Gut microbiota - Knowledge

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microbiota influence eating behaviours based on the preferences of the microbiota, which can lead to the host consuming more food eventually resulting in obesity. It has generally been observed that with higher gut microbiome diversity, the microbiota will spend energy and resources on competing with other microbiota and less on manipulating the host. The opposite is seen with lower gut microbiome diversity, and these microbiotas may work together to create host food cravings.

11954: 962:. The bacterial flora of the small intestine aid in a wide range of intestinal functions. The bacterial flora provide regulatory signals that enable the development and utility of the gut. Overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine can lead to intestinal failure. In addition the large intestine contains the largest bacterial ecosystem in the human body. About 99% of the large intestine and feces flora are made up of obligate anaerobes such as 3261: 334: 1468:(GALT), which forms part of the intestinal epithelium and which detects and reacts to pathogens, appears and develops during the time that the gut flora develops and established. The GALT that develops is tolerant to gut flora species, but not to other microorganisms. GALT also normally becomes tolerant to food to which the infant is exposed, as well as digestive products of food, and gut flora's 3275: 2365:

lithocholic acid (LCA) and deoxy cholic acid (DCA) respectively. Primary bile acids which are synthesized by hepatocytes and stored in the gall bladder possess hydrophobic characters. These metabolites are subsequently metabolized by the gut microbiota into secondary metabolites with increased hydrophobicity. Bile salt hydrolases (BSH) which are conserved across gut microbiota phyla such as

3197:. Humans display increases in Bacteroidetes, a bacterial phylum associated with diets high in animal protein and fat, and decreases in Methanobrevibacter and Fibrobacter, groups that ferment complex plant polysaccharides. These changes are the result of the combined dietary, genetic, and cultural changes humans have undergone since evolutionary divergence from 3177:. This interrupts the neural connection between the brain and the gut and blocks the upper intestinal lipids' ability to inhibit glucose production. The gut–brain–liver axis and gut microbiota composition can regulate the glucose homeostasis in the liver and provide potential therapeutic methods to treat obesity and diabetes. 2953:

inflammatory disorders of the gut; the causes of these diseases are unknown and issues with the gut flora and its relationship with the host have been implicated in these conditions. Additionally, it appears that interactions of gut flora with the gut–brain axis have a role in IBD, with physiological

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The gut microbiota is an enriched community that contains diverse genes with huge biochemical capabilities to modify drugs, especially those taken by mouth. Gut microbiota can affect drug metabolism via direct and indirect mechanisms. The direct mechanism is mediated by the microbial enzymes that can

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In humans, a gut flora similar to an adult's is formed within one to two years of birth. As the gut flora gets established, the lining of the intestines – the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes – develop as well, in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive

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As the microbiome composition changes, so does the composition of bacterial proteins produced in the gut. In adult microbiomes, a high prevalence of enzymes involved in fermentation, methanogenesis and the metabolism of arginine, glutamate, aspartate and lysine have been found. In contrast, in infant

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Arrieta, Marie-Claire; Stiemsma, Leah T; Dimitriu, Pedro A; Thorson, Lisa; Russell, Shannon; Yurist-Doutsch, Sophie; Kuzeljevic, Boris; Gold, Matthew J; Britton, Heidi M; Lefebvre, Diana L; Subbarao, Padmaja; Mandhane, Piush; Becker, Allan; McNagny, Kelly M; Sears, Malcolm R; Kollmann, Tobias; Mohn,

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Feces of about 10–15% of people consistently floats in toilet water ('floaters'), while the rest produce feces that sinks ('sinkers') and production of gas causes feces to float. While conventional mice often produce 'floaters', gnotobiotic germfree mice no gut microbiota (bred in germfree isolator)

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A large number of studies have demonstrated the metabolism of over 50 drugs by the gut microbiota. For example, lovastatin (a cholesterol-lowering agent) which is a lactone prodrug is partially activated by the human gut microbiota forming active acid hydroxylated metabolites. Conversely, digoxin (a

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has previously been identified in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of humans, but its functions are not known. ... In kinetic competition experiments using free radical-trapping agents, the capacity of IPA to scavenge hydroxyl radicals exceeded that of melatonin, an indoleamine considered to

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nitrogen. This fact makes feces an ideal source of gut flora for any tests and experiments by extracting the nucleic acid from fecal specimens, and bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences are generated with bacterial primers. This form of testing is also often preferable to more invasive techniques, such

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Maranduba, Carlos Magno da Costa; De Castro, Sandra Bertelli Ribeiro; Souza, Gustavo Torres de; Rossato, Cristiano; Da Guia, Francisco Carlos; Valente, Maria Anete Santana; Rettore, João Vitor Paes; Maranduba, Claudinéia Pereira; Souza, Camila Maurmann de; Carmo, Antônio Márcio Resende do; MacEdo,

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Turroni, Francesca; Peano, Clelia; Pass, Daniel A; Foroni, Elena; Severgnini, Marco; Claesson, Marcus J; Kerr, Colm; Hourihane, Jonathan; Murray, Deirdre; Fuligni, Fabio; Gueimonde, Miguel; Margolles, Abelardo; De Bellis, Gianluca; o'Toole, Paul W; Van Sinderen, Douwe; Marchesi, Julian R; Ventura,

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signaling by intestinal epithelial cells which results in further signaling molecules being secreted. These signaling molecules interact with B cells to induce class switching to IgA. IgA is an important type of antibody that is used in mucosal environments like the gut. It has been shown that IgA

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may alter the gut microbiome composition. Children treated with antibiotics have less stable, and less diverse floral communities. Caesarean sections have been shown to be disruptive to mother-offspring transmission of bacteria, which impacts the overall health of the offspring by raising risks of

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The establishment of a gut flora is crucial to the health of an adult, as well as the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. In humans, a gut flora similar to an adult's is formed within one to two years of birth as microbiota are acquired through parent-to-child transmission and transfer from

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Researchers with the American Gut Project and Human Microbiome Project found that twelve microbe families varied in abundance based on the race or ethnicity of the individual. The strength of these associations is limited by the small sample size: the American Gut Project collected data from 1,375

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Arumugam, Manimozhiyan; Raes, Jeroen; Pelletier, Eric; Le Paslier, Denis; Yamada, Takuji; Mende, Daniel R.; Fernandes, Gabriel R.; Tap, Julien; Bruls, Thomas; Batto, Jean-Michel; Bertalan, Marcelo; Borruel, Natalia; Casellas, Francesc; Fernandez, Leyden; Gautier, Laurent; Hansen, Torben; Hattori,

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increased capacity to extract calories from otherwise indigestible constituents, and to an increased production of SCFAs. These findings provide evidence that antibiotics perturb not only the composition of the GI microbiome but also its metabolic capabilities, specifically with respect to SCFAs.

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is a result of stress and chronic activation of the HPA axis; its symptoms include abdominal pain, changes in bowel movements, and an increase in proinflammatory cytokines. Overall, studies have found that the luminal and mucosal microbiota are changed in irritable bowel syndrome individuals, and

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has a cytochrome-encoding operon up-regulated by digoxin and associated with digoxin-inactivation. Gut microbiota can also modulate the efficacy and toxicity of chemotherapeutic agents such as irinotecan. This effect is derived from the microbiome-encoded β-glucuronidase enzymes which recover the

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In humans, the gut microbiota has the highest numbers and species of bacteria compared to other areas of the body. The approximate number of bacteria composing the gut microbiota is about 10–10. In humans, the gut flora is established at birth and gradually transitions towards a state resembling

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Ford, Alexander C; Quigley, Eamonn M M; Lacy, Brian E; Lembo, Anthony J; Saito, Yuri A; Schiller, Lawrence R; Soffer, Edy E; Spiegel, Brennan M R; Moayyedi, Paul (2014). "Efficacy of Prebiotics, Probiotics and Synbiotics in Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Chronic Idiopathic Constipation: Systematic

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Qin, Junjie; Li, Ruiqiang; Raes, Jeroen; Arumugam, Manimozhiyan; Burgdorf, Kristoffer Solvsten; Manichanh, Chaysavanh; Nielsen, Trine; Pons, Nicolas; Levenez, Florence; Yamada, Takuji; Mende, Daniel R.; Li, Junhua; Xu, Junming; Li, Shaochuan; Li, Dongfang; Cao, Jianjun; Wang, Bo; Liang, Huiqing;

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is fiber and other complex carbohydrates that a healthy gut flora require flourishing; changes to gut flora in response to a Western-pattern diet appear to increase the amount of energy generated by the gut flora which may contribute to obesity and metabolic syndrome. There is also evidence that

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Gut microbiota and exercise have recently been shown to be interconnected. Both moderate and intense exercise are typically part of the training regimen of endurance athletes, but they exert different effects on health. The interconnection between gut microbiota and endurance sports depends upon

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is that it is sterile, although this view has been challenged in the past few years. Multiple lines of evidence have begun to emerge that suggest there may be bacteria in the intrauterine environment. In humans, research has shown that microbial colonization may occur in the fetus with one study

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During birth and rapidly thereafter, bacteria from the mother and the surrounding environment colonize the infant's gut. The exact sources of bacteria are not fully understood, but may include the birth canal, other people (parents, siblings, hospital workers), breastmilk, food, and the general

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There are common patterns of microbiome composition evolution during life. In general, the diversity of microbiota composition of fecal samples is significantly higher in adults than in children, although interpersonal differences are higher in children than in adults. Much of the maturation of

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Yatsunenko, T.; Rey, F. E.; Manary, M. J.; Trehan, I.; Dominguez-Bello, M. G.; Contreras, M.; Magris, M.; Hidalgo, G.; Baldassano, R. N.; Anokhin, A. P.; Heath, A. C.; Warner, B.; Reeder, J.; Kuczynski, J.; Caporaso, J. G.; Lozupone, C. A.; Lauber, C.; Clemente, J. C.; Knights, D.; Knight, R.;

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has been linked to reduced SCFA levels. Further, SCFAs are the product of bacterial fermentation of fiber, which is low in the Western pattern diet. SCFAs offer a link between gut flora and immune disorders, and as of 2016, this was an active area of research. Similar hypotheses have also been

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children have less mature and less diverse gut microbiota than healthy children, and changes in the microbiome associated with nutrient scarcity can in turn be a pathophysiological cause of malnutrition. Malnourished children also typically have more potentially pathogenic gut flora, and more

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was significantly elevated in animals treated with subtherapeutic doses of different antibiotics. By analyzing the caloric content of faeces and the concentration of small chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the GI tract, it was concluded that the changes in the composition of microbiota lead to an

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One of the most important bacterial metabolites produced by the gut microbiota is secondary bile acids (BAs). These metabolites are produced by the bacterial biotransformation of the primary bile acids such as cholic acid (CA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) into secondary bile acids (BAs)

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dehydroxylase enzymes. On the contrary, gut microbiota may also alter the metabolism of the drugs by modulating the host drug metabolism. This mechanism can be mediated by microbial metabolites or by modifying host metabolites which in turn change the expression of host metabolizing enzymes.

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of babies born by sterile cesarean section. In another study, researchers administered a culture of bacteria orally to pregnant mice, and detected the bacteria in the offspring, likely resulting from transmission between the digestive tract and amniotic fluid via the blood stream. However,

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The human gut microbiota plays a crucial role in modulating the effect of the administered drugs on the human. Directly, gut microbiota can synthesize and release a series of enzymes with the capability to metabolize drugs such as microbial biotransformation of L-dopa by decarboxylase and

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can help diversify the gut community and helps in getting rid of bacteria that cause inflammatory responses. Ultimately, IgA maintains a healthy environment between the host and gut bacteria. These cytokines and antibodies can have effects outside the gut, in the lungs and other tissues.

350:. While there are a small number of core microbial species shared by most individuals, populations of microbes can vary widely. Within an individual, their microbial populations stay fairly constant over time, with some alterations occurring due to changes in lifestyle, diet and age. The 8891:

Brandi, Giovanni; Dabard, Jean; Raibaud, Pierre; Di Battista, Monica; Bridonneau, Chantal; Pisi, Anna Maria; Morselli Labate, Antonio Maria; Pantaleo, Maria Abbondanza; De Vivo, Antonello; Biasco, Guido (2006-02-15). "Intestinal microflora and digestive toxicity of irinotecan in mice".

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Jiménez, Esther; Fernández, Leonides; Marín, María L; Martín, Rocío; Odriozola, Juan M; Nueno-Palop, Carmen; Narbad, Arjan; Olivares, Mónica; Xaus, Jordi; Rodríguez, Juan M (2005). "Isolation of Commensal Bacteria from Umbilical Cord Blood of Healthy Neonates Born by Cesarean Section".

