.190; 41.507
292:
286:
285:
279:
273:
272:
267:
263:
262:
259:
258:
255:
254:
251:
245:
244:
237:39.729; 41.223
212:
206:
205:
199:
193:
192:
187:
183:
182:
179:
178:
174:
173:
128:
124:
123:
118:
114:
113:
100:
96:
95:
91:
90:
84:
80:
79:
75:drainage basin
68:
60:
59:
52:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8086:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8035:
8032:
8030:
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7996:
7994:
7979:
7978:
7969:
7967:
7966:
7955:
7954:
7951:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7936:
7934:
7932:
7928:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7904:
7900:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7888:Asi (Orontes)
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7819:
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7775:
7773:
7771:
7767:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7741:
7738:
7736:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7722:
7720:
7718:
7714:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7699:
7697:
7695:
7691:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7670:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7660:
7657:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7626:
7624:
7622:
7618:
7612:
7606:
7601:
7592:
7587:
7585:
7580:
7578:
7573:
7572:
7569:
7557:
7556:Yarmouk River
7554:
7552:
7549:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7533:
7531:
7527:
7521:
7518:
7515:
7511:
7507:
7503:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7495:
7491:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7477:
7475:
7474:Nahr al-Kabir
7472:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7460:Orontes River
7458:
7457:
7455:
7453:
7452:Mediterranean
7449:
7443:
7437:
7432:
7423:
7418:
7416:
7411:
7409:
7404:
7403:
7400:
7388:
7380:
7378:
7370:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7358:
7350:
7349:
7346:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7251:
7249:
7245:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7213:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7200:
7197:
7194:
7193:Iraqi Turkmen
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7149:
7146:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7104:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7087:
7083:
7073:
7070:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6988:
6984:
6979:
6975:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6916:
6913:
6912:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6897:
6896:
6893:
6887:
6884:
6883:
6882:
6879:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6856:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6828:(legislative)
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6813:
6810:
6806:
6801:
6797:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6761:Syrian Desert
6759:
6757:
6756:Shatt al-Arab
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6691:Faw peninsula
6689:
6688:
6685:
6681:
6676:
6672:
6658:
6655:
6651:
6648:
6647:
6646:
6643:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6633:Fall of Mosul
6631:
6630:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6606:U.S. invasion
6604:
6603:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6569:Iran–Iraq War
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6534:
6530:
6527:
6526:
6523:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6497:
6493:
6487:
6484:
6480:
6477:
6476:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6434:Buyid dynasty
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6410:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6283:Halaf culture
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6249:
6245:
6240:
6234:
6224:
6219:
6217:
6212:
6210:
6205:
6204:
6201:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6108:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6082:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5986:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5883:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5776:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5688:
5684:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5548:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5504:Syrian Desert
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5455:
5450:
5448:
5443:
5441:
5436:
5435:
5432:
5426:
5422:
5419:
5416:
5411:
5407:
5406:
5396:
5394:0-19-506512-3
5390:
5386:
5382:
5381:Zarins, Juris
5378:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5360:(1–2): 7–45,
5359:
5355:
5350:
5347:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5268:
5263:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5227:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5190:
5185:
5182:
5180:0-631-23001-7
5176:
5172:
5167:
5164:
5158:
5154:
5149:
5146:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5123:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5068:
5061:
5060:
5054:
5051:
5045:
5041:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5008:
4994:
4990:
4988:92-807-2069-4
4984:
4977:
4976:
4970:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4934:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4899:
