Environmental policy

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European Union or the United Nations). The differences in approaches, the reasons behind them, and their results have been the subject of research in the fields of comparative environmental politics and policy. But the study of problems and issues associated with environmental policy development has also been influenced by general public policy theories and analyses. Contributions on this front have been influenced by different academic disciplines, notably economics, public policy, and environmental studies, but also by political-ideological views, politics, and economic interests, among others through "think tanks". Thus, the design of environmental policy and the choice of policy instruments is always political and not just a matter determined by technical and efficiency considerations advanced by scientists, economists or other experts. As Majone has argued: "Policy instruments are seldom ideologically neutral" and "cannot be neatly separated from goals." The choice of policy instruments always occurs in a political context. Differences in ideological preferences of governments and political actors, and in national policy styles, have been argued to strongly influence a government's approach to policy design, including the choice of instruments.

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therein, among others linked to economic development, urbanisation and globalisation. On the one hand, analysts have identified the rise of individualism, materialism, consumerism, and the decline of community values in modern societies and cultures. On the other hand, some analysts, notably based on Ronald Inglehart's work, argue that, with rising standards of living, comes a shift in societies, facilitated by generational change, from material to "post-material" values, including self-actualisation, belonging, and aesthetics. However, it is debatable to what extent this shift represents a move towards environmental values becoming dominant and whether the level of support for the environment depends on a high standard of living. Others, notably inspired by Riley Dunlap's research, more directly explore whether the presently dominant paradigm is being replaced by what is referred to as the "New Environmental Paradigm". As yet, however, the findings of this research are inconclusive, although there is evidence that environmental concern and support have grown globally.

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instruments, and environmental taxation and subsidies can achieve the same results. For instance, as Kemp and Pontoglio argue, policy instruments cannot be usefully ranked with regard to their effects on eco-innovation, "the often expressed view that market-based approaches such as pollution taxes and emission trading systems are better for promoting eco-innovation is not brought out by the case study literature or by survey analysis", and there is actually more evidence that regulations stimulate radical innovation more than market-based instruments. It has also been argued that If the government can anticipate new technology or is able to react to it optimally, regulatory policies by virtue of administered prices (taxes) and policies by setting quantities (issuing tradable permits) are (almost) equivalent. More generally, the performance of economic instruments in dealing with environmental problems has been a mixed bag, referred to by Hahn as "not very impressive", and has led Tietenberg to conclude that they are "no panacea".

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ethnic boundaries have been particularly important in regions where entire ecosystems are under threat, e.g. small island states, the Arctic and the Amazon and in areas where people's livelihoods depend on natural resources e.g. fishing, farming and forestry. However, the degree and kind of opportunities provided for public input and deliberation are seen as a key factor, both for improving the effectiveness of policies and for enhancing their support basis and legitimacy. Enhancing democracy, for instance, by adopting forms of "discursive designs" and other forms of "reflexive" deliberative democracy, aims to create a level playing field on which citizens' representatives have a more equal chance to partake in shaping policy. Relatively recently, "citizens' assemblies" have been used in a range of countries to address controversial topics, including climate change policy. However, as these are temporary and advisory bodies, governments are not bound by their recommendations.

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dominant paradigm. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the environmental movement in bringing about fundamental value change can and has been drawn into doubt. One reason is that the environmental movement itself is very diverse in views on the kind of value change(s) required, ranging from technocentric to deep ecological stances. To what extent green parties have been effective in changing dominant value patterns or are themselves subject to being co-opted by dominant values and interests is also subject to debate. To a large extent, as many analysts have pointed out, the ability to shape the dominant values and public views on the environment depends on the relative (cognitive) power held and exercised by groups, notably through control over the media and other institutions such as education, universities, think tanks, and the social media.

779:, and all kinds of pollution, among others. In this respect, they have often provided legitimacy and support to the raising of concerns by the environmental movement, although they have often been reluctant to get involved in environmental activism out of fear of compromising their scientific credibility. Nonetheless, scientists have played a significant role pushing environmental issues onto the international agenda, together with international ENGOs, in what have been referred to as "epistemic communities." However, to what extent science can be "value-free" has been a subject of debate. Science and scientists always operate in a political-economic context that circumscribes their role, research and its effects. This raises the question of scientific integrity, especially when scientists are paid to serve commercial and political interests. 817:

efficiency and cost-effectiveness, many other important aspects of policy and criteria for evaluating them have been identified and discussed, including their knowledge (science) basis, their goals and objectives, ethical issues, distributional effects, and process and legitimacy. Although efforts have been made to put evaluation on its own (trans-) disciplinary footing as a systematic and independent stage in the policy process, either before the adoption of policies (ex-ante evaluation) or after their implementation (ex-post evaluation) this remains fraught with problems. In practice, systematic evaluation remains a largely neglected aspect or stage of policymaking, in large part, because of the political nature and sensitivity of evaluating government's policies.

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seriously. Such policies rely more on rhetoric than action. In the environmental realm, sustainable development policies or strategies are often used for this purpose if these are not translated into clear and specific objectives, timeframes and measures. Yet, hortatory policy instruments are often preferred by governments and other actors as they are seen as a way of recognising and sharing collective responsibility, possibly avoiding the need for regulation and/or economic instruments. They are thus often used as a first step towards addressing environmental problems. However, these tools are often combined with some form of legislation and regulation, for instance, in the case of labelling of consumer products (product information), waste disposal and recycling.

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a range of environmental problems and policy outputs, as measured by separate indicators like CO2 emissions, different forms of air pollution, water quality indicators, and biological diversity (individual species). These assessments are often used as a basis for ranking the environmental performance of countries, with some characterised as leaders and others as laggards. However, such rankings have been treated with scepticism, not only on methodological grounds but especially because they mean little in terms of the extent to which governments take environmental integration seriously. While it has been noted that, at different stages, some countries have been leaders in some areas of environmental integration, these efforts have not been sustained over time.

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inherent growth imperative. Others recognise this imperative as a problem but argue that it is possible to reform capitalism in a way that does not require growth, or that enables "green growth" based on the recognition of environmental limits. Many have pointed out that socialist economic systems have had even worse environmental records than capitalist systems, implying that socialism is no better alternative for the environment even apart from other considerations. However, this view is contested by those who argue that socialism as an economic system does not necessarily require an authoritarian system and that there is scope for creating democratic socialist systems that assign greater priority to collective interests, including environmental protection.

344:, and the management of these natural resources for future generations. Relatively recently, environmental policy has also attended to the communication of environmental issues. Environmental policies often address issues in one of three dimensions of the environment: ecological (for instance, policies aimed at protecting a particular species or natural areas), resource (for instance, related to energy, land, water), and the human environment (the environment modified or shaped by humans, for instance, urban planning, pollution). Environmental policy-making is often highly fragmented, although environmental policy analysts have long pointed out the need for the development of more comprehensive and integrated environmental policies. 35: 804:

constraining environmental policy. More broadly, the question of whether capitalism is compatible or not with long-term environmental protection has been a subject of debate. As, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the introduction of capitalism in China, capitalism became a globally dominant system, this question has become even more important to the future development of environmental policy at the national and international levels. As many analysts of global environmental politics have pointed out, the institutions for developing effective environmental policy at that level are weak and rather ineffective, as demonstrated by accounts of continuing environmental deterioration.

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environmental problems are interrelated, finding their roots in the interconnectedness of the environment itself and the failure of human societies to recognise that reality and to heed this in their behaviour and practices. These thinkers point out the need to take a "holistic", ecosystems or integrated approach to the management of the environment and the use of resources. Often, it is argued that such an approach was common to indigenous societies, but that this got pushed aside and lost with the rise of "modernity" and rational-analytic (scientific) thinking. In modern societies, nature has come to be seen, analysed and manipulated as a machine in the service of human ends.

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policies are reviewed and changed for political reasons and/or because they are deemed to be unsatisfactory. The various stages have become the focus of much research, generating insights into why and how policies have been developed and implemented, with variable outcomes and effectiveness. These studies show that policy development is more about the role of and interplay between conflicting interests than the result of rational analysis and finding and adopting (optimal) solutions to problems. One of the main schools of thought on this front is that of incrementalism, which argues that policy change often occurs in small steps that accommodate conflicting interests.

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environmental policies have addressed environmental problems more or less effectively remains a topic of debate. On the one hand, some take a very positive and optimistic view, arguing that, on many fronts, the environmental situation, especially as it affects humans, has improved. On the other hand, many scientists and scientific reports paint a bleak picture of where the world is going, based on deteriorating environmental indicators linked to global heating, declining biodiversity, pollution trends (including of new forms of pollution such as the spread of plastic nanoparticles), and ongoing resource degradation and decline (such as water and agricultural land).

492:, human societies have always impacted their environment, often with adverse consequences for themselves and the rest of nature. Their failure to (timely) recognise and address these problems has been a contributing factor to their decline and collapse. Although particular environmental problems like soil erosion, growing resource scarcity, air and water pollution increasingly became the subject of concern and government regulation in the 19th century, these were seen and addressed as separate issues. The shortcomings of this reactive and fragmented approach received growing recognition during the 1960s and early 1970s, the first wave of 705:

that "limited rationality" provided a more realistic basis for decision-making. This view has also been expressed by advocates of more comprehensive and integrated environmental policy development, who argued that looking at problems in isolation (on a one-by-one basis) ignores the linkages between environmental problems and their causes. In the late 1980s, "green planning" and the adoption of sustainable development strategies, in particular, received support in academic circles and among many governments as rational, goal-based policy approaches aimed at overcoming the limitations of the fragmented analycentric approach.