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in breast milk, and by the fact that breast milk carries prebiotic components, allowing for healthy bacterial growth. Breast milk also contains higher levels of Immunoglobulin A (IgA) to help with the tolerance and regulation of the baby's immune system. In contrast, the microbiota of

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There is substantial variation in microbiome composition and microbial concentrations by anatomical site. Fluid from the human colon – which contains the highest concentration of microbes of any anatomical site – contains approximately one trillion (10^12) bacterial

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Hopper, Christopher P.; De La Cruz, Ladie Kimberly; Lyles, Kristin V.; Wareham, Lauren K.; Gilbert, Jack A.; Eichenbaum, Zehava; Magierowski, Marcin; Poole, Robert K.; Wollborn, Jakob; Wang, Binghe (2020-12-23). "Role of Carbon Monoxide in Host–Gut Microbiome Communication".

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On a smaller scale, it has been shown that sharing numerous common environmental exposures in a family is a strong determinant of individual microbiome composition. This effect has no genetic influence and it is consistently observed in culturally different populations.

1062:), and producing hormones to direct the host to store fats. Extensive modification and imbalances of the gut microbiota and its microbiome or gene collection are associated with obesity. However, in certain conditions, some species are thought to be capable of causing 2431:. That term has been expanded to include the role of the gut flora in the interplay; the term "microbiome––brain axis" is sometimes used to describe paradigms explicitly including the gut flora. Broadly defined, the gut–brain axis includes the central nervous system, 2969:

The diversity of gut flora appears to be significantly diminished in people with inflammatory bowel diseases compared to healthy people; additionally, in people with ulcerative colitis, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria appear to dominate; in people with Crohn's,

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such as diabetes. The change in gut microbiota causes no ill effects. The newborn's gut microbiota resemble the mother's first-trimester samples. The diversity of the microbiome decreases from the first to third trimester, as the numbers of certain species go up.

2266:(i.e., the genetic composition of an individual and all microorganisms that reside on or within the individual's body) varies considerably between individuals. Since the total number of microbial cells in the human body (over 100 trillion) greatly outnumbers 7961:

The composition of the microbiome varies by anatomical site (Figure 1). The primary determinant of community composition is anatomical location: interpersonal variation is substantial and is higher than the temporal variability seen at most sites in a single

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Mady, Eman A.; Doghish, Ahmed S.; El-Dakroury, Walaa A.; Elkhawaga, Samy Y.; Ismail, Ahmed; El-Mahdy, Hesham A.; Elsakka, Elsayed G. E.; El-Husseiny, Hussein M. (2023-07-01). "Impact of the mother's gut microbiota on infant microbiome and brain development".

2310:. The effects of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of the drug have been investigated a few decades ago. These effects can be varied; it could activate the inactive drugs such as lovastatin, inactivate the active drug such as 1463:

that produce the mucosa proliferate, and the mucosa layer thickens, providing an outside mucosal layer in which "friendly" microorganisms can anchor and feed, and an inner layer that even these organisms cannot penetrate. Additionally, the development of

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Masahira; Hayashi, Tetsuya; Kleerebezem, Michiel; Kurokawa, Ken; Leclerc, Marion; Levenez, Florence; Manichanh, Chaysavanh; Nielsen, H. Bjørn; Nielsen, Trine; Pons, Nicolas; Poulain, Julie; Qin, Junjie; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Tims, Sebastian (2011).

1197:. The increased biodiversity and different composition of the gut microbiome in African populations may aid in the digestion of normally indigestible plant polysaccharides and also may result in a reduced incidence of non-infectious colonic diseases. 2584:

Kedougou, and these species can get out of hand, though their overgrowth may be incidental and not be the true cause of diarrhea. Emerging treatment protocols for C. difficile infections involve fecal microbiota transplantation of donor feces (see

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synthesis, reduces mucus and bicarbonate secretion, reduces mucosal blood flow, and lowers resistance to injury. Reduced protective properties of the stomach lining increase vulnerability to further injury and ulcer formation by stomach acid,

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that kill or inhibit unwelcome organisms that would compete for nutrients with it. Different strains of gut bacteria cause the production of different cytokines. Cytokines are chemical compounds produced by our immune system for initiating the

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Wu, G. D.; Chen, J.; Hoffmann, C.; Bittinger, K.; Chen, Y.-Y.; Keilbaugh, S. A.; Bewtra, M.; Knights, D.; Walters, W. A.; Knight, R.; Sinha, R.; Gilroy, E.; Gupta, K.; Baldassano, R.; Nessel, L.; Li, H.; Bushman, F. D.; Lewis, J. D. (2011).

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in the human gut microbiome not dictated by age, gender, body weight, or national divisions. There are indications that long-term diet influences enterotype. Three human enterotypes have been proposed, but their value has been questioned.

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Maier, Lisa; Pruteanu, Mihaela; Kuhn, Michael; Zeller, Georg; Telzerow, Anja; Anderson, Exene Erin; Brochado, Ana Rita; Fernandez, Keith Conrad; Dose, Hitomi; Mori, Hirotada; Patil, Kiran Raosaheb; Bork, Peer; Typas, Athanasios (2018).

3224:; the reason for this host-specific assembly remains unclear. Bacterial communities associated with insects like termites and cockroaches are determined by a combination of forces, primarily diet, but there is some indication that host 6927:

Yassour, Moran; Vatanen, Tommi; Siljander, Heli; Hämäläinen, Anu-Maaria; Härkönen, Taina; Ryhänen, Samppa J; Franzosa, Eric A; Vlamakis, Hera; Huttenhower, Curtis; Gevers, Dirk; Lander, Eric S; Knip, Mikael; Xavier, Ramnik J (2016).

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Murugesan, Selvasankar; Nirmalkar, Khemlal; Hoyo-Vadillo, Carlos; García-Espitia, Matilde; Ramírez-Sánchez, Daniela; García-Mena, Jaime (2017-12-02). "Gut microbiome production of short-chain fatty acids and obesity in children".

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Moraïs, Sarah; Winkler, Sarah; Zorea, Alvah; Levin, Liron; Nagies, Falk S. P.; Kapust, Nils; Lamed, Eva; Artan-Furman, Avital; Bolam, David N.; Yadav, Madhav P.; Bayer, Edward A.; Martin, William F.; Mizrahi, Itzhak (2024-03-15).

283:, in contrast, contains the highest microbial density of any human-associated microbial community studied so far with between 10 and 10 cells per gram of intestinal content. These bacteria represent between 300 and 1000 different 5728:

Nash, Andrea K; Auchtung, Thomas A; Wong, Matthew C; Smith, Daniel P; Gesell, Jonathan R; Ross, Matthew C; Stewart, Christopher J; Metcalf, Ginger A; Muzny, Donna M; Gibbs, Richard A; Ajami, Nadim J; Petrosino, Joseph F (2017).

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Yang, Wenjing; Yu, Tianming; Huang, Xiangsheng; Bilotta, Anthony J.; Xu, Leiqi; Lu, Yao; Sun, Jiaren; Pan, Fan; Zhou, Jia; Zhang, Wenbo; Yao, Suxia; Maynard, Craig L.; Singh, Nagendra; Dann, Sara M.; Liu, Zhanju (2020-09-08).

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due to a key role in the digestive process; the Western pattern diet appears to drive and maintain changes in the gut flora that in turn change how much energy is derived from food and how that energy is used. One aspect of a

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and inducing antibody production there, and metabolizing otherwise indigestible compounds in food. Subsequent work discovered its role in training the developing immune system, and yet further work focused on its role in the

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from 2016 examined the preclinical and small human trials that have been conducted with certain commercially available strains of probiotic bacteria and identified those that had the most potential to be useful for certain

1387:. This further evidences the importance of a healthy gut microbiome. Various methods of microbiome restoration are being explored, typically involving exposing the infant to maternal vaginal contents, and oral probiotics. 9553:

Carman, Robert J.; Simon, Mary Alice; Fernández, Haydée; Miller, Margaret A.; Bartholomew, Mary J. (2004). "Ciprofloxacin at low levels disrupts colonization resistance of human fecal microflora growing in chemostats".

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Tap, Julien; Mondot, Stanislas; Levenez, Florence; Pelletier, Eric; Caron, Christophe; Furet, Jean-Pierre; Ugarte, Edgardo; Muñoz-Tamayo, Rafael; Paslier, Denis L. E.; Nalin, Renaud; Dore, Joel; Leclerc, Marion (2009).

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individuals, 90% of whom were white. The Healthy Life in an Urban Setting (HELIUS) study in Amsterdam found that those of Dutch ancestry had the highest level of gut microbiota diversity, while those of South Asian and

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Hill, Colin; Guarner, Francisco; Reid, Gregor; Gibson, Glenn R; Merenstein, Daniel J; Pot, Bruno; Morelli, Lorenzo; Canani, Roberto Berni; Flint, Harry J; Salminen, Seppo; Calder, Philip C; Sanders, Mary Ellen (2014).

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gene, and the representation of genes encoding glutamate synthase/degradation or other enzymes involved in amino acids degradation or vitamin biosynthesis show significant differences between populations from the US,

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Hutkins, Robert W; Krumbeck, Janina A; Bindels, Laure B; Cani, Patrice D; Fahey, George; Goh, Yong Jun; Hamaker, Bruce; Martens, Eric C; Mills, David A; Rastal, Robert A; Vaughan, Elaine; Sanders, Mary Ellen (2016).

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produce 'sinkers', and gut microbiota colonization in germfree mice leads to food transformation to microbial biomass and enrichment of multiple gasogenic bacterial species that turns the 'sinkers' into 'floaters'.

2713:; probiotics that have been genetically engineered or otherwise optimized for best performance (shelf life, survival in the digestive tract, etc.); and the natural products of gut flora metabolism (vitamins, etc.). 1173:

in their microbiomes. As the US population has a diet richer in fats than Amerindian or Malawian populations which have a corn-rich diet, the diet is probably the main determinant of the gut bacterial composition.

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Zheng, Huisong; Xie, Yinlong; Tap, Julien; Lepage, Patricia; Bertalan, Marcelo; Batto, Jean-Michel; Hansen, Torben; Le Paslier, Denis; Linneberg, Allan; Nielsen, H. Bjørn; Pelletier, Eric; Renault, Pierre (2010).

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posits that children in the developed world are not exposed to enough microbes and thus may contain lower prevalence of specific bacterial taxa that play protective roles. The second hypothesis focuses on the

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Guandalini, Stefano; Magazzù, Giuseppe; Chiaro, Andrea; La Balestra, Valeria; Di Nardo, Giovanni; Gopalan, Sarath; Sibal, A.; Romano, Claudio; Canani, Roberto Berni; Lionetti, Paolo; Setty, Mala (July 2010).

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During the first year of life, the composition of the gut flora is generally simple and changes a great deal with time and is not the same across individuals. The initial bacterial population are generally

1189:. The diet of a typical child living in this village is largely lacking in fats and animal proteins and rich in polysaccharides and plant proteins. The fecal bacteria of European children were dominated by 3048:. These bacterial fermentation metabolites are involved in immune signalling that prevents the triggering of asthma and lower SCFA levels are associated with the disease. Lacking protective genera such as 8025:

Kumar K, Dhoke GV, Sharma AK, Jaiswal SK, Sharma VK (January 2019). "Mechanistic elucidation of amphetamine metabolism by tyramine oxidase from human gut microbiota using molecular dynamics simulations".

2589:). Initial reports of treatment describe success rates of 90%, with few side effects. Efficacy is speculated to result from restoring bacterial balances of bacteroides and firmicutes classes of bacteria. 3192:

The composition of the human gut microbiome is similar to that of the other great apes. However, humans' gut biota has decreased in diversity and changed in composition since our evolutionary split from

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Collins, Stephanie L.; Stine, Jonathan G.; Bisanz, Jordan E.; Okafor, C. Denise; Patterson, Andrew D. (2022-10-17). "Bile acids and the gut microbiota: metabolic interactions and impacts on disease".

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Sousa, Tiago; Paterson, Ronnie; Moore, Vanessa; Carlsson, Anders; Abrahamsson, Bertil; Basit, Abdul W. (November 2008). "The gastrointestinal microbiota as a site for the biotransformation of drugs".

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is associated with alterations of the microbial community that lead to increased intestinal carcinogenesis. Increased exposure of the colon to secondary bile acids resulting from dysbiosis can cause

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Bacteria in the digestive tract can contribute to and be affected by disease in various ways. The presence or overabundance of some kinds of bacteria may contribute to inflammatory disorders such as

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Bettelli E, Carrier Y, Gao W, Korn T, Strom TB, Oukka M, Weiner HL, Kuchroo VK (May 2006). "Reciprocal developmental pathways for the generation of pathogenic effector TH17 and regulatory T cells".