4896:
4894:0-8264-1316-1
4890:
4886:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4849:(in French),
4848:
4843:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4819:
4816:
4814:0-306-45924-8
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4781:
4778:
4776:0-19-510807-8
4772:
4768:
4763:
4760:
4754:
4750:
4745:
4742:
4740:0-19-506512-3
4736:
4732:
4727:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4703:
4700:
4694:
4689:
4688:
4681:
4678:
4672:
4668:
4663:
4660:
4658:0-415-09752-5
4654:
4649:
4648:
4641:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4605:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4585:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4557:
4543:
4539:
4532:
4527:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4499:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4480:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4427:
4422:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4394:
4391:
4389:0-19-508068-8
4385:
4381:
4376:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4340:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4286:
4279:
4278:
4272:
4261:
4257:
4256:
4250:
4247:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4208:
4205:
4199:
4195:
4190:
4187:
4185:2-271-06290-X
4181:
4177:
4172:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4144:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4121:
4115:
4111:
4106:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4076:
4070:
4067:
4065:0-521-79666-0
4061:
4057:
4052:
4049:
4047:0-226-00544-5
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4014:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3985:
3979:, p. 110
3978:
3977:Shapland 1997
3973:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3942:
3934:
3930:
3929:
3922:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3889:
3882:
3877:
3870:
3865:
3858:
3853:
3846:
3841:
3835:
3830:
3828:
3820:
3819:Shapland 1997
3815:
3808:
3803:
3801:
3785:
3781:
3780:
3773:
3767:, p. 287
3766:
3761:
3755:, p. 270
3754:
3749:
3743:, p. 241
3742:
3737:
3731:, p. 132
3730:
3725:
3719:, p. 111
3718:
3713:
3706:
3701:
3695:, p. 233
3694:
3689:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3667:
3660:
3655:
3649:, p. 203
3648:
3643:
3637:
3632:
3625:
3620:
3614:
3609:
3602:
3597:
3591:
3586:
3580:, p. 110
3579:
3574:
3567:
3562:
3555:
3550:
3544:
3539:
3533:, p. 102
3532:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3478:
3473:
3458:
3454:
3447:
3441:
3436:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3403:
3397:
3392:
3385:
3380:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3358:
3352:
3347:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3325:
3319:, p. 212
3318:
3313:
3307:, p. 103
3306:
3301:
3295:, p. 107
3294:
3289:
3283:, p. 475
3282:
3281:McDowall 2004
3277:
3270:
3265:
3258:
3253:
3246:
3241:
3235:, p. 100
3234:
3229:
3223:, p. 127
3222:
3217:
3210:
3205:
3199:, p. 139
3198:
3193:
3186:
3181:
3174:
3169:
3163:, p. 138
3162:
3157:
3150:
3145:
3138:
3133:
3126:
3121:
3115:
3110:
3104:
3099:
3092:
3087:
3081:, p. 117
3080:
3075:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3056:Thomason 2001
3052:
3045:
3040:
3033:
3028:
3022:
3017:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2993:
2986:
2981:
2965:
2961:
2955:
2948:
2943:
2936:
2931:
2925:, p. 251
2924:
2919:
2913:
2908:
2901:
2896:
2889:
2884:
2878:, p. 386
2877:
2872:
2865:
2860:
2854:, p. 385
2853:
2848:
2841:
2836:
2830:, p. 100
2829:
2824:
2817:
2812:
2806:, p. 388
2805:
2800:
2794:, p. 384
2793:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2718:, p. 287
2717:
2712:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2634:
2630:
2628:9780958034630
2624:
2620:
2619:
2611:
2596:
2592:
2590:9783110815030
2586:
2582:
2581:
2573:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2536:
2530:
2525:
2519:, p. 169
2518:
2513:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2473:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2438:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2413:Islamic State
2410:
2406:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2372:
2363:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2225:Median Empire
2221:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2096:Habuba Kabira
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2064:Tell Mashnaqa
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:Syrian steppe
2014:
2013:El Kowm oasis
2010:
2006:
2002:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1967:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1952:New Testament
1949:
1945:
1935:
1933:
1917:
1915:
1914:2003 invasion
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1897:Jerf el Ahmar
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1810:Qal'at Ja'bar
1807:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1759:Shatt al-Hayy
1756:
1755:Lake Tharthar
1751:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1605:golden jackal
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1501:Amaranthaceae
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1470:einkorn wheat