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assumption that an objective assessment of effects is possible, and that the knowledge generated will persuade decision-makers to make changes to proposals to mitigate or prevent adverse environmental effects. How EIA rules and processes are designed and implemented depends on regulation and is influenced by the political context. Eccleston and March argue that although policymakers normally have access to reasonably accurate environmental information, political and economic factors are important and often lead to policy decisions that rank environmental priorities of secondary importance.

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political and economic systems, and sectors like agriculture, energy, and transport. Increasingly, the tweaking of environmental and other policies is seen as inadequate, and there is growing recognition of the need for "transformative change". However, the interrelatedness of these systems raises questions about whether and/or how such transformative change can be achieved, which has led a growing number of environmental analysts, including scientists, to serious doubts and pessimism, although others argue that it remains possible for societies to do so.

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views and interpretations. For instance, there is a large body of research that looks at whether societies have moved or are moving towards "post-materialist" values, or to a New Environmental Paradigm. More broadly, the link between dominant worldviews and the way the environment is treated has been a focus of much debate. The rise and growing support for the environmental movement is often seen as a driver towards "greener" societies. If such socio-cultural trends hold, this is expected to lead governments to adopt stronger environmental policies.

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issues being adequately recognised and/or assigned political priority, including the role, privileged access, power and influence, and even dominance of (non-environmental) interest groups, bureaucratic thinking and interests, the lack of openness and transparency, (very) limited opportunities for public input and participation, and the short political horizon linked to electoral cycles. Many of these factors are not confined to liberal-democratic political systems but also play a role, perhaps even more so, in authoritarian political systems.

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pointed out, many other aspects of environmental policy are important. These include the goals and objectives of the policies (which may be deemed too vague, inadequate, poorly or wrongly targeted), their distributional effects (whether they contribute to or reduce environmental and social injustice), the kind of instruments used (for instance, their ethical and political dimensions), the processes by which policies have been developed (public participation and deliberation), and the extent to which they are institutionally supported.

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most common way policies are developed, but also the best way, as it avoids making big errors that could result from a "rational-comprehensive" approach. Also, over time, a series of small changes may add up and bring about significant and big change. Although incrementalism has been critiqued for its underlying assumptions and conservative implications ("tinkering"), and also for its failure to come to grips with environmental problems, it is a very recognisable approach to policy "improvement" in many countries.

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reconcile global objectives and international rules with domestic needs and laws. EPI is widely recognised as one of the key elements of sustainable development, and it was adopted as a formal requirement by the EU. More recently, the notion of "climate policy integration", also denoted as "mainstreaming", has been applied to indicate the integration of climate considerations (both mitigation and adaptation) into the broader (often economically focused) activities of government.

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emissions), water, and tradeable fisheries quota. They are based on the assumption that behaviour and practices are foremost driven by rationality, self-interest and economic considerations and that these motivations can be harnessed for environmental purposes. Decision-making studies cast doubt on these premises. Often, decisions are reached based on irrational influences, unconscious biases, illogical assumptions, and the desire to avoid or create ambiguity and uncertainty.

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waste, the use of water and energy, and using public transport), and voluntary agreements between governments and businesses. They share the aim of encouraging people to do "the right thing", to change their behaviour and practices, and to accept individual or group responsibility for addressing issues. Agreements between the government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of government requirements are examples of voluntary environmental measures.

935:, which aims at defining and implementing a transformative agenda to greening the economy and society as a whole so as to achieve "truly" sustainable development. The EU strategies, actions and programmes promote more and better research and innovation for building a resource-efficient, climate-resilient society and thriving economy which are meant to be in sync with the natural environment. Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme 7926: 829:

environmental considerations into all areas of human thinking, behaviour and practices that (potentially) affect the environment." This involves, among others, the development and adoption of an overarching view of the environment, an overarching policy to guide the "greening" of policies, and an institutional framework that gives "teeth" to environmental integration. In academic and government circles (notably the EU), much of the focus has been on environmental

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address environmental (and other) problems. This "technocentric" approach, which is seen as politically neutral, has been a preferred and dominant approach to "solving" environmental problems from the beginning of the environmental era, advocated by governments, businesses, and many environmentalists. The managerial approach also involves training "environmental practitioners" and policy analysts. Given the growing need for trained environmental practitioners,

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the various stages of the policy cycle to design more effective policies, to better consider the tools, rules and assumptions on which they are based, the groups at which they are targeted, contextual factors, as well as the nature (complexity) of the problem. Enhancing public input and participation is argued to have the potential to improve all stages of the policy cycle, including problem definition, decision-making, policy implementation, and evaluation.

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effects of human actions and interventions not just on a problem in isolation, but also their (potential) effects of other problems. More often than not, fragmented policies and "solutions", for instance, to combat pollution, lead to the displacement of environmental problems or the generation of new ones. The interconnectedness of the environmental challenge, it has been said, requires an approach that is "ecological rational" and environmentally effective.

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who receive such rights. They are, therefore, generally much preferred by affected resource users and industries, which explains their popularity since the rise of neoliberalism. This has led analysts to point out that there are many other important aspects to the choice of policy instruments than their efficiency and cost-effectiveness, such as distributional, ethical and political aspects, and their appropriateness for addressing environmental problems.

7853: 360:, environmental problems have long afflicted human societies and led to collective efforts to address these problems. Some longstanding problems have been the hunting of animals to extinction, soil erosion and salinisation (because of over-irrigation), and the adverse effects of some practices on human health (wood fires, unhygienic practices). In some cases, these practices contributed to the collapse of societies. 525:

protect the environment is greater than the private marginal benefit, but the social marginal cost is less than the social marginal benefit. The tragedy of the commons is the condition that, because no one person owns the commons, each individual has an incentive to utilize common resources as much as possible. Without governmental involvement, the commons is overused. Examples of tragedies of the commons are

939:, which is also open to participation worldwide. Yet, the "transition management" approach to sustainability has been critiqued for its a-political, technocratic and elitist nature. Also, Bucchi argues that the traditional technocentric approach no longer suffices as science has increasingly been commercialised and politicised and lost much of its image of neutrality that it enjoyed with the public at large. 177: 956:

identified: cognitive factors (the way(s) environmental problems have been interpreted (cognitive factors), linked to dominant belief and value systems; political factors (the nature of the prevailing political systems); and the nature of the prevailing economic systems. These three types of factors are not mutually exclusive, and analysts often combine them to provide more comprehensive explanations.

430:, sparked the beginning of the modern environmental movement. It also marked the start of "the environment" becoming a concern of public policy, as pointed out by Caldwell in 1963. These growing concerns, as well as the growing publicity about environmental problems and accidents, forced governments to introduce or strengthen laws and policies aimed at enhancing environmental protection. 294:. Environment refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take into consideration the social dimension (quality of life, health) and an economic dimension (resource management, biodiversity). Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or individual". Thus, environmental policy tends to focus on problems arising from 571:

associated redefinition of the role of the state (centred on the notion of governance rather than government), regulation has been touted as ineffective and inefficient, sparking a move toward deregulation and the adoption by many governments of "new" policy instruments, notably market instruments and voluntary agreements, also in the realm of environmental policy.

306:) requires looking at their connections and underlying and common sources, and how policies addressing particular problems can have spill-over effects on other problems and policies. "The environment" thus became a focus for public policy and environmental policy the term to refer to the way environmental issues were addressed more or less comprehensively. 550:

environmental policy on ecological principles has also been recognised by many environmental policy analysts, sometimes under the label of ecological rationality and/or environmental integration. From this perspective, political, economic, and other systems, as well as policies, need to be "greened" to make them ecologically rational.

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identification of the most cost-effective and efficient means by assessing alternative options. Technological innovation, more efficient management, and economic instruments such as cost-benefit analysis, environmental taxes, and tradeable permit schemes (market creation) have been among the preferred means in this approach.

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in shaping and advancing the dominant views and ideologies in societies has been an important focus of Marxist and critical theory that has also influenced the analysis of environmental policy formation. Ownership and control of the media play an important role in the formation of public opinion on environmental issues.

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businesses, notably the oil industry, in downplaying the risks associated with climate change or "climate denial." "Think tanks" and the media have been used to sow scepticism about the science behind environmental and other problems, to redefine issues, and to avert policies that threaten the interests of businesses.

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The field of Comparative Environment Policy and Politics aims to explain the differences in performance related to, among others, differences in political systems, institutions, policy styles and cultures. However, the environmental performance of governments remains commonly based on achievements in

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Moreover, as many environmental thinkers and policy analysts have pointed out, addressing environmental problems effectively requires an integrated approach. As the environment is an integrated whole or system, environmental policies need to take account of the interactions within that system and the

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The difficulties of policy evaluation also apply to environmental policies. Also there, policy evaluation is often approached in simple terms based on the extent to which the stated goals of a policy have been achieved or not ("success or failure"). However, as many environmental policy analysts have

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Other meta-policy research focuses on the different "environmental discourses" and how they compete for dominance in societies and worldwide. The power to influence or shape people's view of the world has been referred to as "cognitive power". The role of intellectuals, opinion leaders, and the media

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Regulation has been a traditional and predominant approach to policymaking in many policy areas and countries. It relies foremost on adopting rules (often backed up by legislation), to prohibit, impose or circumscribe human behaviour and practices. In the environmental policy area, this includes, for

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But as the way the environmental challenge is interpreted is closely linked to the dominant socio-cultural (value) system, the latter is also said to need fundamental change. There is a large body of literature on the role and importance of the dominant values in societies and the (possible) changes

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Much of the research and innovation sponsored by governments, businesses and international organisations under the heading of "transition management" is aimed at the gradual (incremental) development of new "transformative" technologies, for instance, in areas like energy, transport and agriculture.