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Matamoros, Sebastien; Gras-Leguen, Christele; Le Vacon, Françoise; Potel, Gilles; de la Cochetiere, Marie-France (2013). "Development of intestinal microbiota in infants and its impact on health".

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modify the chemical structure of the administered drugs. Conversely, the indirect pathway is mediated by the microbial metabolites which affect the expression of host metabolizing enzymes such as

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This microbial community in the gut has a huge biochemical capability to produce distinct secondary metabolites that are sometimes produced from the metabolic conversion of dietary foods such as

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and that vaginally born babies got most of their gut bacteria from their mother, while the microbiota of babies born by caesarean section had more bacteria associated with hospital environments.

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and allow healing after insult or injury. Different bacterial species that appear in gut flora have been shown to be able to drive the immune system to create cytokines selectively; for example

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communities, and even modern rural populations. However, they are rare in industrialized societies. Human-associated strains have acquired genes that can degrade specific plant fibers such as

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Mikaelyan, A.; Dietrich, C.; Köhler, T.; Poulsen, M.; Sillam-Dussès, D.; Brune, A. (2015). "Diet is the primary determinant of bacterial community structure in the guts of higher termites".

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Sousa, Tiago; Paterson, Ronnie; Moore, Vanessa; Carlsson, Anders; Abrahamsson, Bertil; Basit, Abdul W (2008). "The gastrointestinal microbiota as a site for the biotransformation of drugs".

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descent had the lowest diversity. The study results suggested that individuals of the same race or ethnicity have more similar microbiomes than individuals of different racial backgrounds.

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Aalam, Syed Mohammed Musheer; Crasta, Daphne Norma; Roy, Pooja; Miller, A. Lee; Gamb, Scott I.; Johnson, Stephen; Till, Lisa M.; Chen, Jun; Kashyap, Purna; Kannan, Nagarajan (2022-10-27).

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Yoo, Dae-Hyoung; Kim, In Sook; Van Le, Thi Kim; Jung, Il-Hoon; Yoo, Hye Hyun; Kim, Dong-Hyun (2014-06-19). "Gut Microbiota-Mediated Drug Interactions between Lovastatin and Antibiotics".

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Moeller, Andrew H.; Li, Yingying; Ngole, Eitel Mpoudi; Ahuka-Mundeke, Steve; Lonsdorf, Elizabeth V.; Pusey, Anne E.; Peeters, Martine; Hahn, Beatrice H.; Ochman, Howard (2014-11-18).

2611:, and this may change the intra-community metabolic interactions, modify caloric intake by using carbohydrates, and globally affects host metabolic, hormonal and immune homeostasis. 1416:

The gut flora community plays a direct role in defending against pathogens by fully colonising the space, making use of all available nutrients, and by secreting compounds known as

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be the most potent naturally occurring scavenger of free radicals. In contrast with other antioxidants, IPA was not converted to reactive intermediates with pro-oxidant activity.

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Miquel, S; Martín, R; Rossi, O; Bermúdez-Humarán, LG; Chatel, JM; Sokol, H; Thomas, M; Wells, JM; Langella, P (2013). "Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and human intestinal health".

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are the predominant microorganisms found in the small intestine. However, in the distal portion of the small intestine alkaline conditions support gram-negative bacteria of the

3165:. Intestinal lipids regulate glucose homeostasis involving a gut–brain–liver axis. The direct administration of lipids into the upper intestine increases the long chain fatty 2826:

analysis on more than 1000 marketed drugs against 40 gut bacterial strains, demonstrating that 24% of the drugs inhibited the growth of at least one of the bacterial strains.

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De Preter, Vicky; Hamer, Henrike M; Windey, Karen; Verbeke, Kristin (2011). "The impact of pre- and/or probiotics on human colonic metabolism: Does it affect human health?".

3120:. Additionally, butyrate has also been shown to decrease insulin resistance, suggesting gut communities low in butyrate-producing microbes may increase chances of acquiring 2270:

cells (tens of trillions), there is considerable potential for interactions between drugs and an individual's microbiome, including: drugs altering the composition of the

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In addition to humans and vertebrates, some insects also have complex and diverse gut microbiota that play key nutritional roles. Microbial communities associated with

1609: 287:. However, 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species. As a consequence of their abundance in the intestine, bacteria also make up to 60% of the dry mass of 8446:

Dobkin, Jay F.; Saha, Jnan R.; Butler, Vincent P.; Neu, Harold C.; Lindenbaum, John (1983-04-15). "Digoxin-Inactivating Bacteria: Identification in Human Gut Flora".

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biosynthesis; whereas Malawi and Amerindian populations have a high representation of enzymes encoding glutamate synthase and they also have an overrepresentation of

263:. It should also be highlighted that the Mediterranean diet, rich in vegetables and fibers, stimulates the activity and growth of beneficial bacteria for the brain. 11018:

Ipci, Kagan; Altıntoprak, Niyazi; Muluk, Nuray Bayar; Senturk, Mehmet; Cingi, Cemal (2016). "The possible mechanisms of the human microbiome in allergic diseases".

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Further studies have indicated a large difference in the composition of microbiota between European and rural African children. The fecal bacteria of children from

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For more than 51 years it has been known that the administration of low doses of antibacterial agents promotes the growth of farm animals to increase weight gain.

2361:. Microbial metabolites especially short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and secondary bile acids (BAs) play important roles for the human in health and disease states. 2297:, and food toxicants. More than 30 drugs have been shown to be metabolized by gut microbiota. The microbial metabolism of drugs can sometimes inactivate the drug. 9749:

Cho, I.; Yamanishi, S.; Cox, L.; Methé, B. A.; Zavadil, J.; Li, K.; Gao, Z.; Mahana, D.; Raju, K.; Teitler, I.; Li, H.; Alekseyenko, A. V.; Blaser, M. J. (2012).

1587: 2573:. Carbohydrates that are not broken down may absorb too much water and cause runny stools, or lack of SCFAs produced by gut microbiota could cause diarrhea. 1320:; investigators believe that these initial colonizers decrease the oxygen concentration in the gut, which in turn allows obligately anaerobic bacteria like 739: 3180:

Just as gut flora can function in a feedback loop that can drive the development of obesity, there is evidence that restricting intake of calories (i.e.,

2377:

responsible for the first step of secondary bile acids metabolism. Secondary bile acids (BAs) such as DCA and LCA have been demonstrated to inhibit both

9228:"Inhibition of spore germination, growth, and toxin activity of clinically relevant C. difficile strains by gut microbiota derived secondary bile acids" 8661:

Parvez, Md Masud; Basit, Abdul; Jariwala, Parth B.; Gáborik, Zsuzsanna; Kis, Emese; Heyward, Scott; Redinbo, Matthew R.; Prasad, Bhagwat (2021-06-01).

1580: 571:

is associated with changes in the microbiota and the reduction of diversity could drive certain species to extinction; in 2018, researchers proposed a

4925: 140:. Bacteria are the largest and to date, best studied component and 99% of gut bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species. Up to 60% of the dry mass of 7512:

Production of IPA was shown to be completely dependent on the presence of gut microflora and could be established by colonization with the bacterium

11697:

Prakash, Satya; Rodes, Laetitia; Coussa-Charley, Michael; Tomaro-Duchesneau, Catherine; Tomaro-Duchesneau, Catherine; Coussa-Charley; Rodes (2011).

6632:

Jiménez, Esther; Marín, María L.; Martín, Rocío; Odriozola, Juan M.; Olivares, Mónica; Xaus, Jordi; Fernández, Leonides; Rodríguez, Juan M. (2008).

3005:. Also, there is a decrease in the diversity of the microbiome with low levels of fecal Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria, high levels of facultative 9878:"The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics consensus statement on the scope and appropriate use of the term probiotic" 7560:"Potent neuroprotective properties against the Alzheimer beta-amyloid by an endogenous melatonin-related indole structure, indole-3-propionic acid" 10228:"VSL#3 Improves Symptoms in Children with Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Multicenter, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind, Crossover Study" 1246:

found that individuals in higher SES neighborhoods had greater microbiota diversity. People from higher SES neighborhoods also had more abundant

189:. This barrier is essential for supporting a symbiotic relationship with the gut flora while providing protection against pathogenic organisms. 11254:

Mazidi, Mohsen; Rezaie, Peyman; Kengne, Andre Pascal; Mobarhan, Majid Ghayour; Ferns, Gordon A (2016). "Gut microbiome and metabolic syndrome".

6675:"A critical assessment of the "sterile womb" and "in utero colonization" hypotheses: Implications for research on the pioneer infant microbiome" 6385:"A critical assessment of the 'sterile womb' and 'in utero colonization' hypotheses: Implications for research on the pioneer infant microbiome" 10752: 136:

contains the highest microbial density of any human-associated microbial community studied so far, representing between 300 and 1000 different

10227: 2847:. Additionally, metabolites from certain members of the gut flora may influence host signalling pathways, contributing to disorders such as 1483:

that can drive the immune system to produce inflammation in order to protect itself, and that can tamp down the immune response to maintain

1013:

live in the gut, with most estimates at about 500. However, it is probable that 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species, with

3216:. These communities are host-specific, and closely related insect species share comparable similarities in gut microbiota composition. In 445:

alone constitute about 30% of all bacteria in the gut, suggesting that this genus is especially important in the functioning of the host.

2955: 2440: 9000:

Konopelski, Piotr; Ufnal, Marcin (2018-09-14). "Indoles - Gut Bacteria Metabolites of Tryptophan with Pharmacotherapeutic Potential".

8769:"Discovery and characterization of a prevalent human gut bacterial enzyme sufficient for the inactivation of a family of plant toxins" 6008:

Jonkers, Daisy M.A.E. (2016). "Microbial perturbations and modulation in conditions associated with malnutrition and malabsorption".

5223:

Knights, Dan; Ward, Tonya; McKinlay, Christopher; Miller, Hannah; Gonzalez, Antonio; McDonald, Daniel; Knight, Rob (8 October 2014).

2409:(about 10 per ml.) may account for the greater than 10-fold higher incidence of cancer in the colon compared to the small intestine. 8767:

Koppel, Nitzan; Bisanz, Jordan E; Pandelia, Maria-Eirini; Turnbaugh, Peter J; Balskus, Emily P (2018-05-15). Ley, Ruth Emily (ed.).

6775: 11150:"Anti-inflammatory effects of sodium butyrate on human monocytes: potent inhibition of IL-12 and up-regulation of IL-10 production" 5949:

De Filippo, C; Cavalieri, D; Di Paola, M; Ramazzotti, M; Poullet, J. B; Massart, S; Collini, S; Pieraccini, G; Lionetti, P (2010).

2958:

driving changes to intestinal epithelium and the gut flora in turn releasing factors and metabolites that trigger signaling in the

2592:

The composition of the gut microbiome also changes in severe illnesses, due not only to antibiotic use but also to such factors as

1300:

researchers caution that the source of these intrauterine bacteria, whether they are alive, and their role, is not yet understood.

2466:

from 2016 examined the preclinical and small human trials that have been conducted with certain commercially available strains of

11456:"The cockroach origin of the termite gut microbiota: patterns in bacterial community structure reflect major evolutionary events" 523:

Due to the prevalence of fungi in the natural environment, determining which genera and species are permanent members of the gut

7075:

Yoon, My Young; Lee, Keehoon; Yoon, Sang Sun (2014). "Protective role of gut commensal microbes against intestinal infections".

5024:

Bello, Maria G. Dominguez; Knight, Rob; Gilbert, Jack A.; Blaser, Martin J. (4 October 2018). "Preserving microbial diversity".

3892:

Ma, Guangyu; Shi, Yuguo; Meng, Lulu; Fan, Haolong; Tang, Xiaomei; Luo, Huijuan; Wang, Dongju; Zhou, Juan; Xiao, Xiaomin (2023).

1009: – with Bacteroidota and Bacillota constituting 90% of the composition. Somewhere between 300 and 1000 different 11870: 8826:

Alexander, James L.; Wilson, Ian D.; Teare, Julian; Marchesi, Julian R.; Nicholson, Jeremy K.; Kinross, James M. (2017-03-08).

2576:

A reduction in levels of native bacterial species also disrupts their ability to inhibit the growth of harmful species such as

8592:

Haiser, Henry J.; Gootenberg, David B.; Chatman, Kelly; Sirasani, Gopal; Balskus, Emily P.; Turnbaugh, Peter J. (2013-07-19).