1467:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1416:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1380:
1375:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1190:
1181:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1118:Shatt al-Arab
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1003:
998:
992:
991:
977:
972:
968:
963:
958:
953:
942:
932:
928:
923:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
898:
894:
891:
887:
880:
876:
869:
865:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
825:
813:
808:
796:
790:
784:
781:
777:
767:
765:
760:
758:
754:
750:
749:Shatt al-Arab
746:
742:
738:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
697:
685:
678:
645:
635:
632:
629:
623:
620:
616:
613:
607:
603:
599:
596:
593:
590:
585:
582:
578:
577:Shatt al-Arab
575:
571:
566:
562:
558:
552:
548:
542:
538:
532:
529:
526:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
482:
477:
449:
443:
439:
436:
430:
427:
426:Shatt al-Arab
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
404:
399:
371:
365:
361:
358:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
326:
321:
293:
287:
283:
280:
274:
271:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
246:
241:
213:
207:
203:
200:
194:
191:
188:
184:
180:
175:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
129:
125:
122:
119:
117:Source region
115:
112:
108:
104:
101:
97:
92:
89:
85:
81:
76:
72:
66:
61:
56:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
8039:Torah places
7975:
7956:
7910:
7903:Persian Gulf
7551:Banias River
7510:Balikh River
7501:
7494:Persian Gulf
7484:Nahr as-Sinn
7221:Christianity
7103:Demographics
7037:Oil reserves
7032:Oil Industry
6999:Central Bank
6895:Human rights
6821:Constitution
6766:Tigris river
6746:Persian Gulf
6710:
6454:Ottoman Iraq
6439:Qara Qoyunlu
6273:Ubaid period
6070:Royal titles
5995:Architecture
5832:Neo-Assyrian
5679:(Pre)history
5518:
5499:Persian Gulf
5384:
5357:
5353:
5335:
5321:, retrieved
5277:
5273:
5234:
5230:
5219:, retrieved
5199:
5195:
5170:
5152:
5126:
5113:(1): 87–93,
5110:
5106:
5074:, retrieved
5067:the original
5058:
5039:
5015:
5011:
5000:, retrieved
4993:the original
4974:
4941:
4937:
4926:the original
4913:
4909:
4887:, New York,
4884:
4868:
4850:
4846:
4835:, retrieved
4826:
4792:
4766:
4748:
4730:
4719:, retrieved
4710:
4686:
4666:
4646:
4633:, retrieved
4616:
4612:
4592:
4588:
4564:
4560:
4549:, retrieved
4542:the original
4537:
4506:
4502:
4493:
4484:
4472:, retrieved
4436:
4432:
4401:
4397:
4379:
4350:(1): 35–48,
4347:
4343:
4327:
4310:
4292:, retrieved
4285:the original
4276:
4264:, retrieved
4254:
4235:
4219:
4215:
4193:
4175:
4151:
4147:
4131:
4127:
4109:
4098:, retrieved
4074:
4055:
4037:
4018:
3995:
3984:
3972:
3960:. Retrieved
3951:
3941:
3927:
3921:
3909:. Retrieved
3905:the original
3898:
3888:
3883:, p. 16
3876:
3864:
3852:
3847:, p. 49
3840:
3814:
3788:, retrieved
3778:
3772:
3760:
3748:
3736:
3724:
3712:
3707:, p. 63
3700:
3688:
3677:
3666:
3654:
3642:
3631:
3619:
3608:
3596:
3590:Helbaek 1972
3585:
3573:
3568:, p. 74
3561:
3549:
3538:
3531:Muhesen 2002
3526:
3496:(2): 33–47.
3493:
3489:
3483:
3472:
3460:. Retrieved
3456:
3446:
3435:
3424:
3413:
3402:
3391:
3379:
3368:
3357:
3346:
3335:
3324:
3317:Frenken 2009
3312:
3300:
3288:
3276:
3271:, p. 11
3264:
3259:, p. 11
3252:
3247:, p. 10
3240:
3228:
3216:
3211:, p. 53
3204:
3192:
3180:
3175:, p. 62
3173:Frenken 2009
3168:
3156:
3151:, p. 17
3144:
3132:
3120:
3109:
3098:
3086:
3074:
3062:
3051:
3039:
3027:
3016:
3004:
2992:
2980:
2968:. Retrieved
2963:
2954:
2949:, p. 63
2947:Frenken 2009
2942:
2930:
2918:
2907:
2902:, p. 95
2895:
2890:, p. 94
2883:
2871:
2866:, p. 47
2859:
2847:
2842:, p. 91
2835:
2823:
2811:
2799:
2773:, p. 65
2771:Frenken 2009
2756:, p. 63
2737:, p. 71
2711:
2700:, retrieved
2695:
2685:
2658:
2649:
2637:. Retrieved
2617:
2610:
2599:, retrieved
2579:
2572:
2560:. Retrieved
2548:
2535:
2524:
2512:
2500:. Retrieved
2486:
2440:
2402:
2390:Soviet Union
2386:
2368:
2325:
2284:
2264:Roman Empire
2256:Neo-Assyrian
2245:
2222:
2199:
2164:
2105:
2052:Ubaid period
2022:Homo erectus
2020:
1998:
1963:
1941:
1938:Christianity
1928:
1846:
1830:
1822:
1752:
1735:
1725:
1723:
1711:Halabiye Dam
1681:that is now
1664:
1637:Dams in Iraq
1576:Neo-Assyrian
1573:
1550:
1523:
1519:
1496:
1486:
1465:
1459:
1440:
1433:
1414:
1397:Saudi Arabia
1389:
1349:Khabur River
1330:Balikh River
1241:Ra's al-'Ayn
1198:
1192:View of the
1178:
1158:
1143:plains, its
1126:
1122:Persian Gulf
1090:Western Asia
1087:
1057:
1048:in southern
1032:
1005:
1004:such as the
994:(pronounced
940:
926:
924:
919:
915:
899:
892:
885:
874:
863:
848:
840:
832:
799:𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢
782:
775:
773:
761:
757:Persian Gulf
705:Western Asia
643:
641:
589:River system
581:Persian Gulf
87:
36:
8009:Mesopotamia
7843:Karacaoğlan
7506:Sajur River
7468:Afrin River
7377:WikiProject
7178:Marsh Arabs
7163:Circassians
6844:Foreign aid
6736:Mesopotamia
6298:Uruk period
6173:Hittitology
6163:Assyriology
6084:Archaeology
5954:Old Persian
5764:Jemdet Nasr
5202:: 183–202,
4853:(3): 1–10,
4721:15 December
4551:14 December
4474:3 September
4320:Bearman, P.