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This holistic way of thinking has been picked up and developed under a variety of labels, including Holistic Resource Management, Integrated Environmental Management, Ecosystems Management, and the notion of Environmental Integration. Environmental integration, in broad terms, is "the integration of

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affects the development of environmental policies, at all stages of the policy cycle, from problem recognition, and the formulation of policy options, to decision-making, implementation and policy evaluation. However, much (meta-policy) research has been undertaken on what influences or shapes these

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can help tackling issues by conducting research to facilitate policy development, building institutional capacity, and facilitating independent dialogue with civil society to help people live more sustainable lifestyles. The need for a legal framework to recognize NGOs and enable them to access more

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Policy process analyses also include studies of the variety of actors and their influence on government decision-making. Although pluralism, the idea that not one group dominates all decision-making in modern societies, has long been the prevailing school of thought in political science, it has been

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Normative ("hortatory") instruments ("sermons") rely on persuasion and information. They include, among others, campaigns aimed at raising public awareness and enhancing knowledge of environmental problems, calls upon people to change their behaviour and practices (like taking up recycling, reducing

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In contrast to environmental policy, ecological policy addresses issues that focus on achieving benefits (both monetary and non monetary) from the non human ecological world. Broadly included in ecological policy is natural resource management (fisheries, forestry, wildlife, range, biodiversity, and

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That the way environmental problems predominantly are interpreted is a fundamental obstacle to addressing the environmental challenge effectively, has been pointed out already from the earliest stages of the rise of environmental awareness and thinking. Many early environmental thinkers argued that

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Over time, many governments have introduced laws to provide public access to government-held information, for instance, by the adoption of Freedom of Information legislation. Although a growing number of governments have adopted such legislation, a report by Privacy International notes that in many

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In line with the policy process perspective, many environmental advocates and analysts support improving the opportunities for public participation and input in the policy process, as well as increasing transparency. The policy design literature aims to pull together insights gained from studies of

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Reflecting the diversity of approaches to environmental policy development, influenced by contextual factors, policy perspectives, and political-ideological views, among others, there are also different views on how environmental policy could or should be improved. The three most common standpoints

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effectiveness of policies is measured by the extent to which they reduce or resolve environmental problems (ecological destruction and degradation, resource degradation and depletion, and adverse effects on humans by environmental modification, including by urban development and pollution). Whether

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integration (EPI), the process of integrating environmental objectives into non-environmental policy areas, such as energy, agriculture and transport, rather than leaving them to be pursued solely through "purely" environmental policies. This is often particularly challenging because of the need to

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Other meta-policy research relevant to the development of environmental policy focuses on institutional and systemic factors. For instance, the role of environmental institutions and their capacity and power within the broader systems of government is found to be an important factor in advancing or

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Meta-policy research focuses on the ways policy development is influenced or shaped by contextual factors, including political institutions and systems, socio-cultural patterns, economic systems, knowledge frameworks, discourses, and the changes therein. The latter may involve deliberate changes to

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For economic instruments to function, some form(s) of regulation are needed that involve policy design, for instance, related to the choice and level of taxation, who pays, who qualifies for rights or permits, and the rules on which trading, and a "market" depend for their functioning. For example,

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Regulation is often derogatorily referred to by detractors as a top-down, "command and control" approach as it leaves target groups with little if any control over the way(s) environmental activities or goals must be pursued. Since the 1980s, with the rise of neoliberalism in many countries and the

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Despite commonalities between countries in the development of environmental policies and institutions, they have also adopted different approaches in this area. In the 1970s, the field of Comparative Environmental Politics and Policy emerged to compare the environmental policies and institutions of

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These cognitive, social, political and economic factors are often referred to as systemic, meaning that overcoming these obstacles requires systemic, fundamental or transformative change, notably of the systems that are the sources and drivers of environmental pressures and problems, including the

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These political obstacles have generally led to a relative weakness in the power of government institutions (organisations and rules) advocating for environmental interests compared to non-environmental institutions and the circumscription of the power, role and influence of societal environmental

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Whether and how the dominant value systems and views on the environment can be purposefully changed by concerted social action aimed at assigning greater priority remains a matter of debate and uncertainty. On the one hand, the environmental movement has been touted as a "vanguard" in shifting the

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Incrementalism has been deemed to be the most common (standard) way governments change their policies with the stated aim of improving them. Propagated in particular by Charles Lindblom based on his view of American political reality, he argued that changing policies in small steps is not only the

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have the greatest influence on environmental policies. These days, many countries are facing huge environmental, social, and economic impacts of rapid population growth, development, and natural resource constraints. As NGOs try to help countries to tackle these issues more successfully, a lack of

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Policy process analysis has also been applied to environmental policy in its different stages. It has been used, for instance, to clarify why environmental issues have had difficulty reaching or staying on the public and political agendas. More recently, research has revealed the role and power of

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The analycentric approach to environmental policy analysis, which focuses on particular issues and uses mostly quantitative methods to identify "optimal" (cost-effective or efficient) solutions, has been the prevalent way to address environmental problems, both by governments and businesses. It is

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However, although regulation, taxation and market instruments can be equally (in-) effective, they may differ significantly in the allocation and distribution of (potential) costs and benefits, with the allocation of tradeable ("property") rights potentially generating significant profits to those

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is a tool that relies foremost on the gathering of knowledge and information about (potential) environmental effects. It originated in the United States but has been adopted in many countries to analyse and assess the potential impacts of projects. Usually undertaken by experts, it is based on the

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Although many different policy instruments can be identified, and many ways of classifying them have been put forward, very broadly, a minimalist approach distinguishes three kinds or categories of policy instruments: regulation, economic instruments, and normative or "hortatory" approaches. These

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which may be discharged into a river, ultimately contaminating water. The cost of such action is paid by society at large when they must clean the water before drinking it and is external to the costs of the polluter. The free rider problem occurs when the private marginal cost of taking action to

440:, then a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin, after witnessing the ravages of the 1969 massive oil spill in Santa Barbara, California, became famous for his environmental work. Administrator Ruckelshaus was confirmed by the Senate on December 2, 1970, which is the traditional date used as the birth of the 743:

It has been argued that notwithstanding Reagan's efforts to undo environmental regulation in the US, the effects have been limited as environmental interests were already strongly entrenched. Under President Trump, again, many environmental regulations have been dismantled or were scheduled to be

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policies are made and put into practice. It commonly involves identifying a variable number of steps, including problem definition and agenda setting, the formulation and selection of policy options, implementation, and evaluation. These are conceived as being parts of a policy cycle, as existing

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policy) ignores the way policies are developed in (political) practice. Third, the preferred means are often based on questionable assumptions notably about human behaviour. Many of the limitations of the rational approach were already acknowledged by an early proponent, Herbert Simon, who argued

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has demonstrated, this is not supported by evidence on how societies actually make resource decisions. The market-failure theory also assumes that "markets" have, or should have precedence over governments in collective decision-making, which is an ideological position that was challenged by Karl

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In the 19th century, the growing impact of human development and practices on the environment became increasingly apparent. Deforestation, the decline and extinction of birds, the decline of aesthetics in landscapes and cities, large-scale mining (notably of coal), industrial pollution, and urban

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Other analysts emphasise the importance of economic systems, notably capitalism, as a fundamental obstacle to developing and adopting effective environmental policies. Some take the view that capitalism is fundamentally incompatible with long-term environmental protection, notably because of its

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The importance of the nature of political systems for the development of environmental (and other) policies has been the subject of much research, including in the field of Comparative Environmental Policy. Analysts have pointed out a broad range of factors that stand in the way of environmental

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In practice, governments have adopted a wide range of approaches to the development and implementation of environmental policies. To a large extent, differences in approaches have been influenced and shaped by the particular political, economic and social context of a country or polity (like the

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In the European Union, the very first Environmental Action Programme was adopted by national government representatives in July 1973 during the first meeting of the Council of Environmental Ministers. Since then an increasingly dense network of legislation has developed, which now extends to all

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research shows that climate-related projects and policies that involve women are more effective. Policies, projects and investments without meaningful participation by women are less effective and often increase existing gender inequalities. Women found climate solutions that cross political or

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As incrementalism does not question the political-economic status quo, its suggestions for policy improvement are foremost of a managerial or technological kind. Tinkering with policy and management tools, and technological innovation, are seen as the main and most desirable ("win-win") ways to

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Differences in approaches to environmental policy development and design, including the selection of policy instruments, linked to different historical, political-economic and socio-cultural contexts, and the inevitable role and influence of different cognitive and ideological frameworks in the

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The effectiveness of hortatory instruments has also been under debate. Policies relying foremost on such instruments may amount to little more than symbolic policies, implying that governments have little or no intention to effectively address an issue while creating the impression of taking it

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argue that economic policies should be developed within a theoretical framework that recognises the biophysical reality. The economic system is a sub-system of the biophysical environmental system on which humans and other species depend for their well-being and survival. The need for grounding

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A third approach to improving environmental policy is based on the view that meaningful progress on resolving environmental problems requires fundamental or systemic change, in particular of the prevailing socio-cultural, political and economic systems. Three categories of factors are commonly

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As many policy analysts have pointed out, judging the merits of policies goes beyond an assessment of the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the policy instruments used. In the realm of public policy, policy evaluation is a topic that is seen as much more encompassing and complex. Apart from

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Different instruments are sometimes combined in a policy mix to address a particular environmental problem. Since environmental issues have many aspects, several policy instruments may be required to adequately address each one. Ideally, government policies are carefully formulated so that the

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Although, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many governments began to adopt a more comprehensive approach to environmental issues, notably in the form of National Sustainable Development Strategies and "Green Planning", these efforts were largely abandoned during the 1990s due to the rise to