7219:

Peterson, Lance W; Artis, David (2014). "Intestinal epithelial cells: Regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis".

2880:

infection can initiate formation of stomach ulcers when the bacteria penetrate the stomach epithelial lining, then causing an

10211: 6930:"Natural history of the infant gut microbiome and impact of antibiotic treatment on bacterial strain diversity and stability" 5465: 3827:

Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Ley, Ruth E.; Hamady, Micah; Fraser-Liggett, Claire M.; Knight, Rob; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (October 2007).

3533: 565:

constitute another large class of gut flora which are important in the metabolism of the bacterial products of fermentation.

11654:"Intestinal Microbiota as Modulators of the Immune System and Neuroimmune System: Impact on the Host Health and Homeostasis" 6884:

Fanaro, S; Chierici, R; Guerrini, P; Vigi, V (2007). "Intestinal microflora in early infancy: Composition and development".

2143:. These materials can be used by host cells, providing a major source of energy and nutrients. Gases (which are involved in 11815: 10380:"Systematic review of randomized controlled trials of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics in inflammatory bowel disease" 3308: 10818:

Blandino, G; Inturri, R; Lazzara, F; Di Rosa, M; Malaguarnera, L (2016). "Impact of gut microbiota on diabetes mellitus".

5780:

Scarpellini, Emidio; Ianiro, Gianluca; Attili, Fabia; Bassanelli, Chiara; De Santis, Adriano; Gasbarrini, Antonio (2015).

1038:

relationship. Though people can survive with no gut flora, the microorganisms perform a host of useful functions, such as

11998: 5499: 4706:

Khanna, Sahil; Tosh, Pritish K (2014). "A Clinician's Primer on the Role of the Microbiome in Human Health and Disease".

2565:

Changing the numbers and species of gut microbiota can reduce the body's ability to ferment carbohydrates and metabolize

1054:, preventing growth of harmful species, regulating the development of the gut, producing vitamins for the host (such as 7869:"Pharmacomicrobiomics: the impact of human microbiome variations on systems pharmacology and personalized therapeutics" 6577:"Human gut colonisation may be initiated in utero by distinct microbial communities in the placenta and amniotic fluid" 2562:

found after their use, which, when they invade the host, cause illnesses that are difficult to treat with antibiotics.

7391:"Microbial metabolism of dietary components to bioactive metabolites: opportunities for new therapeutic interventions" 9927:

Rijkers, Ger T; De Vos, Willem M; Brummer, Robert-Jan; Morelli, Lorenzo; Corthier, Gerard; Marteau, Philippe (2011).

7438:

convert tryptophan to IPA , likely via a tryptophan deaminase. ... IPA also potently scavenges hydroxyl radicals

6324:

Davenport, Emily R.; Sanders, Jon G.; Song, Se Jin; Amato, Katherine R.; Clark, Andrew G.; Knight, Rob (2017-12-27).

3581: 2254:. The decline of these bacteria in the human gut were likely influenced by the shift toward western lifestyles. 970:

Factors that disrupt the microorganism population of the large intestine include antibiotics, stress, and parasites.

31: 10170:

Patterson, Elaine; Cryan, John F; Fitzgerald, Gerald F; Ross, R. Paul; Dinan, Timothy G; Stanton, Catherine (2014).

9358:

Cao H, Xu M, Dong W, Deng B, Wang S, Zhang Y, Wang S, Luo S, Wang W, Qi Y, Gao J, Cao X, Yan F, Wang B (June 2017).

6157:"Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? Evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms" 1459:

of, commensalistic microorganisms to a certain extent and also provides a barrier to pathogenic ones. Specifically,

9108:"Intestinal microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids regulation of immune cell IL-22 production and gut immunity" 5951:"Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa" 2778: 2398: 1427: 254:

The composition of human gut microbiota changes over time, when the diet changes, and as overall health changes. A

17: 6768:"Babies' gut bacteria affected by delivery method: Vaginal delivery promotes mother's gut bacteria in babies' gut" 11865: 4989: 4900: 3157:

homeostasis by maintaining a balance between the uptake and storage of glucose through the metabolic pathways of

3102: 2721: 2526: 1266: 1193:

and showed a marked reduction in biodiversity, while the fecal bacteria of the Boulpon children was dominated by

947:

The small intestine contains a trace amount of microorganisms due to the proximity and influence of the stomach.

545:, brewer's yeast, is known to reach the intestines after being ingested and can be responsible for the condition 260: 8286:

Maini Rekdal, Vayu; Bess, Elizabeth N.; Bisanz, Jordan E.; Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Balskus, Emily P. (2019-06-14).

4092:

Clarke, Gerard; Stilling, Roman M; Kennedy, Paul J; Stanton, Catherine; Cryan, John F; Dinan, Timothy G (2014).

2401:, and such damage can produce carcinogenic mutations in cells of the colon. The high density of bacteria in the 125:, metabolizing dietary and pharmaceutical compounds, controlling immune function, and even behavior through the 10699: 5577:

Steinhoff, U (2005). "Who controls the crowd? New findings and old questions about the intestinal microflora".

4351: 2547: 1500: 1465: 1447: 1317: 535:, though several species in the genus are known to survive at temperatures around 37°C, around the same as the 6093:

Rytter, Maren Johanne Heilskov; Kolte, Lilian; Briend, André; Friis, Henrik; Christensen, Vibeke Brix (2014).

10275:

Crucillà, Salvatore; Caldart, Federico; Michelon, Marco; Marasco, Giovanni; Costantino, Andrea (2024-08-14).

10069:"Drying techniques of probiotic bacteria as an important step towards the development of novel pharmabiotics" 9290:"Functional and comparative metagenomic analysis of bile salt hydrolase activity in the human gut microbiome" 2559: 1972: 2318:. Since then, the impacts of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of many drugs were heavily studied. 1217:

in their mouths and throats. Altering diet may lead to changes in gut microbiota composition and diversity.

251:. Dysregulation of the gut flora has been correlated with a host of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. 8403:

Boerner, Udo; Abbott, Seth; Roe, Robert L. (January 1975). "The Metabolism of Morphine and Heroin in Man".

3982:

Sommer, Felix; Bäckhed, Fredrik (2013). "The gut microbiota – masters of host development and physiology".

3208:

can constitute a majority of the weight of the individuals and perform important roles in the digestion of

2792: 1015: 909: 10858:

Boulangé, Claire L; Neves, Ana Luisa; Chilloux, Julien; Nicholson, Jeremy K; Dumas, Marc-Emmanuel (2016).

9591:"Faecal microbiota transplantation: A life-saving therapy challenged by commercial claims for exclusivity" 6482:

Mueller, Noel T.; Bakacs, Elizabeth; Combellick, Joan; Grigoryan, Zoya; Dominguez-Bello, Maria G. (2015).

1395:

When the study of gut flora began in 1995, it was thought to have three key roles: direct defense against

601: 11063:"Gut microbial metabolites limit the frequency of autoimmune T cells and protect against type 1 diabetes" 3023:

With asthma, two hypotheses have been posed to explain its rising prevalence in the developed world. The

2144: 1976: 1768: 1143:

Gut microbiome composition depends on the geographic origin of populations. Variations in a trade-off of

1039: 727: 9811:

Schneiderhan, J; Master-Hunter, T; Locke, A (2016). "Targeting gut flora to treat and prevent disease".

7443:

Table 2: Microbial metabolites: their synthesis, mechanisms of action, and effects on health and disease

5211:

a group of scientists now report just three distinct ecosystems in the guts of people they have studied.

4454:

Lozupone, Catherine A.; Stombaugh, Jesse I.; Gordon, Jeffrey I.; Jansson, Janet K.; Knight, Rob (2012).

3169:(LCFA-CoA) levels in the upper intestines and suppresses glucose production even under subdiaphragmatic 172: 156:

reach high densities. It is estimated that the human gut microbiota have around a hundred times as many

2938: 2844: 2799: 2702: 2188: 562: 520:

is most frequently found in individuals with hepatitis B cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis B.

513: 186: 4984: 4034:"Keeping bugs in check: The mucus layer as a critical component in maintaining intestinal homeostasis" 3894:"Factors affecting the early establishment of neonatal intestinal flora and its intervention measures" 11988: 7447:

Figure 1: Molecular mechanisms of action of indole and its metabolites on host physiology and disease

6797:

Coppa, G. V.; Zampini, L.; Galeazzi, T.; Gabrielli, O. (2006). "Prebiotics in human milk: A review".

6044: 4206:"Effect of Probiotics on Central Nervous System Functions in Animals and Humans: A Systematic Review" 2543: 2003: 1731: 1292: 9288:

Jones, Brian V.; Begley, Máire; Hill, Colin; Gahan, Cormac G. M.; Marchesi, Julian R. (2008-09-09).

8226:

Spanogiannopoulos, Peter; Bess, Elizabeth N.; Carmody, Rachel N.; Turnbaugh, Peter J. (2016-03-14).

8106:"Predicting and Manipulating Cardiac Drug Inactivation by the Human Gut Bacterium Eggerthella lenta" 7446: 3353:"You Are What You Eat – The Relationship between Diet, Microbiota, and Metabolic Disorders-A Review" 2888:

into the stomach and produce less of the protective mucus. Injury to the stomach lining, leading to

2326:

drug used to treat Congestive Heart Failure) is inactivated by a member of the gut microbiota (i.e.

11934: 11808: 10378:

Dupont, Andrew; Richards; Jelinek, Katherine A; Krill, Joseph; Rahimi, Erik; Ghouri, Yezaz (2014).

10067:

Broeckx, Géraldine; Vandenheuvel, Dieter; Claes, Ingmar J.J; Lebeer, Sarah; Kiekens, Filip (2016).

7442: 3121: 3080: 2997: 2921:

lining, can occur in a number of different diseases. If the gut is perforated, bacteria invade the

2771: 2736: 2717: 2444: 1304:

environment with which the infant interacts. Research has shown that the microbiome of babies born

681: 541: 351: 7520: 7265:

Honda, Kenya; Littman, Dan R (2016). "The microbiota in adaptive immune homeostasis and disease".

6215:"Sick Individuals and Sick (Microbial) Populations: Challenges in Epidemiology and the Microbiome" 2892:, develops when gastric acid overwhelms the defensive properties of cells and inhibits endogenous 2820:

Tests for whether non-antibiotic drugs may impact human gut-associated bacteria were performed by

2716:

There is some evidence that treatment with some probiotic strains of bacteria may be effective in

2019: 1786: 132:

The microbial composition of the gut microbiota varies across regions of the digestive tract. The

10431:"Recent progress on the role of gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease" 10068: 6767: 3288: 3113: 2864: 2785: 2764: 2750: 2624: 2515: 2390: 2015: 1999: 1968: 1793: 1295:

have demonstrated the presence of bacteria in the amniotic fluid and placenta, as well as in the

837: 801: 347: 11699:"Gut microbiota: Next frontier in understanding human health and development of biotherapeutics" 8104:

Haiser, H. J; Gootenberg, D. B; Chatman, K; Sirasani, G; Balskus, E. P; Turnbaugh, P. J (2013).

6575:

Collado, Maria Carmen; Rautava, Samuli; Aakko, Juhani; Isolauri, Erika; Salminen, Seppo (2016).

3112:

in the gut. Butyrate is an energy source for colon cells. butyrate-yielding diets thus decrease

2393:

is associated with an imbalance in the natural microflora (dysbiosis). The secondary bile acid

1135:

microbiomes the dominant enzymes are involved in cysteine metabolism and fermentation pathways.

11148:

Säemann, Marcus D.; Böhmig, Georg A.; Österreicher, Christoph H.; et al. (December 2000).

9505:

Dinan, Timothy G; Cryan, John F (2015). "The impact of gut microbiota on brain and behaviour".

8663:"Quantitative Investigation of Irinotecan Metabolism, Transport, and Gut Microbiome Activation" 2959: 2673: 2608: 2604:, a treatment to kill only pathogenic bacteria and allow the re-establishment of healthy ones. 2448: 2428: 2424: 2405:(about 10 per ml.) that are subject to dysbiosis compared to the relatively low density in the 2168: 2124: 1984: 1946: 1941: 1889: 1692: 1657: 1625: 1536: 1275: 948: 885: 633: 536: 322:

reach high densities. It is estimated that these gut flora have around a hundred times as many

208: 114: 106: 10646:"Interplay Between Exercise and Gut Microbiome in the Context of Human Health and Performance" 7464:"Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites" 3513: 2084:

just to remain the same weight as their normal counterparts. Carbohydrates that humans cannot

1555:. These cells are part of the innate immune system that try to limit the spread of infection. 1503:

drive the production of inflammatory cytokines. Gut flora can also regulate the production of

1439: 11983: 11918: 8945:"From Dietary Fiber to Host Physiology: Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Key Bacterial Metabolites" 6231: 3220:, gut microbiota have been shown to assemble in a deterministic fashion, irrespective of the 2757: 2729: 2432: 2389:

The gut microbiota is important for maintaining homeostasis in the intestine. Development of

2023: 1749: 1699: 1664: 1422: 1400: 813: 751: 556: 546: 182: 122: 11205:

Gao, Z; Yin, J; Zhang, J; Ward, R. E; Martin, R. J; Lefevre, M; Cefalu, W. T; Ye, J (2009).