4294:20 December
4002:, p. 3
4000:O'Hara 2004
3989:Krouma 2006
3869:Daoudy 2005
3857:Daoudy 2005
3845:Kolars 1994
3790:19 December
3396:Bounni 1979
3384:Steele 2005
3373:Tanaka 2007
3305:Hillel 1994
3293:Hillel 1994
3233:Hillel 1994
3221:Daoudy 2005
3209:Kolars 1994
3139:, p. 5
3127:, p. 4
3114:Elhadj 2008
3103:Jamous 2009
2937:, p. 4
2935:Partow 2001
2923:Shahin 2007
2900:Hillel 1994
2864:Kolars 1994
2818:, p. 2
2754:Daoudy 2005
2716:Zarins 1997
2639:17 February
2601:14 November
2562:19 February
2403:During the
2340:partitioned
2334:, when the
2328:World War I
2320: 1900
2160:Tell Leilan
2132:city-states
2118:sites like
2108:Jemdet Nasr
2106:During the
2072:Uruk period
2035:Nevalı Çori
1869:Birecik Dam
1834:evaporation
1765:to prevent
1740:Atatürk Dam
1715:Deir ez-Zor
1687:Haditha Dam
1525:Poa sinaica
1512:pastoralism
1311:Sajur River
1305:Confluence
1293:Murat River
1287:Confluence
1229:Tishrin Dam
1194:Murat River
1184:Tributaries
1062:logographic
1018:concept of
1007:Ginza Rabba
795:Old Persian
717:Mesopotamia
601:Tributaries
573:Progression
471: /
393: /
315: /
235: /
190:Murat River
139:Deir ez-Zor
77:(in yellow)
73:–Euphrates
7993:Categories
7659:Yeşilırmak
7294:Television
7274:Literature
7236:Irreligion
7211:Secularism
7148:Minorities
7016:(currency)
7009:Corruption
6854:Government
6645:Insurgency
6444:Aq Qoyunlu
6265:Chronology
6137:Divination
5847:Achaemenid
5812:Isin-Larsa
5705:Trialetian
5700:Mousterian
5687:Prehistory
5323:4 November
5107:Paléorient
4916:(2): 3–4,
4303:Gray, J.E.