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In December 1997 Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (PEPA'97) was signed and promulgated by the President of Pakistan. It provides for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, for the prevention and control of pollution, and promotion of sustainable

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policy development. While scientific analyses and (preferably) quantitative data provide knowledge of the more immediate sources or causes of environmental problems, such as forms of pollution and climate change, policy prescriptions are based on setting goals, objectives and targets and the

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There has been much debate about the relative merits of the various kinds of policy instruments. Market instruments are often held up and used as a more efficient and cost-effective, alternative to regulation. Yet, many analysts have pointed out that regulation, economic incentives, "market"

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Economic instruments involve the imposition or use of economic incentives, including (environmental) taxes, tax exemptions, fees, subsidies, and the creation of markets and rights for trading in substances, pollutants, resources, or activities, such as for SO2, CO2 (carbon or greenhouse gas

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policy, defined broadly as "What governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes, became an important strand in political science. This variety, which has been classified into analycentric, policy process, and meta-policy categories, has also manifested itself in the area of

298:, which is important to human society by having a (negative) impact on human values. Such human values are often labeled as good health or the 'clean and green' environment. In practice, policy analysts provide a wide variety of types of information to the public decision-making process. 5067:

Farah, Paolo Davide; Rossi, Piercarlo (December 2, 2011). "National Energy Policies and Energy Security in the Context of Climate Change and Global Environmental Risks: A Theoretical Framework for Reconciling Domestic and International Law Through a Multiscalar and Multilevel Approach".

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The "market failure" rationale for environmental policy has been criticised for its implicit assumptions about the drivers of human behaviour, which are considered to be rooted in the idea that societies are nothing but collections of self-interested "utility-maximising" individuals. As

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groups, including green parties, if not their co-optation by the dominant powers and vested interests. This also affects the "environmental capacity" of political systems, severely limiting efforts to develop more comprehensive and integrated approaches to the environmental challenge.

496:. This was reflected in the creation, in many countries, of environmental agencies, policies and legislation with the aim of taking a more comprehensive and integrated approach to environmental issues. In 1972, the need for this was also recognised at the international level at the 380:

movement of poets, authors and artists from the early 18th century, a movement that lamented the despoliation of nature by industrialism. Building on these early forms of concern about nature, organisations aimed at the preservation of forests, birds and landscapes emerged in the

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development. PEPA'97 covers nearly all issues from pollution generation to pollution prevention, monitoring to confiscation, compliance to violation, and prosecution to penalization. However, results of this legislation are subjected to virtuous and unadulterated implementation.

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the formal and non-formal institutions through which policy analysis, development, decision-making, and implementation occur, such as the introduction of rules for cost-benefit analysis, risk analysis, consultation and accountability requirements, and organisational change.

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instance, the imposition of limits or standards for air and water pollution, car emissions, the regulation or banning of the use of hazardous substances, the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances, waste disposal, and laws to protect endangered species and natural areas.

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How environmental policies are made, how effective they are, and how they can or should be improved, has become the subject of considerable research and debate. In the academic realm, these questions are commonly addressed under the label of environmental policy analysis.

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Concerns about pollution and its threat to humans as well as nature has provided another major stimulus for the development of environmental policies. In 1863, in the United Kingdom, health problems arising from the release of harmful chemicals led to the adoption of the

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to address environmental issues. UNEP is the leading global environmental authority tasked with policy guidance for environmental programs. The UNEP monitors environmental aspects, such as waste management, energy use, greenhouse gas inventory, and water use to promote

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contested by elite theories that assign predominant power to elites in different areas or sectors of decision-making. To what extent environmental groups have had influence on government decisions and policies continues to be a subject of debate. Some argue that

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and the Sky Trust are proposals based on the idea. In the case of corporations, it is assumed that such tools make it financially rewarding to engage in efficient environmental management that also improves business and organizational performance They also

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individual measures do not undermine one another or create a rigid and cost-ineffective framework. Overlapping policies result in unnecessary administrative costs, increasing the cost of implementation. To help governments realize their policy goals, the

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The role of science and scientists in policy environmental policy development has been another focus of research. Scientists have been instrumental in discovering many environmental problems, from the damaging effects of the use of pesticides, the

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IPCC, Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (2021),

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policy. Many approaches are derived from the broader field of public policy analysis which emerged as a scientific enterprise after WWII. While policy analysis as a decision-making tool continued to be applied in the business sector, the study of

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Polanyi whose historical analysis shows how the idea of a self-regulating market was politically created. He added that "Such an institution could not exist for any length of time without annihilating the human and natural substance of society."

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in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, these efforts, combined with concerns about dwindling timber supplies, were instrumental in the establishment of the first nature reserves, national and forest parks and to changes in forestry laws.

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Market-based policy instruments also have their supporters and detractors. Among the detractors, for example, some environmentalists contend that a more radical, overarching approach is needed than a set of specific initiatives, to deal with

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prominence of neoliberal thinking, policies and reforms. This development led to the return of the fragmented and reactive approach to environmental problems with an emphasis on climate change and the use of "market-based" instruments.

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have also been referred to as "sticks, carrots and sermons". Vedung, based on Majone's classification of power, argues that the main difference underlying these categories is the degree of coercion (authoritative force) involved.

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The concept of environmental policy was first used in the 1960s to recognise that all environmental problems, like the environment itself, are interconnected. Addressing environmental problems effectively (such as air, water, and

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understanding about their role in civil society and the public perception that the government alone is responsible for the well-being of its citizens and residents makes NGOs tasks more difficult to achieve. NGOs such as

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The analycentric or rational approach has been critiqued on various grounds. First, it assumes that there is adequate knowledge and agreement on the causes of problems and the goals to be achieved. Second, the approach

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measures may actually increase energy consumption in the absence of a cap on fossil fuel use, as people might drive more fuel-efficient cars. To combat this result, Aubrey Meyer calls for a 'framework-based market' of

504:. Thus, growing environmental awareness and concern provided the main rationale for the adoption of environmental policies and institutions by governments. Environmental protection became a focus of public policy. 444:(EPA). Five months earlier, in July 1970, President Nixon had signed Reorganization Plan No. 3 calling for the establishment of EPA. At the time, environmental policy was a bipartisan issue and the efforts of the 5292:

Knill, Christoph, Stephan Heichel and Daniel Arndt (2012), "Really a Front-Runner, Really a Straggler? Of Environmental Leaders and Laggards in the European Union and Beyond — a Quantitative Policy Perspective",

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In many countries, governments created environment ministries, departments or agencies, and appointed ministers of or for the environment. The world's first minister of the environment was the British Politician

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This rationale for environmental policy is broader than that provided by some interpretations based on economic theories. The rationale for governmental involvement in the environment is often attributed to

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diverse funding sources, high-level support/endorsement from local figureheads, and engaging NGOs in policy development and implementation is more important as environmental issues continue to increase.

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Vedung, Evert and Frans C. J. Van der Doelen (1998), "The Sermon: Information Programs in the Public Policy Process--Choice, Effects, Evaluation", in J. Bemelmans-Videc, G. Rist and E. Vedung (eds.),

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National Strategies for Sustainable Development: Good Practices in OECD Countries. Report Presented at the OECD Annual Meeting of Sustainable Development Experts, Paris 3–4 October. Sg/Sd(2005)6,

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made it an early environmental leader. During this period, legislation was passed to regulate pollutants that go into the air, water tables, and solid waste disposal. President Nixon signed the

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A nonprofit and nonpartisan organization that conducts independent research—rooted primarily in economics and other social sciences—on environmental, energy, and natural resource issues.

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Linder, Stephen. and Guy. Peters (1990), "The Design of Instruments for Public Policy", in S. Nagel (ed.) Policy Theory and Policy Exclusion. New York: Greenwood Press, pp.113-119.

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including air pollution control, water protection and waste policy but also nature conservation and the control of chemicals, biotechnology and other industrial risks.

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are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to influence human activities and thereby prevent undesirable effects on the