6673:

Perez-Muñoz, Maria Elisa; Arrieta, Marie-Claire; Ramer-Tait, Amanda E; Walter, Jens (2017).

6383:

Perez-Muñoz, Maria Elisa; Arrieta, Marie-Claire; Ramer-Tait, Amanda E; Walter, Jens (2017).

3454:

Segata, N; Boernigen, D; Tickle, TL; Morgan, XC; Garrett, WS; Huttenhower, C (14 May 2013).

3087:

and acetate. Diets yielding butyrate and acetate from bacterial fermentation show increased

2979:

There is reasonable evidence that correcting gut flora imbalances by taking probiotics with

346:

Many species in the gut have not been studied outside of their hosts because they cannot be

12003: 11957: 11877: 11756: 11523: 11467: 11354: 11124: 10600: 10534: 10478:

Levitt, Michael D.; Duane, William C. (1972-05-04). "Floating Stools – Flatus versus Fat".

9762: 9301: 9119: 8609: 8288:"Discovery and inhibition of an interspecies gut bacterial pathway for Levodopa metabolism" 8117: 7806: 7475: 7274: 6979:"Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of prebiotics" 6588: 6278: 6106: 5962: 5905: 5374: 5277:"The human gastric microbiota: Is it time to rethink the pathogenesis of stomach diseases?" 5150: 5092: 5033: 4618: 4525: 4467: 4363: 3840: 3146: 3029: 2972: 2743: 2664:

that are believed to provide health benefits when consumed. With regard to gut microbiota,

1881: 1489: 1239: 1023: 873: 715: 531:

is a permanent or transient member of the gut flora, obtained from dietary sources such as

9404:"Bile acids as carcinogens in the colon and at other sites in the gastrointestinal system" 6724:

Adlerberth, I; Wold, AE (2009). "Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants".

2705:(standardized manufacturing that can obtain regulatory approval as a drug) of probiotics, 1254:

in the United Kingdom found that higher SES was also linked with a greater gut diversity.

1131:

microbiota into an adult-like configuration happens during the first three years of life.

271:

The microbial composition of the gut microbiota varies across the digestive tract. In the

8: 11887: 11832: 11801: 11567:"The deterministic assembly of complex bacterial communities in germ-free cockroach guts" 7558:

Chyan YJ, Poeggeler B, Omar RA, Chain DG, Frangione B, Ghiso J, Pappolla MA (July 1999).

5529: 5401:"Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth: Roles of Antibiotics, Prebiotics, and Probiotics" 3514:"A Metagenomic Insight Into the Human Microbiome: Its Implications in Health and Disease" 3293: 2876: 2691: 2677: 2645: 2109: 2047: 1964: 1822: 1758: 1031: 897: 197: 11760: 11527: 11471: 11358: 10604: 10538: 10311: 10276: 9766: 9305: 9123: 8613: 8121: 7810: 7479: 7278: 6592: 6282: 6110: 5966: 5909: 5195: 5154: 5096: 5037: 4622: 4529: 4471: 4367: 4281: 4254: 3928: 3893: 3844: 2618:

species may help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea and that taking probiotics with

181:

that of adults by the age of two, coinciding with the development and maturation of the

11993: 11978: 11882: 11777: 11744: 11725: 11698: 11680: 11653: 11591: 11566: 11547: 11488: 11455: 11433: 11385: 11342: 11315: 11291:"The role of gut microbiota in the gut-brain axis: Current challenges and perspectives" 11290: 11231: 11206: 11187: 11098: 11043: 10995: 10968: 10946: 10886: 10859: 10672: 10645: 10621: 10588: 10563: 10522: 10460: 10406: 10379: 10360: 10257: 10147: 10120: 10044: 10019: 9995: 9970: 9857: 9783: 9750: 9726: 9677: 9623: 9590: 9589:

Hvas, Christian Lodberg; Baunwall, Simon Mark Dahl; Erikstrup, Christian (2020-07-01).

9530: 9477: 9452: 9428: 9403: 9332: 9289: 9260: 9227: 9205: 9148: 9107: 9087: 9033: 8982: 8943:

Koh, Ara; De Vadder, Filipe; Kovatcheva-Datchary, Petia; Bäckhed, Fredrik (June 2016).

8925: 8873: 8803: 8768: 8695: 8662: 8638: 8593: 8574: 8380: 8347: 8320: 8287: 8260: 8227: 8198: 8165: 8138: 8105: 8051: 8002: 7975: 7947: 7922: 7893: 7868: 7835: 7794: 7749: 7689: 7664: 7645: 7589: 7498: 7463: 7417: 7390: 7349: 7324: 7298: 7244: 7193: 7168: 7144: 7119: 7100: 7049: 7024: 6954: 6929: 6909: 6897: 6866: 6749: 6701: 6674: 6609: 6576: 6557: 6508: 6483: 6411: 6384: 6360: 6325: 6301: 6266: 6241: 6214: 6181: 6156: 6129: 6094: 6075: 5985: 5950: 5926: 5893: 5857: 5832: 5808: 5781: 5757: 5730: 5710: 5551: 5524: 5471: 5430: 5350: 5325: 5301: 5276: 5249: 5224: 5171: 5138: 5113: 5080: 5057: 4872: 4839: 4820: 4772: 4745: 4683: 4658: 4546: 4513: 4488: 4455: 4230: 4205: 4178: 4153: 4118: 4093: 4063: 4007: 3869: 3828: 3804: 3787: 3659: 3525: 3482: 3455: 3392: 3379: 3352: 3137: 3060: 3024: 3006: 2946: 2942: 2436: 2418: 2039: 1924: 1872: 1869: 1722: 1571: 1405: 1347: 921: 861: 674:. The interaction between the pre-existing gastric microbiota with the introduction of 664: 419: 126: 10523:"Genesis of fecal floatation is causally linked to gut microbial colonization in mice" 9713: 9696: 9013: 6810: 3647: 2914: 2558:

bacteria to grow. Another harmful effect of antibiotics is the increase in numbers of

11897: 11850: 11782: 11730: 11685: 11639: 11596: 11551: 11539: 11493: 11425: 11390: 11372: 11320: 11271: 11236: 11179: 11171: 11132: 11090: 11082: 11035: 11000: 10950: 10938: 10891: 10835: 10800: 10729: 10721: 10677: 10626: 10568: 10550: 10503: 10495: 10452: 10411: 10364: 10352: 10316: 10298: 10249: 10193: 10152: 10101: 10096: 10049: 10000: 9950: 9909: 9820: 9788: 9718: 9669: 9628: 9610: 9571: 9522: 9482: 9433: 9381: 9337: 9319: 9265: 9247: 9209: 9197: 9189: 9153: 9135: 9091: 9079: 9071: 9025: 9017: 8974: 8966: 8917: 8909: 8865: 8857: 8808: 8790: 8746: 8738: 8700: 8682: 8643: 8625: 8566: 8558: 8520: 8512: 8471: 8463: 8428: 8420: 8385: 8367: 8325: 8307: 8265: 8247: 8203: 8185: 8143: 8086: 8043: 8007: 7952: 7898: 7840: 7822: 7741: 7733: 7729: 7694: 7649: 7637: 7629: 7581: 7503: 7422: 7354: 7290: 7236: 7198: 7149: 7092: 7054: 6998: 6959: 6901: 6870: 6858: 6850: 6814: 6753: 6741: 6737: 6706: 6655: 6614: 6549: 6513: 6451: 6416: 6365: 6347: 6306: 6246: 6186: 6134: 6067: 6025: 5990: 5931: 5862: 5813: 5762: 5702: 5667: 5594: 5556: 5525:"Bacterial species involved in the conversion of dietary flavonoids in the human gut" 5475: 5461: 5422: 5355: 5306: 5254: 5176: 5118: 5049: 5006: 4960: 4877: 4859: 4812: 4777: 4723: 4688: 4636: 4631: 4606: 4586: 4551: 4493: 4436: 4428: 4387: 4379: 4332: 4286: 4235: 4183: 4123: 4055: 3999: 3933: 3915: 3874: 3856: 3809: 3759: 3715: 3651: 3587: 3577: 3529: 3487: 3436: 3396: 3384: 3213: 3125: 3095: 3088: 2950: 2885: 2597: 2463: 2193: 2035: 1980: 1895: 1309: 1227: 1006: 849: 568: 255: 11191: 11102: 11047: 10464: 10261: 9861: 9730: 9534: 9037: 8929: 8055: 7135: 7118:

Reinoso Webb, Cynthia; Koboziev, Iurii; Furr, Kathryn L; Grisham, Matthew B (2016).

7104: 6913: 6846: 6561: 6079: 5714: 5434: 5061: 4067: 4011: 3663: 2064:

Without gut flora, the human body would be unable to utilize some of the undigested

1935:

by bacteria in the gut. Indole is produced from tryptophan by bacteria that express

11824: 11772: 11764: 11720: 11710: 11675: 11665: 11631: 11586: 11578: 11531: 11483: 11475: 11437: 11417: 11380: 11362: 11310: 11302: 11263: 11226: 11218: 11161: 11128: 11074: 11027: 10990: 10980: 10928: 10917:"Early infancy microbial and metabolic alterations affect risk of childhood asthma" 10881: 10871: 10827: 10790: 10711: 10667: 10657: 10616: 10608: 10558: 10542: 10487: 10442: 10401: 10391: 10344: 10306: 10293: 10288: 10239: 10183: 10142: 10132: 10091: 10083: 10039: 10031: 9990: 9982: 9940: 9899: 9889: 9847: 9778: 9770: 9708: 9681: 9659: 9618: 9602: 9563: 9514: 9472: 9468: 9464: 9423: 9415: 9371: 9327: 9309: 9255: 9243: 9239: 9181: 9143: 9127: 9063: 9009: 8986: 8956: 8901: 8877: 8847: 8839: 8798: 8780: 8730: 8690: 8674: 8633: 8617: 8578: 8550: 8502: 8455: 8412: 8375: 8359: 8315: 8299: 8255: 8239: 8193: 8177: 8133: 8125: 8078: 8035: 7997: 7987: 7942: 7934: 7888: 7880: 7830: 7814: 7753: 7725: 7684: 7676: 7621: 7593: 7571: 7493: 7483: 7412: 7402: 7344: 7336: 7302: 7282: 7248: 7228: 7188: 7180: 7139: 7131: 7084: 7044: 7036: 6990: 6949: 6941: 6893: 6842: 6806: 6733: 6696: 6686: 6645: 6604: 6596: 6541: 6503: 6495: 6443: 6406: 6396: 6355: 6337: 6296: 6286: 6236: 6226: 6176: 6168: 6124: 6114: 6059: 6017: 5980: 5970: 5921: 5913: 5852: 5844: 5803: 5793: 5752: 5742: 5694: 5659: 5632: 5623:

Gibson, Glenn R (2004). "Fibre and effects on probiotics (the prebiotic concept)".

5586: 5546: 5538: 5453: 5412: 5345: 5337: 5296: 5288: 5244: 5236: 5166: 5158: 5108: 5100: 5041: 4998: 4867: 4851: 4824: 4804: 4767: 4757: 4715: 4678: 4670: 4626: 4578: 4541: 4533: 4483: 4475: 4418: 4371: 4328: 4324: 4276: 4266: 4225: 4217: 4173: 4165: 4113: 4105: 4045: 3991: 3923: 3905: 3864: 3848: 3799: 3749: 3707: 3643: 3521: 3477: 3467: 3426: 3374: 3364: 3066: 3011: 2586: 2394: 2271: 2183: 2097: 2031: 1988: 1960: 1864: 1858: 1636: 1531:

The immune system can also be altered due to the gut bacteria's ability to produce

1305: 1161:

The US population has a high representation of enzymes encoding the degradation of

955: 763: 551: 395: 338: 319: 153: 110: 86: 42: 10087: 8905: 8734: 8594:"Predicting and Manipulating Cardiac Drug Inactivation by the Human Gut Bacterium 8228:"The microbial pharmacists within us: a metagenomic view of xenobiotic metabolism" 8082: 7434:

spp. convert tryptophan to indole-3-aldehyde (I3A) through unidentified enzymes .