4100:4 December
3962:7 February
3671:Adams 1981
3613:Oates 1960
3340:Jawad 2003
3137:Mutin 2003
3125:Mutin 2003
3079:Kliot 1994
2970:3 November
2964:IFLScience
2828:Bilen 1994
2816:Mutin 2003
2702:19 October
2677:1272858968
2529:Woods 2005
2478:References
2443:hydropower
2435:See also:
2301:See also:
2297:Modern era
2241:Darius III
2066:along the
1954:. Author,
1818:Lake Assad
1777:See also:
1748:World Bank
1719:Lake Assad
1679:depression
1553:Cyprinidae
1443:vegetation
1423:See also:
1266:Discharge
1245:Al-Hasakah
816:𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖
502:Basin size
459:47°26′31″E
381:40°15′25″E
378:39°43′44″N
303:41°30′25″E
300:40°11′24″N
266:2nd source
223:41°13′23″E
220:39°43′44″N
155:Habbaniyah
8044:Tur Abdin
7999:Euphrates
7679:Kara Dere
7664:Yağlıdere
7621:Black Sea
7529:endorheic
7502:Euphrates
7314:Squatting
7279:Education
7226:Mandaeism
7195:/Turkoman
7173:Mandaeans
7158:Assyrians
7153:Armenians
7116:Languages
7004:Companies
6959:Judiciary
6869:President
6839:Elections
6834:Democracy
6680:Geography
6596:Sanctions
6514:2003–2011
6509:1968–2003
6504:1958–1968
6363:Babylonia
6010:Cuneiform
5886:Languages
5695:Acheulean
5582:Babylonia
5519:Euphrates
5469:Geography
5415:Euphrates
5374:162245901
5259:153904585
5221:10 August
5018:: 27–35,
5002:10 August
4966:163320495
4944:: 32–50,
4885:Continuum
4635:10 August
4625:1092-5481
4523:129706440
4453:0003-598X
4433:Antiquity
4418:129117310
4372:128712234
4336:624382576
4228:1565-8996
4168:0939-7140
4154:: 51–70,
4087:472433635
4027:615058488
4010:Citations
3952:Yale E360
3900:Al Akhbar
3834:Kaya 1998
3518:2232-1950
3510:2232-1969
3462:1 January
3351:Muir 2009
3032:Gray 1864
3021:Coad 1996
2618:Ginza Rba
2195:Hammurabi
2191:Babylonia
2080:Tell Brak
2009:artifacts
2005:Acheulean
1844:in Iraq.
1826:Arab belt
1788:Keban Dam
1744:Şanlıurfa
1707:Baath Dam
1699:Tabqa Dam
1693:creating
1641:Tabqa Dam
1597:wild boar
1559:has good
1225:reservoir
1217:Gaziantep
1161:Discharge
1155:Discharge
1137:Keban Dam
1039:Shuruppak
1035:cuneiform
997:Fraš Ziwa
829:cuneiform
824:Úipratuiš
789:Εὐφρᾱ́της
783:Euphrátēs
776:Euphrates
774:The term
770:Etymology
711:with the
644:Euphrates
514:Discharge
456:31°0′18″N
438:Al-Qurnah
171:Nasiriyah
83:Etymology
57:, Turkey.
42:Euphrates
7977:Category
7893:Deli Çay
7798:Kaledran
7793:Köprüçay
7788:Manavgat
7740:Bakırçay
7674:Gelevara
7357:Category
7206:Religion
7183:Persians
7067:Railways
7062:Airlines
6944:Military
6805:Politics
6781:Wildlife
6771:Umm Qasr
6601:Iraq War
6584:Gulf War
6496:Republic
6449:Safavids
6412:638–1958
6156:Academia
6110:Religion
5979:Urartian
5974:Sumerian
5959:Parthian
5894:Akkadian
5867:Sasanian
5857:Parthian
5852:Seleucid
5802:Simurrum
5792:Akkadian
5725:Khiamian
5715:Natufian
5627:Simurrum
5612:Kassites
5607:Hittites
5562:Adiabene
5334:(2007),
5314:archived
5310:10440712
5302:17761874
5212:archived
5208:56070299
5085:citation
5076:6 August
4922:81262733
4837:9 August
4831:archived
4827:BBC News
4791:(eds.),
4715:archived
4629:archived
4581:94931485
4465:archived
4461:14693322
4305:(1864),
4266:4 August
4260:archived
4091:archived
4036:(1981),
3956:Archived
3933:Archived
3784:archived
2657:(2021).
2633:Archived
2595:archived
2553:Archived
2502:12 April
2496:Archived
2454:See also
2407:and the
2354:for its
2350:and the
2346:for its
2270:and the
2260:Adiabene
2122:, Uruk,
2088:sealings
1920:Religion
1895:site of
1885:Mureybet
1877:Natufian
1842:habitats
1800:Murat Su
1798:and the
1542:tamarisk
1466:Rosaceae
1461:Rosaceae
1249:Busayrah
1207:and the
1129:Lake Van
1098:Murat Su
1066:divinity
1058:Buranuna
1043:Sargonic
1041:and pre-
973:name is
931:Armenian
897:Sabarian
864:al-Furāt
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7091:Society
7072:Tourism
6983:Economy
6731:Islands
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6531: (
6521:present
6456:(incl.
6368:Assyria
6313:Subartu
6253:History
6142:Prayers
6127:Deities
6091:Looting
5934:Kassite
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1966:Genesis
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1910:looting
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1879:to the
1865:mosaics
1796:Kara Su
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