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ISBN 978-3-319-58618-2 2796:The Policy Process in the Modern Capitalist State 2754:Environmental Policy in Search of New Instruments 2527:Economic Instruments for Environmental Protection 1883:Debunking Economics. The Naked Emperor Dethroned? 1571:Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed 1444:Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed 1420:. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. 1158:Environmental Policy Analysis for Decision Making 853: 7950: 7378: 4945:Cortner, H. Hanna and Margaret A. Moote (1998), 4194:. Oxford England. 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Vanguard for a New Society 5723:"Five Reasons Why Climate Action Needs Women" 5031:. National Economic and Social Council. 4601:. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press. 4595:United Nations Environment Programme (2019), 4499:"Ecosystems and human well-being - Synthesis" 4127:Environmentalists. Vanguard for a New Society 3982:"Environmentalism, Values, and Social Change" 2823:(15th ed.). Boston: Pearson. p. 1. 2343:. New Brunswick, USA: Transaction Publishers. 1872:. Random House, Chapter 3. ISBN 9781473517813 1750:Handbook of Globalization and the Environment 1188:"Environment: A New Focus for Public Policy?" 1155: 638:United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 442:United States Environmental Protection Agency 200: 6685:. London ; Concord, Mass.: Pluto Press. 5752:Scarborough, Ontario: ITP Press, pp.171-200. 5186:. Tauranga: Fantail Publications, Chapter 3. 5140:Falloux, Francois and Lee M. Talbot (1993), 5070:European Energy and Environmental Law Review 4770:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 3979: 3869:Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society 3810:Langley, Chris and Stuart Parkinson (2009), 2794:Ham, Christopher; Hill, Christopher (1984). 2553:Public Policies for Environmental Protection 1643: 1261:. Albany, NY: Suny Press. pp. 204–210. 6555:London and New York: Routledge, pp.111-150. 5943:Environment: A Challenge for Modern Society 5339:. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green. 4888:Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control 4284:The International Encyclopedia of Geography 3968:Dos Algarves: A Multidisciplinary e-Journal 2858: 1281: 782: 7371: 7357: 7049: 7035: 5425:. Unesco (Retrieved: 28 March 2024). 5066: 5023:Mullally, Gerard and Niall Dunphy (2015), 4779:Low, Nicholas and Brendan Gleeson (1998), 3774:"Technical disputes: Why experts disagree" 3624:. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 014022404 1 3369:Gilens, Martin; Page, Benjamin I. (2014). 3368: 1514:(3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA. 1433:. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. 1405:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History 207: 193: 6972: 6840:Speth, James Gustave (2008, e-book ed.), 6772:Magdoff, Fred and Chris Williams (2017), 6759:Foster, John Bellamy (1999, Kindle ed.), 6750:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 6469:Review of International Political Economy 5573:O'Riordan, Timothy (1981, 2nd rev. ed.), 5548:. New York: Praeger Publishers, pp.49-60. 4550: 3880: 3771: 3606:Handbook of Global Environmental Politics 3535:"Regulatory Tracker - Harvard Law School" 3278:. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 9780385535601 2888:Copenhagen: European Environment Agency, 2081: 1952: 1798: 1623:(repr ed.). London: Earthscan Publ. 1345: 1099: 1039: 5323:. Tauranga: Fantail Publications, 41-46. 5157:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 4378: 4318:Institutions in Environmental Management 4314: 3980:Cotgrove, Stephen; Duff, Andrew (1981). 3079: 3068:Policy Analysis for the Real World 3040:Johnson, Huey D. (1995, 2008, 3rd ed.), 2029: 1185: 925:advocacy organizations, and universities 6853:Oreskes, Naomi and Eric Conway (2014), 6746:Economy, Elizabeth (2010, e-book ed.), 6521: 6519: 6505: 6503: 6352:The Mass Media and Environmental Issues 6281: 6279: 6265: 6263: 5664:. New York: Greenwood Press, pp.77-101. 5569: 5567: 5501: 5499: 5288: 5286: 5178: 5176: 4812:, Vol.131, No.Supplement C, pp.353-360. 4701: 4699: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4591: 4589: 4572: 4570: 4520: 4518: 4492: 4490: 4348: 4346: 4271:The Mass Media and Environmental Issues 4258:The Mass Media and Environmental Issues 3835: 3833: 3724: 3692:Science, Technology, & Human Values 3685: 3616: 3614: 3422:"The Role of NGOs in Global Governance" 3210: 3208: 3018:. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781315870168 2793: 2472:London ; Portland, OR: Frank Cass. 2446:Westport, Connecticut, London: Praeger. 1618: 1593: 1568: 1320: 1122:Bührs, Ton; Bartlett, Robert V (1991). 871:throughout the world offer specialized 14: 7951: 7021:http://www.environmentalpolicy.com.au/ 6857:. New York: Columbia University Press. 6313:European Journal of Political Research 6287:European Journal of Political Research 6164:The Journal of Environmental Education 5590:. Aldershot, Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate. 4720:Science, Technology & Human Values 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4138: 3926:The Journal of Environmental Education 3919: 3858:. Union of Concerned Scientists. 3852:Union of Concerned Scientists (2004), 3558: 3469: 3286: 3284: 2926: 2924: 2843: 2781:The Policy Process in the Modern State 2735: 2733: 2719: 2717: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2496:European Journal of Political Research 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2335: 2333: 2159:. 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Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 6516: 6500: 6456:British Journal of Political Science 6391:British Journal of Political Science 6276: 6260: 5919:. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 5750:he Environment and Canadian Society. 5564: 5496: 5422:Imminent Risk of Global Water Crisis 5283: 5278:2016 Environmental Performance Index 5173: 5170:. London: Allen Lane, Penguin Books. 4947:The Politics of Ecosystem Management 4823:The Environment and Canadian Society 4746:The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy 4696: 4622: 4604: 4586: 4567: 4515: 4487: 4343: 3830: 3646: 3611: 3205: 3073: 2932:The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis 2778: 1976: 1942: 1523:Lundqvist, Lennart J. (1974), 1282:Emmott, N.; Haigh, N. (1996-01-01). 1252: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1111: 758:and hosting conferences such as the 756:United Nations Environment Programme 502:United Nations Environment Programme 176: 5971:. London: HarperCollins (Flamingo). 4849:Integrated Environmental Management 4210: 3290:Oreskes, Naomi and Erik M. Conway, 3281: 3082:"The Science of "Muddling Through"" 2956:Simon, Herbert A. (1961, 2nd ed.), 2921: 2818: 2730: 2727:. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp.294-308. 2714: 2571: 2355: 2330: 2327:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 2020: 1530: 500:, which led to the creation of the 24: 6273:New York: Oxford University Press. 6177:Value Change in Global Perspective 5958:. Washington, D. C.: Island Press. 5507:Political Theory and Public Policy 5225:. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. 5210:Comparative Environmental Politics 5098:. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 193-194. 4680:. Berlin; New York: W. de Gruyter. 4433:"Strengthening the United Nations" 3790:10.1111/j.1541-1338.1982.tb00492.x 3731:Environmental Science & Policy 3335:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1990.tb01495.x 2659: 2501: 2271: 2191: 2135:Comparative Environmental Politics 767:and address environmental issues. 25: 7975: 7056: 6987:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 6925: 6789:. New York: Monthly Review Press. 6776:. New York: Monthly Review Press. 6763:. New York: Monthly Review Press. 6529:. London and New York: Zed Books. 6023:New York: Henry Holt and Company. 6010:, Vol.155, No.3767, pp.1203-1207. 5997:. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. 5967:Capra, Fritjof (1982, 1983 ed.), 5308:Journal of European Public Policy 4949:. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. 4920:. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. 4497:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2223:. Melbourne: Scribe Publications. 2172:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 1243: 1240:, 25: 2, March 2009 , pp. 119–38. 1174: 1108: 226:. These issues generally include 7936: 7924: 7912: 7862: 7861: 7851: 7467: 6992:Library of Economics and Liberty 6908: 6895: 6886: 6873: 6860: 6847: 6834: 6821: 6808: 6792: 6779: 6766: 6753: 6740: 6727: 6722:Environmental Policy in the USSR 6714: 6701: 6688: 6675: 6662: 6649: 6636: 6623: 6610: 6597: 6584: 6579:Ecopolitics - Thought and Action 6571: 6558: 6545: 6532: 6497:Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. 