6063: 5542: 4855: 3698:

Beaugerie, Laurent; Petit, Jean-Claude (2004). "Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea".

1238:

As of 2020, at least two studies have demonstrated a link between an individual's

11845: 10933: 10916: 10831: 10795: 10778: 10716: 10244: 9986: 9929:"Health benefits and health claims of probiotics: Bridging science and marketing" 9664: 9647: 9606: 9518: 6945: 6650: 6633: 6499: 6291: 6119: 5698: 5417: 5400: 5341: 4719: 3571: 3280: 3244: 3174: 3166: 3162: 2724:. Those organisms most likely to result in a decrease of symptoms have included: 2687: 2546:, may affect the host's health and ability to digest food. Antibiotics can cause 2472: 2406: 2402: 2307: 2279: 2275: 2231: 2027: 1953: 1807: 1713: 1543:. SCFAs stimulate a rapid increase in the production of innate immune cells like 1520: 1443: 1380: 1367: 974: 450: 425: 362: 280: 276: 243:. The systemic importance of the SCFAs and other compounds they produce are like 133: 11207:"Butyrate Improves Insulin Sensitivity and Increases Energy Expenditure in Mice" 10491: 9567: 7795:"Cryptic diversity of cellulose-degrading gut bacteria in industrialized humans" 7625: 7384: 7382: 7380: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7368: 5590: 2282:

profile, and microbial drug metabolism affecting a drug's clinical efficacy and

2054:

indole, in turn decreasing the concentration of indoxyl sulfate in blood plasma.

1425:

against infections. Disruption of the gut flora allows competing organisms like

1095:

also make up a part of the gut flora, but less is known about their activities.

37: 11061:

Mariño, Eliana; Richards, James L.; McLeod, Keiran H.; et al. (May 2017).

10546: 9131: 9067: 8961: 8944: 8827: 8507: 8490: 8363: 5831:

Gerritsen, Jacoline; Smidt, Hauke; Rijkers, Ger; de Vos, Willem (27 May 2011).

5636: 5240: 4952: 4795:

Erdogan, Askin; Rao, Satish S. C (2015). "Small Intestinal Fungal Overgrowth".

4423: 4406: 4375: 3910: 3266: 3209: 3117: 2136: 2081: 2073: 2007: 1849: 1800: 1773: 1516: 1372: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1002: 998: 641: 637: 378: 374: 11306: 11267: 11031: 10985: 10876: 10860:"Impact of the gut microbiota on inflammation, obesity, and metabolic disease" 10188: 10171: 10035: 9945: 9928: 9852: 9839: 9419: 9185: 8416: 7992: 7867:

ElRakaiby M, Dutilh BE, Rizkallah MR, Boleij A, Cole JN, Aziz RK (July 2014).

7407: 7169:"Secretory IgA's complex roles in immunity and mucosal homeostasis in the gut" 7088: 7040: 6691: 6545: 6447: 6401: 6342: 6021: 5848: 5798: 5747: 5663: 5002: 4808: 4315:

Sears, Cynthia L. (2005). "A dynamic partnership: Celebrating our gut flora".

3711: 1399:, fortification of host defense by its role in developing and maintaining the 555:

is likely a permanent member, and is believed to be acquired at birth through

11972: 11860: 11376: 11175: 11086: 10725: 10662: 10554: 10499: 10302: 9894: 9877: 9751:"Antibiotics in early life alter the murine colonic microbiome and adiposity" 9614: 9323: 9251: 9193: 9139: 9075: 9021: 8970: 8913: 8861: 8843: 8794: 8742: 8686: 8629: 8562: 8516: 8467: 8424: 8371: 8311: 8251: 8189: 7826: 7737: 7633: 7576: 7559: 7365: 6854: 6351: 6210: 5833:"Intestinal microbiota in human health and disease: the impact of probiotics" 5292: 4930: 4863: 4674: 4432: 4383: 4271: 3919: 3860: 3754: 3737: 3591: 3154: 3045: 3044:. Both hypotheses converge on the role of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in 3041: 3037: 2893: 2889: 2669: 2661: 2503: 2423:

The gut–brain axis is the biochemical signaling that takes place between the

2294: 2250:, a polymer abundant in insects, which are part of the diet of many nonhuman 2113: 2089: 1936: 1779: 1645: 1476: 1114: 1043: 825: 652: 629: 456: 437: 307:

are also present in the gut flora, but less is known about their activities.

204: 66: 11768: 11367: 10447: 10430: 9314: 9170: 8621: 8459: 8303: 8243: 8181: 8129: 7818: 7767: 7680: 7488: 6994: 5975: 5162: 5045: 4514:"A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing" 3431: 3414: 2676:

and stimulate the growth or activity of advantageous gut flora by acting as

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Brune, A. (2014). "Symbiotic digestion of lignocellulose in termite guts".

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Clauss, Matthieu; Gérard, Philippe; Mosca, Alexis; Leclerc, Marion (2021).

10630: 10572: 10456: 10415: 10356: 10320: 10253: 10197: 10156: 10105: 10053: 10004: 9954: 9913: 9824: 9792: 9722: 9673: 9632: 9575: 9526: 9486: 9437: 9385: 9341: 9269: 9201: 9157: 9083: 9029: 8978: 8921: 8869: 8852: 8812: 8750: 8704: 8678: 8647: 8570: 8554: 8389: 8329: 8269: 8207: 8147: 8090: 8047: 8011: 7956: 7902: 7844: 7713: 7698: 7641: 7585: 7532: 7507: 7459: 7426: 7358: 7340: 7294: 7240: 7202: 7153: 7096: 7058: 6978: 6963: 6905: 6862: 6818: 6745: 6710: 6659: 6618: 6553: 6517: 6455: 6420: 6369: 6310: 6250: 6190: 6172: 6138: 6071: 6029: 5994: 5935: 5866: 5817: 5766: 5706: 5671: 5598: 5560: 5426: 5359: 5310: 5258: 5180: 5122: 5053: 5010: 4964: 4881: 4816: 4781: 4727: 4692: 4640: 4590: 4582: 4555: 4497: 4440: 4391: 4336: 4290: 4239: 4187: 4127: 4059: 4003: 3937: 3878: 3813: 3719: 3655: 3491: 3440: 3388: 3158: 3142: 3109: 3002: 2981: 2922: 2910: 2884:. In turn, the inflammation damages parietal cells which release excessive 2881: 2852: 2509: 2263: 2222: 2152: 2140: 2093: 2065: 2011: 1900: 1740: 1540: 1451: 1209: 1186: 1110: 1027: 990: 775: 504: 407: 370: 327: 216: 201: 193: 161: 11670: 11166: 11149: 11062: 10507: 10137: 9451:

Mayer, E. A; Knight, R; Mazmanian, S. K; Cryan, J. F; Tillisch, K (2014).

9360:"Secondary bile acid-induced dysbiosis promotes intestinal carcinogenesis" 8524: 8475: 8432: 8018: 7884: 7745: 7665:"The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota" 7002: 5457: 5326:"Gastric Parietal Cell Physiology and Helicobacter pylori-Induced Disease" 3763: 2192:

is unique because it is not a species of bacteria, but rather a member of

1838: 1170: 11582: 11479: 10348: 7320: 5782:"The human gut microbiota and virome: Potential therapeutic implications" 4109: 3221: 3054: 3033: 2963: 2497: 2452: 2156: 2132: 1956: 1833: 1685: 1552: 1544: 1532: 1484: 1469: 1460: 1352: 1166: 934: 670: 658: 492: 474: 468: 462: 431: 413: 401: 389: 383: 212: 11421: 10777:

Burisch, Johan; Jess, Tine; Martinato, Matteo; Lakatos, Peter L (2013).

10612: 9774: 9226:

Thanissery, Rajani; Winston, Jenessa A.; Theriot, Casey M. (June 2017).

8785: 7286: 5917: 5104: 4926:"Man's body brews its own beer after yeast take over his gut microbiome" 4537: 4479: 4169: 4032:

Faderl, Martin; Noti, Mario; Corazza, Nadia; Mueller, Christoph (2015).

3995: 3852: 3472: 2652: 1967:(PXR) in intestinal cells, thereby facilitating mucosal homeostasis and 1332:

to become established and thrive. Breast-fed babies become dominated by

11855: 11715: 10969:"Asthma and the microbiome: Defining the critical window in early life" 10396: 7184: 6095:"The Immune System in Children with Malnutrition – A Systematic Review" 3369: 3303: 3001:

these changes can relate to the type of irritation such as diarrhea or

2710: 2706: 2683: 2665: 2657: 2456: 2315: 2290: 2148: 2051: 1932: 1828: 1813: 1618: 1504: 1495: 1363: 1145: 1047: 788: 646: 625: 584: 355: 240: 102: 94: 11535: 11222: 9646:

Brandt, Lawrence J.; Borody, Thomas Julius; Campbell, Jordana (2011).

9376: 9359: 8942: 8039: 7325:"Metabolites: messengers between the microbiota and the immune system" 6600: 4569:

Shanahan, Fergus (2002). "The host–microbe interface within the gut".

2205:-producing archaeal species in the human gastrointestinal microbiota. 2030:, a compound that is toxic in high concentrations and associated with 1434: 192:

The relationship between some gut microbiota and humans is not merely

11939: 11913: 11840: 9904: 8225: 5948: 4221: 4050: 4033: 3634:

Guarner, F; Malagelada, J (2003). "Gut flora in health and disease".

3225: 3217: 2926: 2856: 2641: 2485: 2467: 2358: 2227: 2085: 1817: 1548: 1270:

Illustration showing the developmental colonization of gut microbiota

1162: 1083: 1067: 1059: 1035: 1019:(phylum firmicutes) being the most common species in healthy adults. 994: 676: 620:, most microorganisms cannot survive there. The main bacteria of the 588: 587:

is a classification of living organisms based on its bacteriological

524: 486: 366: 232: 228: 224: 11078: 8166:"Chemical transformation of xenobiotics by the human gut microbiota" 8164:

Koppel, Nitzan; Maini Rekdal, Vayu; Balskus, Emily P. (2017-06-23).

7938: 7232: 11793: 11745:"Linking Long-Term Dietary Patterns with Gut Microbial Enterotypes" 9174:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

5139:"Linking Long-Term Dietary Patterns with Gut Microbial Enterotypes" 3415:"The gut microbiota of insects–diversity in structure and function" 3299:

List of microbiota species of the lower reproductive tract of women

3260: 3170: 3084: 2822: 2593: 2570: 2555: 2521: 2491: 2289:

Apart from carbohydrates, gut microbiota can also metabolize other

2283: 2212:, which are not produced by the body or produced in little amount. 1480: 1417: 1396: 1296: 1178: 480: 333: 311: 244: 220: 145: 118: 70: 47: 11256:

Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews

11147: 10700:"Helicobacter pylori: The Past, Present, and Future in Management" 10224: 6672: 6382: 5731:"The gut mycobiome of the Human Microbiome Project healthy cohort" 4762: 4204:

Wang, Huiying; Lee, In-Seon; Braun, Christoph; Enck, Paul (2016).

1507:

by the immune system. One function of this regulation is to cause

1499:

species appear to drive an anti-inflammatory response, while some

1181:

were compared to that of children from the small rural village of

8828:"Gut microbiota modulation of chemotherapy efficacy and toxicity" 6926: 6433: 5779: 5649: 4983:

Browne, Hillary P.; Shao, Yan; Lawley, Trevor D. (October 2022).

4456:"Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota" 3570:

Sherwood, Linda; Willey, Joanne; Woolverton, Christopher (2013).

3205: 3181: 2848: 2695: 2341:

active form of the irinotecan causing gastrointestinal toxicity.

2311: 2251: 2202: 2197: 2105: 2077: 2043: 1508: 1243: 1182: 1092: 1063: 1051: 1010: 617: 572: 498: 300: 296: 284: 272: 137: 82: 74: 10589:"Extensive impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria" 10172:"Gut microbiota, the pharmabiotics they produce and host health" 6481: 6043:

Million, Matthieu; Diallo, Aldiouma; Raoult, Didier (May 2017).