6487: 6474: 6461: 6448: 6435: 6422: 6409: 6396: 6383: 6370: 6357: 6344: 6331: 6318: 6305: 6292: 6247: 6234: 6221: 6208: 6195: 6182: 6169: 6156: 6142: 6129: 6116: 6087: 6074: 6065: 6052: 6039: 6026: 6013: 6000: 5987: 5974: 5961: 5948: 5935: 5922: 5909: 5896: 5883: 5870: 5857: 5844: 5841:(English edition), August, p.16. 5831: 5811: 5794: 5781: 5768: 5755: 5742: 5729: 5715: 5691: 5667: 5654: 5641: 5628: 5619: 5606: 5593: 5580: 5551: 5538: 5525: 5512: 5483: 5470: 5457: 5444: 5428: 5413: 5398: 5385: 5371: 5358: 5313: 5300: 5270: 5241: 5228: 5215: 5202: 5189: 5160: 5147: 5134: 5121: 5101: 5088: 5060: 5057:. 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New York: St. Martin's Press. 6341:New York: Monthly Review Press. 6139:. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 6019:Fromm, Erich (1941, 1969 ed.), 5366:Against Environmental Pessimism 5010:Lenschow, Andrea (ed.) (2002), 3355:Domhoff, G.W. (2014, 7th ed.), 2812: 2787: 2772: 2759: 2746: 2701: 2688: 2675: 2646: 2633: 2624: 2611: 2598: 2589: 2558: 2545: 2532: 2519: 2488: 2475: 2462: 2449: 2436: 2423: 2410: 2397: 2388: 2375: 2346: 2317: 2304: 2291: 2239: 2226: 2213: 2162: 2149: 2140: 2127: 2113: 2100: 2075: 2050: 1995: 1970: 1936: 1923: 1888: 1875: 1862: 1817: 1792: 1779: 1752:, Routledge, pp. 155–176, 1737: 1712: 1698:. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. 1687: 1662: 1637: 1612: 1587: 1562: 1517: 1504: 1501:Tauranga: Fantail Publications. 1491: 1478: 1449: 1436: 1423: 1410: 1397: 1384: 1358: 1339: 1314: 1275: 808:Environmental policy evaluation 613:Environmental Impact Assessment 296:human impact on the environment 6646:. World Economics Association. 5199:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 4783:. London; New York: Routledge. 4385:International Critical Thought 4315:Hukkinen, Janne (2006-09-27). 4053:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.09.009 2236:. London: UCL Press, pp.21-42. 1901:. Cambridge University Press. 1541:Canadian Public Administration 1226: 1149: 1140: 1093: 1058: 1040:Eccleston, Charles H. (2010). 1033: 854:Improving environmental policy 728:Non-Governmental organizations 332:protection, the protection of 13: 1: 6916:Global Environmental Politics 6829:American Behavioral Scientist 6607:, Vol.45, No.9, pp.1340-1368. 6605:American Behavioral Scientist 6568:. London: Routledge, pp.4-22. 6337:McChesney, Robert W. (2014), 6216:Society and Natural Resources 6097:, Vol.31, No.1-2, pp.130-146. 6034:The Consequences of Modernity 5865:Global Environmental Politics 5739:, Vol.39, No.4, pp.886 - 905. 5561:, Vol.12, No.3/4, pp.118-136. 5491:Public Administration Review, 5478:The Intelligence of Democracy 5476:Lindblom, Charles E. (1965), 5407:2023 World Air Quality Report 4860:Margerum, Richard D. (1996), 4397:10.1080/21598282.2017.1357487 4157:10.1080/09644016.2015.1090370 3881:Inglehart, Ronald F. (2008). 3841:The Roots of Environmentalism 3181:Goldenberg, Suzanne (2013), " 3159:, Vol.18, No.5, pp.781 - 799. 3080:Lindblom, Charles E. (1959). 3014:Dalal-Clayton, D. B. (1996), 2312:Global Environmental Politics 1895:Ostrom, Elinor (2015-09-23). 1367:"Axioms of ecological policy" 1026: 652:Environmental policy analysis 281: 7964:Environmental social science 7380:Environmental social science 6944:Responding to Climate Change 6831:, Vol.45, No.9, pp.1318-1339 6720:Ziegler, Charles E. (1989), 6430:Capitalism Nature, Socialism 6060:The Politics of Mass Society 6058:Kornhauser, William (1960), 5603:, Vol.9, No.3-4, pp.315-331. 5520:Public Administration Review 5452:Public Administration Review 5395:, 7, 10.1126/sciadv.1700782. 4997:European Commission (2020), 4918:Holistic Resource Management 4838:. 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New York: Pantheon Books. 6302:, Vol.11, No.1, pp.133-145. 6218:, Vol.13, No.3, pp.237-259. 6153:, Vol.56, No.3, pp.425-442. 5791:, Vol.42, No.4, pp.341-368. 5778:, Vol.31, No.3, pp.656-679. 5634:Bucchi, Massimiono (2009), 5616:, Vol.42, No.4, pp.323-340. 5535:, Vol.17, No.2, pp.139-153. 5522:, Vol.39, No.6, pp.545-552. 5480:. New York: The Free Press. 5467:. New York: The Free Press. 5310:, Vol.16, No.5, pp.677-700. 5267:, Vol.31, No.2, pp.107-131. 5251:, Vol.14, No.1, pp.128-130. 4936:, Vol.19, No.2, pp.167-181. 4722:, Vol.25, No.3, pp.309-331. 4203:Torgerson, Douglas (1999), 3823:Bucchi, Massimiono (2009), 3426:www.worldpoliticsreview.com 3133:, Vol.39, No.6, pp.517-526. 2905:. New York: The Free Press. 2861:Journal of Economic Surveys 2821:Understanding Public Policy 2621:. New York, Academic Press. 2498:, Vol.42, No.4, pp.569-600. 2420:, Vol.45, No.2, pp.186-197. 2268:, Vol.17, No.3, pp.349-385. 2245:Goldenberg, Suzanne(2013), 2044:10.5840/enviroethics1986833 1954:10.4337/9781783479979.00005 1947:, Edward Elgar Publishing, 1799:Rushefsky, Mark E. (2002). 1744:Nelson, Lisa (2017-09-25), 1543:, Vol.17, No.1, pp.119-141. 1459:, Vol.59, No.2, pp.131-151. 1431:A Short History of Progress 1403:Kolbert, Elizabeth (2014), 987: 913:international organizations 905:natural resource management 760:United Nations Earth Summit 752:International organizations 709:The policy process approach 590:Contraction and Convergence 414:was adopted in the wake of 10: 7980: 7404:Environmental anthropology 6642:Smith, Richard A. (2015), 6480:Paterson, Matthew (2000), 6471:, Vol.5, No.4, pp.679-703. 6365:Media, Culture and Society 6289:, Vol.45, No.1, pp.99-125. 6244:, Vol.3, No.3, pp.369-394. 6192:, Vol.269, No.5222, p.354. 6126:, Vol.8, No.1, pp.222-242. 6080:Inglehart, Ronald (1977), 5915:Cotgrove, Stephen (1982), 5854:, Vol.7, No.3, pp.255-271. 5586:Sutton, Philip W. (2000), 5044:. Albany: SUNY Press, p.1. 4975:, Vol.6, No.3, pp.724-727. 4582:10.1038/s41586-023-06083-8 4445:10.1002/9781118326213.ch19 4417:Smith, Richard A. (2015), 4190:Hajer, Maarten A. (1995), 4112:Cotgrove, Stephen (1982), 3867:Inglehart, Ronald (1990), 3704:10.1177/016224398300800103 3653:International Organization 3303:Dahl, Robert Alan (1961), 3005:, Vol.9, No.2, pp.102-125. 2947:, Vol.4, No.2, pp.127-153. 2608:Albany: SUNY Press, 42-54. 2061:. Albany, NY: Suny Press. 1838:10.1109/ICBEE.2010.5649533 1569:Diamond, Jared M. (2006). 1442:Diamond, Jared M. (2005), 351: 260:Policies concerning energy 7847: 7696: 7476: 7465: 7386: 7285: 7064: 6737:. Boulder: Westview Press 6694:Mathews, John A. (2014), 6594:, Vol.54, No.1, pp.27-46. 6513:, Vol.13, No.3, pp.52-72. 6493:Eckersley, Robyn (2004), 6432:, Vol.3, No.20, pp.18-42. 6406:, Vol.25, No.1, pp.69-91. 6376:Muttitt, Greg (No date), 6201:Milbrath, Lester (1984), 6166:, Vol.40, No.1, pp.19-28. 6032:Giddens, Anthony (1990), 5906:. New York: Alfred Knopf. 5800:Willis, Rebecca (2021), " 5493:Vol.27, No.5, pp.385-392. 5454:, Vol.19, No.2, pp.79-88. 4999:Environmental Integration 4733:Improving Policy Analysis 4379:Liodakis, George (2017). 4286:. Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 4125:Milbrath, Lester (1984), 4092:10.1080/00201747308601682 3920:Dunlap, Riley E. (2008). 3899:10.1080/01402380701834747 3778:Review of Policy Research 3665:10.1017/s0020818300001442 3407:Wright Mills, C. (1956), 3387:10.1017/s1537592714001595 3317:Smith, Martin J. (1990). 3254:10.1080/09644010802055576 3172:, Vol.64, No.1, pp.40-53. 2743:Vol.47, No.4, pp.573-596. 2685:Vol.49, No.3, pp.327-349. 2656:Vol.54, No.2, pp.175-195. 2314:, Vol.16, No.1, pp.79-98. 2301:, Vol.42, No.1, pp.73-89. 2082:Eckersley, Robyn (2004). 1669:Desai, Uday, ed. (2002). 1321:Johnson, Huey D. (2008). 1160:. Springer. p. 330. 7434:Environmental psychology 7338:Public policy by country 6950:Resources for the Future 6870:. New York: Basic Books. 6866:Rees, Martin J. (2003), 6733:Peterson, D. J. (1993), 6681:Jacobs, Michael (1991), 6655:Williams, Chris (2010), 6581:, Vol.1, No.3, pp.28-40. 6538:Shapiro, Judith (2001), 6315:, Vol.45, No.1, pp.1-33. 6151:Journal of Social Issues 5993:Ophuls, William (1997), 5902:Commoner, Barry (1972), 5679:European Investment Bank 5195:Meckling, Jonas (2011), 5131:, Vol.7, No.2, pp.27-54. 4962:, Vol.8, No.1, pp.27-38. 4934:Environmental Management 4903:Dryzek, John S. (1987), 4177:Dryzek, John S. (1997), 3772:Rushefsky, Mark (1982). 3375:Perspectives on Politics 2769:, Vol.12, No.1, pp.27-+. 2617:Edelman, Murray (1971), 2481:Sterner, Thomas (2003), 2288:, Vol.19, No.2, pp.1-21. 2002:Dryzek, John S. (1992). 1977:Daly, Herman E. (2000). 1907:10.1017/cbo9781316423936 1646:Topsoil and civilization 1559:. New York: David McKay. 1418:Topsoil and Civilization 1100:McCormick, John (2001). 1044:. Taylor & Francis. 1000:Environmental governance 783:The meta-policy approach 490:environmental historians 470:environmental protection 446:United States of America 358:environmental historians 7439:Environmental sociology 7414:Environmental economics 7394:Ecological anthropology 6135:Shiva, Vandana (1991), 5889:Capra, Fritjof (2002), 5876:Banisar, David (2006), 5867:, Vol.8, No.2, pp.8-13. 5577:. London: Pion Limited. 5351:Lomborg, Bjørn (2001), 5335:AtKisson, Alan (1999), 5276:Hsu, A. et al. 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Henderson 6966:2019-11-10 at the 6393:, Vol.29, pp.1-31. 5904:The Closing Circle 3488:10.1007/bf00141322 3357:Who Rules America? 1868:Raworth, K. 2017. 931:An example is the 514:free rider problem 462:Conservative Party 420:Great Smog of 1952 412:Clean Air Act 1956 356:As pointed out by 342:endangered species 270:and many types of 256:endangered species 7900: 7899: 7739:Green criminology 7499:Community studies 7454:Political ecology 7346: 7345: 7271: 7264: 7257: 7218: 7211: 7182: 7175: 7156: 7149: 7142: 7135: 7128: 7121: 7114: 7100: 6724:. London: Pinter. 6592:Political Science 4667:, Vol.11, pp.3-4. 4537:(12): 1026–1028. 4454:978-0-470-67324-9 4336:978-1-134-71243-4 3970:, No.23, pp.4-26. 3323:Political Studies 2830:978-0-13-416997-2 2418:Political Science 2093:978-0-262-05074-6 2068:978-1-4384-2607-5 2013:978-0-631-15574-4 1988:978-0-8070-4708-8 1964:978-1-78347-997-9 1916:978-1-107-56978-2 1847:978-1-4244-8748-6 1810:978-0-7656-1663-0 1787:Environmental Law 1767:978-1-315-09325-3 1730:978-3-540-43158-9 1705:978-3-540-61519-4 1680:978-0-262-54137-4 1630:978-1-85383-213-0 1605:978-0-14-016642-2 1580:978-0-670-03337-9 1348:Environmental Law 1268:978-1-4384-2607-5 1167:978-0-306-48023-2 1010:Normative science 889:environmental law 777:greenhouse effect 585:energy efficiency 488:As documented by 334:natural resources 262:or regulation of 248:natural resources 242:, maintenance of 217: 216: 16:(Redirected from 7971: 7941: 7940: 7929: 7928: 7917: 7916: 7908: 7865: 7864: 7855: 7787:natural resource 7471: 7459:Regional science 7373: 7366: 7359: 7350: 7349: 7303:Public budgeting 7267: 7260: 7253: 7214: 7207: 7180:Renewable energy 7178: 7171: 7152: 7145: 7138: 7131: 7124: 7117: 7110: 7096: 7051: 7044: 7037: 7028: 7027: 6995: 6990:(1st ed.). 6919: 6912: 6906: 6899: 6893: 6890: 6884: 6877: 6871: 6864: 6858: 6851: 6845: 6838: 6832: 6825: 6819: 6812: 6806: 6796: 6790: 6783: 6777: 6770: 6764: 6757: 6751: 6744: 6738: 6731: 6725: 6718: 6712: 6705: 6699: 6692: 6686: 6679: 6673: 6666: 6660: 6653: 6647: 6640: 6634: 6627: 6621: 6614: 6608: 6601: 6595: 6588: 6582: 6575: 6569: 6562: 6556: 6549: 6543: 6536: 6530: 6523: 6514: 6507: 6498: 6491: 6485: 6478: 6472: 6465: 6459: 6452: 6446: 6439: 6433: 6426: 6420: 6413: 6407: 6400: 6394: 6387: 6381: 6374: 6368: 6361: 6355: 6348: 6342: 6335: 6329: 6322: 6316: 6309: 6303: 6296: 6290: 6283: 6274: 6267: 6258: 6251: 6245: 6238: 6232: 6225: 6219: 6212: 6206: 6199: 6193: 6186: 6180: 6173: 6167: 6160: 6154: 6146: 6140: 6133: 6127: 6120: 6114: 6107: 6098: 6091: 6085: 6078: 6072: 6069: 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1062: 1056: 1055: 1037: 869:graduate schools 845:Ultimately, the 494:environmentalism 322:waste management 272:industrial waste 264:toxic substances 236:waste management 209: 202: 195: 179: 178: 169: 168: 69:Environmentalism 37: 30: 29: 21: 7979: 7978: 7974: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7969: 7968: 7949: 7948: 7947: 7935: 7923: 7911: 7903: 7901: 7896: 7843: 7692: 7663:Systems ecology 7647:Sustainability 7641:science studies 7626:Rural sociology 7472: 7463: 7449:Human geography 7382: 7377: 7347: 7342: 7318:Policy analysis 7281: 7060: 7055: 6968:Wayback Machine 6928: 6923: 6922: 6913: 6909: 6900: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6878: 6874: 6865: 6861: 6852: 6848: 6839: 6835: 6826: 6822: 6813: 6809: 6797: 6793: 6784: 6780: 6771: 6767: 6758: 6754: 6745: 6741: 6732: 6728: 6719: 6715: 6706: 6702: 6693: 6689: 6680: 6676: 6667: 6663: 6654: 6650: 6641: 6637: 6628: 6624: 6615: 6611: 6602: 6598: 6589: 6585: 6576: 6572: 6563: 6559: 6550: 6546: 6537: 6533: 6524: 6517: 6508: 6501: 6492: 6488: 6479: 6475: 6466: 6462: 6453: 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5484: 5475: 5471: 5462: 5458: 5449: 5445: 5433: 5429: 5419:Unesco (2023), 5418: 5414: 5404:IQ Air (2023), 5403: 5399: 5390: 5386: 5376: 5372: 5363: 5359: 5350: 5343: 5334: 5327: 5318: 5314: 5305: 5301: 5291: 5284: 5275: 5271: 5265:Policy Sciences 5262: 5255: 5246: 5242: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5216: 5207: 5203: 5194: 5190: 5181: 5174: 5165: 5161: 5152: 5148: 5139: 5135: 5126: 5122: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5093: 5089: 5065: 5061: 5052: 5048: 5039: 5035: 5029:Research Series 5022: 5018: 5009: 5005: 4996: 4992: 4983: 4979: 4970: 4966: 4957: 4953: 4944: 4940: 4931: 4924: 4915: 4911: 4902: 4898: 4885: 4881: 4872: 4868: 4859: 4855: 4846: 4842: 4833: 4829: 4820: 4816: 4807: 4800: 4791: 4787: 4778: 4774: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4752: 4743: 4739: 4730: 4726: 4717: 4713: 4704: 4697: 4688: 4684: 4675: 4671: 4662: 4658: 4649: 4645: 4636: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4594: 4587: 4575: 4568: 4523: 4516: 4507: 4505: 4495: 4488: 4479: 4475: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4429: 4425: 4416: 4412: 4377: 4373: 4364: 4360: 4351: 4344: 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For example, 556: 486: 354: 318:water pollution 284: 232:water pollution 213: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7977: 7967: 7966: 7961: 7946: 7945: 7933: 7921: 7898: 7897: 7895: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7859: 7848: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7796: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7766: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7741: 7736: 7735: 7734: 7729: 7721: 7716: 7715: 7714: 7709: 7700: 7698: 7694: 7693: 7691: 7690: 7689: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7665: 7660: 7659: 7658: 7653: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7581: 7580: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7543:Environmental 7541: 7540: 7539: 7534: 7526: 7521: 7520: 7519: 7514: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7480: 7478: 7474: 7473: 7466: 7464: 7462: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7390: 7388: 7384: 7383: 7376: 7375: 7368: 7361: 7353: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7335: 7333:Youth services 7330: 7325: 7323:Policy studies 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7289: 7287: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7279: 7274: 7273: 7272: 7265: 7258: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7212: 7209:Pharmaceutical 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7176: 7173:Nuclear energy 7164: 7159: 7158: 7157: 7150: 7143: 7136: 7129: 7122: 7115: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7077:Climate change 7074: 7068: 7066: 7062: 7061: 7054: 7053: 7046: 7039: 7031: 7025: 7024: 7017: 7011: 6970: 6958: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6935: 6927: 6926:External links 6924: 6921: 6920: 6907: 6894: 6885: 6872: 6859: 6846: 6833: 6820: 6807: 6791: 6778: 6765: 6752: 6739: 6726: 6713: 6700: 6687: 6674: 6661: 6648: 6635: 6622: 6609: 6596: 6583: 6570: 6557: 6544: 6531: 6515: 6499: 6486: 6473: 6460: 6447: 6434: 6421: 6408: 6395: 6382: 6369: 6356: 6343: 6330: 6317: 6304: 6291: 6275: 6259: 6246: 6233: 6220: 6207: 6194: 6181: 6168: 6155: 6141: 6128: 6115: 6099: 6086: 6073: 6064: 6051: 6038: 6025: 6012: 5999: 5986: 5973: 5960: 5947: 5934: 5921: 5908: 5895: 5882: 5869: 5856: 5843: 5830: 5810: 5793: 5780: 5767: 5754: 5741: 5728: 5714: 5690: 5666: 5653: 5640: 5627: 5618: 5605: 5592: 5579: 5563: 5550: 5537: 5524: 5511: 5495: 5482: 5469: 5456: 5443: 5427: 5412: 5397: 5384: 5370: 5357: 5341: 5325: 5312: 5299: 5282: 5269: 5253: 5240: 5227: 5214: 5201: 5188: 5172: 5159: 5146: 5133: 5120: 5100: 5087: 5076:(6): 232–244. 5059: 5046: 5033: 5016: 5003: 4990: 4977: 4964: 4951: 4938: 4922: 4909: 4896: 4879: 4866: 4853: 4840: 4827: 4814: 4798: 4785: 4772: 4759: 4750: 4737: 4724: 4711: 4695: 4682: 4669: 4656: 4643: 4621: 4603: 4585: 4566: 4514: 4486: 4473: 4460: 4453: 4423: 4410: 4371: 4358: 4342: 4335: 4307: 4291: 4275: 4262: 4249: 4236: 4209: 4196: 4183: 4170: 4151:(2): 203–222. 4131: 4118: 4105: 4066: 4019: 3998:10.2307/589765 3972: 3959: 3912: 3873: 3860: 3845: 3829: 3816: 3803: 3784:(4): 676–685. 3764: 3737:(5): 369–383. 3717: 3678: 3639: 3626: 3610: 3597: 3584: 3551: 3526: 3501: 3482:(4): 257–289. 3462: 3438: 3413: 3400: 3381:(3): 564–581. 3361: 3348: 3329:(2): 302–322. 3309: 3296: 3280: 3267: 3240:(3): 349–385. 3220: 3204: 3191: 3174: 3170:Monthly Review 3161: 3148: 3135: 3119: 3098:10.2307/973677 3072: 3059: 3046: 3033: 3020: 3007: 2994: 2978: 2965: 2949: 2936: 2920: 2907: 2894: 2878: 2867:(3): 325–376. 2851: 2836: 2829: 2811: 2804: 2786: 2771: 2758: 2745: 2729: 2713: 2700: 2687: 2674: 2658: 2645: 2632: 2623: 2610: 2597: 2588: 2570: 2557: 2544: 2542:. Paris: OECD. 2531: 2518: 2500: 2487: 2474: 2461: 2448: 2435: 2422: 2409: 2396: 2387: 2374: 2354: 2345: 2329: 2316: 2303: 2290: 2270: 2254: 2238: 2225: 2212: 2190: 2174: 2161: 2148: 2139: 2126: 2112: 2099: 2092: 2074: 2067: 2049: 2019: 2012: 1994: 1987: 1969: 1963: 1935: 1922: 1915: 1887: 1874: 1861: 1846: 1816: 1809: 1791: 1778: 1766: 1736: 1729: 1711: 1704: 1686: 1679: 1661: 1654: 1636: 1629: 1611: 1604: 1586: 1579: 1561: 1545: 1529: 1516: 1503: 1490: 1477: 1461: 1448: 1435: 1422: 1409: 1396: 1383: 1357: 1338: 1331: 1313: 1294:(2): 301–311. 1274: 1267: 1242: 1225: 1204:10.2307/973837 1198:(3): 132–139. 1173: 1166: 1148: 1139: 1132: 1107: 1092: 1057: 1051:978-1439847664 1050: 1031: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 991: 989: 986: 917:private sector 855: 852: 809: 806: 784: 781: 710: 707: 687: 684: 653: 650: 581:climate change 555: 552: 510:market failure 485: 482: 438:Gaylord Nelson 387:United Kingdom 353: 350: 304:soil pollution 283: 280: 215: 214: 212: 211: 204: 197: 189: 186: 185: 184: 183: 173: 160: 159: 158: 157: 152: 147: 139: 138: 137: 136: 134:Social science 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 95: 94: 92:Environment in 86: 85: 84: 83: 78: 77: 76: 66: 61: 60: 59: 57:on the climate 46: 45: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7976: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7956: 7954: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7909: 7906: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7860: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7849: 7846: 7838: 7837:environmental 7835: 7833: 7830: 7829: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7802:environmental 7800: 7799: 7797: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7772:environmental 7770: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7747:environmental 7745: 7744: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7733: 7732:environmental 7730: 7728: 7725: 7724: 7722: 7720: 7719:Ecopsychology 7717: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7704: 7703:Architecture 7702: 7701: 7699: 7695: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7668: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7639: 7638: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7586: 7585: 7582: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7518: 7517:environmental 7515: 7513: 7510: 7509: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7489:Anthrozoology 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7475: 7470: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7444:Human ecology 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7391: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7374: 7369: 7367: 7362: 7360: 7355: 7354: 7351: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7284: 7278: 7275: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7259: 7256: 7252: 7251: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7206: 7205: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7188:Environmental 7186: 7181: 7177: 7174: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7155: 7151: 7148: 7144: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7130: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7116: 7113: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7104: 7099: 7095: 7094: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7058:Public policy 7052: 7047: 7045: 7040: 7038: 7033: 7032: 7029: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7012: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6993: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6969: 6965: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6951: 6948: 6945: 6942: 6939: 6936: 6933: 6930: 6929: 6917: 6911: 6904: 6898: 6889: 6882: 6876: 6869: 6863: 6856: 6850: 6843: 6837: 6830: 6824: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6801: 6795: 6788: 6782: 6775: 6769: 6762: 6756: 6749: 6743: 6736: 6730: 6723: 6717: 6710: 6704: 6697: 6691: 6684: 6678: 6671: 6665: 6658: 6652: 6645: 6639: 6632: 6626: 6619: 6613: 6606: 6600: 6593: 6587: 6580: 6574: 6567: 6561: 6554: 6548: 6541: 6535: 6528: 6522: 6520: 6512: 6506: 6504: 6496: 6490: 6483: 6477: 6470: 6464: 6457: 6451: 6444: 6438: 6431: 6425: 6418: 6412: 6405: 6399: 6392: 6386: 6379: 6373: 6366: 6360: 6353: 6347: 6340: 6334: 6327: 6321: 6314: 6308: 6301: 6295: 6288: 6282: 6280: 6272: 6266: 6264: 6256: 6250: 6243: 6237: 6230: 6224: 6217: 6211: 6204: 6198: 6191: 6185: 6178: 6172: 6165: 6159: 6152: 6145: 6138: 6132: 6125: 6119: 6112: 6106: 6104: 6096: 6090: 6083: 6077: 6068: 6061: 6055: 6048: 6042: 6035: 6029: 6022: 6016: 6009: 6003: 5996: 5990: 5983: 5977: 5970: 5964: 5957: 5951: 5944: 5938: 5931: 5925: 5918: 5912: 5905: 5899: 5892: 5886: 5879: 5873: 5866: 5860: 5853: 5847: 5840: 5834: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5818:Harvey, Fiona 5814: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5790: 5784: 5777: 5771: 5764: 5758: 5751: 5745: 5738: 5732: 5724: 5718: 5704: 5700: 5694: 5680: 5676: 5670: 5663: 5657: 5650: 5644: 5637: 5631: 5622: 5615: 5609: 5602: 5596: 5589: 5583: 5576: 5570: 5568: 5560: 5554: 5547: 5541: 5534: 5528: 5521: 5515: 5508: 5502: 5500: 5492: 5486: 5479: 5473: 5466: 5460: 5453: 5447: 5440: 5438: 5431: 5424: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5408: 5401: 5394: 5388: 5381: 5374: 5367: 5361: 5354: 5348: 5346: 5338: 5332: 5330: 5322: 5316: 5309: 5303: 5296: 5295:Energy Policy 5289: 5287: 5279: 5273: 5266: 5260: 5258: 5250: 5244: 5237: 5231: 5224: 5218: 5211: 5205: 5198: 5192: 5185: 5179: 5177: 5169: 5163: 5156: 5150: 5143: 5137: 5130: 5124: 5110: 5104: 5097: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5063: 5056: 5050: 5043: 5037: 5030: 5026: 5020: 5013: 5007: 5000: 4994: 4987: 4981: 4974: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4948: 4942: 4935: 4929: 4927: 4919: 4913: 4906: 4900: 4893: 4889: 4886:OECD (1991), 4883: 4876: 4870: 4863: 4857: 4850: 4844: 4837: 4831: 4824: 4818: 4811: 4805: 4803: 4795: 4789: 4782: 4776: 4769: 4763: 4754: 4747: 4741: 4734: 4728: 4721: 4715: 4708: 4702: 4700: 4692: 4686: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4660: 4653: 4647: 4640: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4592: 4590: 4583: 4579: 4573: 4571: 4562: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4519: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4491: 4483: 4477: 4470: 4464: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4414: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4368: 4362: 4355: 4349: 4347: 4338: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4321:. Routledge. 4320: 4319: 4311: 4304: 4302: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4272: 4266: 4259: 4253: 4246: 4240: 4233: 4231: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4206: 4200: 4193: 4187: 4180: 4174: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4122: 4115: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3870: 3864: 3857: 3856: 3849: 3842: 3836: 3834: 3826: 3820: 3813: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3768: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3682: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3623: 3622:Silent Spring 3617: 3615: 3607: 3601: 3594: 3588: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3540: 3536: 3530: 3516: 3512: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3452: 3448: 3442: 3427: 3423: 3417: 3410: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3358: 3352: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3313: 3306: 3300: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3277: 3271: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3217: 3211: 3209: 3201: 3195: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3171: 3165: 3158: 3152: 3145: 3139: 3132: 3126: 3124: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3076: 3069: 3063: 3056: 3050: 3043: 3037: 3030: 3024: 3017: 3011: 3004: 2998: 2991: 2985: 2983: 2975: 2969: 2962: 2960: 2953: 2946: 2940: 2933: 2927: 2925: 2917: 2911: 2904: 2898: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2855: 2847: 2840: 2832: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2807: 2805:0-7450-1106-3 2801: 2797: 2790: 2782: 2775: 2768: 2762: 2755: 2749: 2742: 2736: 2734: 2726: 2720: 2718: 2710: 2704: 2697: 2696:Energy Policy 2691: 2684: 2678: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2655: 2649: 2642: 2636: 2627: 2620: 2614: 2607: 2601: 2592: 2585: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2567: 2561: 2554: 2548: 2541: 2535: 2528: 2522: 2515: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2497: 2491: 2484: 2478: 2471: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2445: 2439: 2432: 2426: 2419: 2413: 2406: 2400: 2391: 2384: 2378: 2371: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2349: 2342: 2336: 2334: 2326: 2320: 2313: 2307: 2300: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2251: 2250:The Guardian, 2248: 2242: 2235: 2229: 2222: 2216: 2209: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2187: 2181: 2179: 2171: 2165: 2158: 2152: 2143: 2136: 2130: 2123: 2116: 2109: 2103: 2095: 2089: 2085: 2078: 2070: 2064: 2060: 2053: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2026: 2024: 2015: 2009: 2005: 1998: 1990: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1966: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1939: 1932: 1926: 1918: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1891: 1884: 1878: 1871: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1826:"Overfishing" 1820: 1812: 1806: 1802: 1795: 1788: 1782: 1769: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1740: 1732: 1726: 1722: 1715: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1690: 1682: 1676: 1672: 1665: 1657: 1655:0-8061-1107-0 1651: 1647: 1640: 1632: 1626: 1622: 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