4951:

Painter, Kelly; Cordell, Barbara J.; Sticco, Kristin L. (2024),

3826: 1918: 279:, relatively few species of bacteria are generally present. The 200:

relationship. Some human gut microorganisms benefit the host by

8591: 8285: 8103: 7551: 7458:

Wikoff WR, Anfora AT, Liu J, Schultz PG, Lesley SA, Peters EC,

7117: 6831: 5077: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3105: 2918: 2898: 2860: 2614:

There is reasonable evidence that taking probiotics containing

2480: 2354: 2247: 2179: 2175: 2160: 2069: 1928: 1907: 1706: 1671: 1454:

and present them to different innate and adaptive immune cells.

1376: 1155: 1150: 1104: 1088: 1071: 1055: 986: 951: 532: 236: 98: 90: 11650: 11513: 10913: 10857: 10274: 10066: 9810: 8890: 7923:"The human microbiome: at the interface of health and disease" 7866: 7120:"Protective and pro-inflammatory roles of intestinal bacteria" 6267:"Diversity of Bifidobacteria within the Infant Gut Microbiota" 4453: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3603: 3601: 10817: 10277:"Functional Abdominal Bloating and Gut Microbiota: An Update" 8766: 8348:"Microbiome Is a Functional Modifier of P450 Drug Metabolism" 8221: 8219: 8217: 7973: 6796: 2913:

can harm the host if they extrude from the intestinal tract.

2672:

compounds that pass undigested through the upper part of the

2551: 2350: 2243: 2235: 2164: 2117: 2101: 1995: 1877: 1678: 1524: 1279: 1214: 978: 315: 304: 292: 288: 248: 149: 141: 113:. The gut microbiota has broad impacts, including effects on 78: 11343:"Rapid changes in the gut microbiome during human evolution" 10169: 9453:"Gut Microbes and the Brain: Paradigm Shift in Neuroscience" 8825: 8489:

Sahota, S. S.; Bramley, P. M.; Menzies, I. S. (1982-02-01).

7610: 7025:"The role of microbiome in central nervous system disorders" 4091: 2542:

Altering the numbers of gut bacteria, for example by taking

2159:, are also produced by fermentation. Acetic acid is used by 176:

Composition and distribution of gut microbiota in human body

11621: 11564: 11340: 11060: 11017: 10776: 10018:

Pandey, Kavita. R; Naik, Suresh. R; Vakil, Babu. V (2015).

9926: 6631: 6574: 6530: 5830: 5216: 4607:"Towards the human intestinal microbiota phylogenetic core" 4094:"Minireview: Gut Microbiota: The Neglected Endocrine Organ" 3693: 3598: 3453: 3235: 2701:

The term "pharmabiotics" is used in various ways, to mean:

2566: 2239: 1979:

to the brain, IPA confers a neuroprotective effect against

1431:

to become established that otherwise are kept in abeyance.

1251: 323: 157: 11565:

Mikaelyan, A.; Thompson, C.; Hofer, M.; Brune, A. (2016).

11253: 10377: 9967: 9552: 8720: 8660: 8214: 8068: 6883: 4352:"Gut Microbiotas and Host Evolution: Scaling Up Symbiosis" 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3456:"Computational meta'omics for microbial community studies" 2976:

and several Proteobacteria appear to be over-represented.

2607:

Antibiotics alter the population of the microbiota in the

2080:

environment and lacking in gut flora need to eat 30% more

2026:

for AhR. Indole can also be metabolized by the liver into

9450: 8163: 6323: 5890: 5222: 4838:

Hallen-Adams, Heather E.; Suhr, Mallory J. (2016-10-13).

4603: 3576:(9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 713–721. 3228:

may also be playing a role in the selection of lineages.

3184:) can drive changes to the composition of the gut flora. 2554:

directly, changing the levels of microbiota, or allowing

2208:

Gut microbiota also serve as a source of vitamins K and B

1512: 448:

Fungal genera that have been detected in the gut include

441:, are present to a lesser extent. Species from the genus 11289:

Chen, Xiao; d'Souza, Roshan; Hong, Seong-Tshool (2013).

10643: 9507:

Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care

9225: 9053: 7662: 6155:

Alcock, Joe; Maley, Carlo C; Aktipis, C. Athena (2014).

5942: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5685:

Ley, Ruth E (2010). "Obesity and the human microbiome".

5487: 5485: 5023: 4031: 3569: 3350: 2443:(HPA axis), sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the 1535:

that can affect cells in the immune system. For example

11741: 10758:. The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. 2013 10585: 8024: 7862: 7860: 7858: 7856: 7854: 7791: 7557: 5135: 3670: 3351:

Moszak, M; Szulińska, M; Bogdański, P (15 April 2020).

2917:, which occurs when bacteria leave the gut through its 2246:. Bacterial strains found in primates can also degrade 1472:(molecules formed from metabolism) produced from food. 1308:

differs significantly from that of babies delivered by

30:"Enteric bacteria" redirects here. For other uses, see 10212:"Non-prescription therapeutics for IBS: Where are we?" 7663:

Rajilić-Stojanović, Mirjana; De Vos, Willem M (2014).

7457: 6760: 6263: 6092: 6010:

Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology

5894:"Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography" 4571:

Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology

3731: 3729: 3700:

Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology

2989:

can reduce visceral pain and gut inflammation in IBD.

10915:

William W; Turvey, Stuart E; Brett Finlay, B (2015).

10697: 9874: 9588: 9500: 9498: 9496: 7974:

Hutter T, Gimbert C, Bouchard F, Lapointe FJ (2015).

6634:"Is meconium from healthy newborns actually sterile?" 5873: 5773: 5727: 5482: 5196:"Bacteria Divide People Into 3 Types, Scientists Say" 4255:"Update on the gut microbiome in health and diseases" 3015:, and increased ratios of Firmicutes: Bacteroidetes. 2653:

Probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and pharmabiotics

2600:. Negative effects from this have led to interest in 2006:(AhR) in intestinal immune cells, in turn increasing 342:, a dimorphic fungus that grows as a yeast in the gut 247:

and the gut flora itself appears to function like an

144:

is bacteria. Over 99% of the bacteria in the gut are

10779:"The burden of inflammatory bowel disease in Europe" 10520: 10333: 9748: 9645: 9287: 8488: 7851: 7525: 5824: 4950: 4901:"What fungi live in the gut? Meet the gut mycobiome" 3256: 3116:

by providing sufficient energy for the formation of

2644:

advances, with the changes similar to those seen in

2532: 1945:

metabolizes tryptophan into indole and subsequently

1563: 1539:(SCFA) can be produced by some gut bacteria through 1446:

transfer antigens (Ag) from the lumen of the gut to

1291:

species were present in placental biopsies. Several

1022:

Research suggests that the relationship between gut

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Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition

8491:"The Fermentation of Lactulose by Colonic Bacteria" 8445: 8341: 8339: 7916: 7914: 7912: 7714:"Intestinal flora and endogenous vitamin synthesis" 6042: 5366: 4840:"Fungi in the healthy human gastrointestinal tract" 4744:Cui, Lijia; Morris, Alison; Ghedin, Elodie (2013). 4199: 4197: 3726: 2632:infection following systemic antibiotic treatment. 2525:), had the most potential to be useful for certain 1435:

Development of enteric protection and immune system

9493: 9401: 9104: 6477: 6475: 6473: 6471: 6469: 6467: 6465: 6154: 4656: 4246: 4154:"Bugging inflammation: Role of the gut microbiota" 3136:The gut flora have been implicated in obesity and 3124:. Butyrate-yielding diets may also have potential 3071:posited for the rise of food and other allergies. 2300: 2068:it consumes, because some types of gut flora have 219:, which are then absorbed by the host. Intestinal 10020:"Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics- a review" 9397: 9395: 8536: 8534: 8346:Dempsey, Joseph L.; Cui, Julia Yue (2019-10-19). 7166: 6150: 6148: 4510: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3738:"The Microbial Contribution to Human Faecal Mass" 3633: 3153:Additionally, the liver plays a dominant role in 3131: 2694:combining probiotics and prebiotics in a form of 2171:, and butyric acid provides energy to gut cells. 1411: 527:is difficult. Research is underway as to whether 11970: 10846: 10770: 10327: 9882:Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 8832:Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology 8540: 8402: 8336: 8281: 8279: 7909: 7318: 6976: 6484:"The infant microbiome development: mom matters" 4985:"Mother–infant transmission of human microbiota" 4982: 4837: 4203: 4194: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4021: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3898:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 2072:that human cells lack for breaking down certain 11347:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 11204: 10218: 10017: 9294:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8999: 8439: 6462: 5955:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5721: 4959:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 4743: 4405:Walker, Alan W.; Hoyles, Lesley (August 2023). 3735: 2104:that the body failed to digest and absorb like 1523:; however, in another pathway, gut flora cause 1257: 11509: 11507: 11449: 11447: 11336: 11334: 10966: 10698:Kamboj, AK; Cotter, TG; Oxentenko, AS (2017). 9806: 9804: 9802: 9392: 9049: 9047: 8531: 7451: 7070: 7068: 7018: 7016: 7014: 7012: 6723: 6208: 6145: 5274: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 3697: 3079:The connection between the gut microbiota and 2932: 2123:Bacteria turn carbohydrates they ferment into 1345:infants is more diverse, with high numbers of 1263:food, water, and other environmental sources. 602:Human microbiome § Gastrointestinal tract 11809: 9694: 9648:"Endoscopic Fecal Microbiota Transplantation" 9444: 9357: 8276: 7218: 6427: 4210:Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility 4074: 4018: 3981: 3944: 3770: 1588: 1515:. 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Other genera, such as 352:Human Microbiome Project 231:as well as metabolizing 50:present in the human gut 11907:Disorders and therapies 11769:10.1126/science.1208344 11368:10.1073/pnas.1419136111 10704:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 10448:10.1111/1751-2980.12087 9457:Journal of Neuroscience 9315:10.1073/pnas.0804437105 9002:Current Drug Metabolism 8622:10.1126/science.1235872 8460:10.1126/science.6836275 8405:Drug Metabolism Reviews 8304:10.1126/science.aau6323 8244:10.1038/nrmicro.2016.17 8182:10.1126/science.aag2770 8130:10.1126/science.1235872 7819:10.1126/science.adj9223 7681:10.1111/1574-6976.12075 7539:. 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The gastrointestinal 11871:In bacterial vaginosis 11636:10.1002/mnfr.201000451 11131::10.1038/nature04753. 11127::2006Natur.441..235B. 10753:"Peptic ulcer disease" 10650:Frontiers in Nutrition 8679:10.1124/dmd.121.000476 8555:10.1124/dmd.114.058354 7521:IPA metabolism diagram 7514:Clostridium sporogenes 7436:Clostridium sporogenes 7341:10.1101/gad.284091.116 6436:Trends in Microbiology 6173:10.1002/bies.201400071 6052:Microbial Pathogenesis 5892:Gordon, J. I. (2012). 5493:"The normal gut flora" 4583:10.1053/bega.2002.0342 3786:Quigley, E. M (2013). 2960:enteric nervous system 2937:The two main types of 2674:gastrointestinal tract 2628:) may help to prevent 2609:gastrointestinal tract 2449:enteric nervous system 2439:systems including the 2429:central nervous system 2425:gastrointestinal tract 2226:) are prevalent among 2076:. Rodents raised in a 2012:triggers the secretion 1942:Clostridium sporogenes 1890:chronic kidney disease 1455: 1276:gastrointestinal tract 1271: 1125: 886:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 343: 177: 51: 11167:10.1096/fj.00-0359fje 9838:Baker, Monya (2012). 9112:Nature Communications 7885:10.1089/omi.2014.0018 6995:10.1093/jn/125.6.1401 6774:. 18 September 2019. 5837:Genes & Nutrition 5458:10.1039/9781847557940 3128:suppression effects. 3110:inflammatory response 2758:Lactobacillus reuteri 2730:Bifidobacterium breve 2630:Clostridium difficile 2379:Clostridium difficile 2345:Secondary metabolites 2216:Cellulose degradation 1442: 1428:Clostridium difficile 1423:inflammatory response 1401:intestinal epithelium 1269: 1103:Further information: 1082:Further information: 814:Staphylococcus aureus 752:Enterococcus faecalis 557:vertical transmission 547:auto-brewery syndrome 537:core body temperature 365:in the human gut are 336: 183:intestinal epithelium 175: 123:intestinal epithelium 40: 11583:10.1128/AEM.03700-15 11480:10.1128/AEM.04206-13 10349:10.1038/ajg.2014.202 6534:Current Microbiology 4110:10.1210/me.2014-1108 3309:Verotoxin-producing 3147:Western-pattern diet 3030:Western pattern diet 2973:Enterococcus faecium 2744:Enterococcus faecium 2569:acids and may cause 2258:Pharmacomicrobiomics 1765:Mucosal homeostasis: 1490:Bacteroides fragilis 1240:socioeconomic status 1234:Socioeconomic status 874:Clostridium septicum 716:Bacteroides fragilis 160:as there are in the 11761:2011Sci...334..105W 11671:10.1155/2015/931574 11528:2015MolEc..24.5284M 11472:2014ApEnM..80.2261D 11422:10.1038/nrmicro3182 11359:2014PNAS..11116431M 11353:(46): 16431–16435. 10613:10.1038/nature25979 10605:2018Natur.555..623M 10539:2022NatSR..1218109A 10138:10.1155/2009/275287 9775:10.1038/nature11400 9767:2012Natur.488..621C 9463:(46): 15490–15496. 9306:2008PNAS..10513580J 9300:(36): 13580–13585. 9124:2020NatCo..11.4457Y 8786:10.7554/eLife.33953 8614:2013Sci...341..295H 8122:2013Sci...341..295H 7811:2024Sci...383j9223M 7724:(Suppl 1): S43–45. 7620:(24): 13273–13311. 7570:(31): 21937–21942. 7480:2009PNAS..106.3698W 7287:10.1038/nature18848 7279:2016Natur.535...75H 6593:2016NatSR...623129C 6283:2012PLoSO...736957T 6111:2014PLoSO...9j5017R 5967:2010PNAS..10714691D 5961:(33): 14691–14696. 5918:10.1038/nature11053 5910:2012Natur.486..222Y 5155:2011Sci...334..105W 5105:10.1038/nature09944 5097:2011Natur.473..174. 5038:2018Sci...362...33B 4623:2009EnvMi..11.2574T 4538:10.1038/nature08821 4530:2010Natur.464...59. 4480:10.1038/nature11550 4472:2012Natur.489..220L 4411:Nature Microbiology 4368:2016TEcoE..31..539S 4170:10.1038/cti.2016.12 3996:10.1038/nrmicro2974 3853:10.1038/nature06244 3845:2007Natur.449..804T 3473:10.1038/msb.2013.22 3294:List of human flora 2877:Helicobacter pylori 2830:Effects of exercise 2692:dietary supplements 2646:metabolic syndromes 2131:. Products include 2110:lactose intolerance 1985:Alzheimer's disease 1965:pregnane X receptor 1963:. IPA binds to the 1925:bioactive compounds 1823:4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal 1511:to class switch to 1362:Caesarean section, 1074:risk for the host. 956:rod-shaped bacteria 898:Salmonella enterica 682:disease progression 85:, that live in the 11716:10.2147/BTT.S19099 11295:Protein & Cell 10527:Scientific Reports 10397:10.2147/CEG.S27530 10214:. 30 January 2024. 8034:(7): 11206–11215. 7805:(6688): eadj9223. 7185:10.1038/mi.2011.41 7173:Mucosal Immunology 6581:Scientific Reports 5579:Immunology Letters 5200:The New York Times 3370:10.3390/nu12041096 3138:metabolic syndrome 3025:hygiene hypothesis 3007:anaerobic bacteria 2947:ulcerative colitis 2911:commensal bacteria 2901:, and bile salts. 2550:by irritating the 2040:activated charcoal 2020:intestinal L cells 1870:Smooth muscle cell 1456: 1359:, and clostridia. 1355:, bifidobacteria, 1348:Enterobacteriaceae 1272: 1221:Race and ethnicity 960:Enterobacteriaceae 922:Peptostreptococcus 862:Clostridium tetani 740:Bacteroides oralis 622:gastric microbiota 420:Peptostreptococcus 361:The four dominant 344: 178: 121:, maintaining the 52: 11966: 11965: 11755:(6052): 105–108. 11536:10.1111/mec.13376 11522:(20): 5824–5895. 11516:Molecular Ecology 11223:10.2337/db08-1637 11160:(15): 2380–2382. 11154:The FASEB Journal 11123:(7090): 235–238. 11067:Nature Immunology 10927:(307): 307ra152. 10599:(7698): 623–628. 10030:(12): 7577–7587. 9761:(7413): 621–626. 9707:(9371): 512–519. 9595:eClinicalMedicine 9377:10.1002/ijc.30643 9370:(11): 2545–2556. 8608:(6143): 295–298. 8596:Eggerthella lenta 8454:(4594): 325–327. 8116:(6143): 295–298. 8040:10.1002/jcb.28396 7474:(10): 3698–3703. 7335:(14): 1589–1597. 6601:10.1038/srep23129 6211:Dowd, Jennifer B. 5904:(7402): 222–227. 5792:(12): 1007–1012. 5467:978-0-85404-284-5 5450:Food Microbiology 5149:(6052): 105–108. 5091:(7346): 174–180. 4905:Quadram Institute 4617:(10): 2574–2584. 4466:(7415): 220–230. 3839:(7164): 804–810. 3642:(9356): 512–519. 3535:978-0-12-799922-7 3214:nitrogen fixation 3126:colorectal cancer 2905:Bowel perforation 2886:hydrochloric acid 2598:immune compromise 2464:systematic review 2391:intestinal cancer 2061: 2060: 2042:), an intestinal 2036:renal dysfunction 2000:indole-3-aldehyde 1981:cerebral ischemia 1961:hydroxyl radicals 1948:3-indolepropionic 1896:Renal dysfunction 1604: 1576: 1310:caesarean section 1007:Verrucomicrobiota 945: 944: 850:Proteus mirabilis 569:Industrialization 256:systematic review 211:(SCFAs), such as 16:(Redirected from 12011: 11989:Digestive system 11956: 11955: 11825:Human microbiota 11818: 11811: 11804: 11795: 11794: 11790: 11780: 11738: 11728: 11718: 11693: 11683: 11673: 11647: 11605: 11604: 11594: 11577:(4): 1256–1263. 11562: 11556: 11555: 11511: 11502: 11501: 11491: 11466:(7): 2261–2269. 11451: 11442: 11441: 11405: 11399: 11398: 11388: 11370: 11338: 11329: 11328: 11318: 11286: 11280: 11279: 11251: 11245: 11244: 11234: 11217:(7): 1509–1517. 11202: 11196: 11195: 11169: 11145: 11136: 11113: 11107: 11106: 11058: 11052: 11051: 11015: 11009: 11008: 10998: 10988: 10964: 10955: 10954: 10936: 10911: 10900: 10899: 10889: 10879: 10855: 10844: 10843: 10815: 10809: 10808: 10798: 10774: 10768: 10767: 10765: 10763: 10757: 10749: 10738: 10737: 10719: 10695: 10686: 10685: 10675: 10665: 10641: 10635: 10634: 10624: 10583: 10577: 10576: 10566: 10518: 10512: 10511: 10475: 10469: 10468: 10450: 10426: 10420: 10419: 10409: 10399: 10375: 10369: 10368: 10331: 10325: 10324: 10314: 10296: 10272: 10266: 10265: 10247: 10222: 10216: 10215: 10208: 10202: 10201: 10191: 10167: 10161: 10160: 10150: 10140: 10116: 10110: 10109: 10099: 10082:(1–2): 303–318. 10073: 10064: 10058: 10057: 10047: 10015: 10009: 10008: 9998: 9965: 9959: 9958: 9948: 9939:(9): 1291–1296. 9924: 9918: 9917: 9907: 9897: 9872: 9866: 9865: 9855: 9835: 9829: 9828: 9808: 9797: 9796: 9786: 9746: 9735: 9734: 9716: 9692: 9686: 9685: 9667: 9643: 9637: 9636: 9626: 9586: 9580: 9579: 9550: 9539: 9538: 9502: 9491: 9490: 9480: 9448: 9442: 9441: 9431: 9399: 9390: 9389: 9379: 9355: 9346: 9345: 9335: 9317: 9285: 9274: 9273: 9263: 9223: 9214: 9213: 9168: 9162: 9161: 9151: 9102: 9096: 9095: 9051: 9042: 9041: 8997: 8991: 8990: 8964: 8955:(6): 1332–1345. 8940: 8934: 8933: 8900:(4): 1299–1307. 8888: 8882: 8881: 8855: 8823: 8817: 8816: 8806: 8788: 8764: 8755: 8754: 8718: 8709: 8708: 8698: 8658: 8652: 8651: 8641: 8589: 8583: 8582: 8549:(9): 1508–1513. 8538: 8529: 8528: 8510: 8486: 8480: 8479: 8443: 8437: 8436: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8383: 8343: 8334: 8333: 8323: 8283: 8274: 8273: 8263: 8223: 8212: 8211: 8201: 8161: 8152: 8151: 8141: 8101: 8095: 8094: 8066: 8060: 8059: 8022: 8016: 8015: 8005: 7995: 7971: 7965: 7964: 7950: 7918: 7907: 7906: 7896: 7864: 7849: 7848: 7838: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7779: 7768:"The Microbiome" 7764: 7758: 7757: 7709: 7703: 7702: 7692: 7660: 7654: 7653: 7614:Chemical Reviews 7608: 7602: 7601: 7579: 7555: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7544: 7529: 7523: 7518: 7501: 7491: 7455: 7449: 7440: 7420: 7410: 7386: 7363: 7362: 7352: 7316: 7307: 7306: 7262: 7253: 7252: 7216: 7207: 7206: 7196: 7164: 7158: 7157: 7147: 7115: 7109: 7108: 7072: 7063: 7062: 7052: 7020: 7007: 7006: 6989:(6): 1401–1412. 6974: 6968: 6967: 6957: 6940:(343): 343ra81. 6924: 6918: 6917: 6886:Acta Paediatrica 6881: 6875: 6874: 6829: 6823: 6822: 6794: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6783: 6764: 6758: 6757: 6726:Acta Paediatrica 6721: 6715: 6714: 6704: 6694: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6653: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6612: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6528: 6522: 6521: 6511: 6479: 6460: 6459: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6414: 6404: 6380: 6374: 6373: 6363: 6345: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6304: 6294: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6244: 6234: 6206: 6195: 6194: 6184: 6152: 6143: 6142: 6132: 6122: 6090: 6084: 6083: 6049: 6040: 6034: 6033: 6005: 5999: 5998: 5988: 5978: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5929: 5888: 5871: 5870: 5860: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5811: 5801: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5760: 5750: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5647: 5641: 5640: 5620: 5603: 5602: 5574: 5565: 5564: 5554: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5510: 5504: 5497: 5489: 5480: 5479: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5420: 5405:Gastroenterology 5396: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5353: 5336:(8): 2158–2173. 5330:Gastroenterology 5321: 5315: 5314: 5304: 5272: 5263: 5262: 5252: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5208: 5206: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5174: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5116: 5075: 5066: 5065: 5021: 5015: 5014: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4972: 4971: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4938: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4897: 4886: 4885: 4875: 4835: 4829: 4828: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4775: 4765: 4741: 4732: 4731: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4686: 4654: 4645: 4644: 4634: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4549: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4491: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4426: 4417:(8): 1392–1396. 4402: 4396: 4395: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4312: 4295: 4294: 4284: 4274: 4259:World J Methodol 4250: 4244: 4243: 4233: 4222:10.5056/jnm16018 4201: 4192: 4191: 4181: 4149: 4132: 4131: 4121: 4104:(8): 1221–1238. 4089: 4072: 4071: 4053: 4051:10.1002/iub.1374 4029: 4016: 4015: 3979: 3942: 3941: 3931: 3913: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3872: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3807: 3783: 3768: 3767: 3757: 3733: 3724: 3723: 3695: 3668: 3667: 3631: 3596: 3595: 3567: 3540: 3539: 3509: 3496: 3495: 3485: 3475: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3434: 3410: 3401: 3400: 3382: 3372: 3348: 3332: 3328: 3311:Escherichia coli 3283: 3278: 3277: 3276: 3269: 3264: 3263: 3114:gut permeability 3106:effector T cells 3067:Faecalibacterium 3046:immunomodulation 3012:Escherichia coli 2807:Fecal floatation 2688:food ingredients 2587:Fecal transplant 2395:deoxycholic acid 2272:human microbiome 2184:dietary minerals 2098:oligosaccharides 2032:vascular disease 1989:Lactobacillaceae 1969:barrier function 1949: 1921: 1920: 1910: 1903: 1888:Associated with 1884: 1865:Oxidative stress 1859:vascular disease 1857:Associated with 1853: 1842: 1841:fibril formation 1803: 1796: 1789: 1782: 1761: 1754: 1745: 1734: 1727: 1725: 1718: 1709: 1702: 1695: 1688: 1681: 1674: 1667: 1660: 1653: 1641: 1632: 1621: 1612: 1602: 1597: 1590: 1583: 1574: 1564: 1371:disease such as 968:Bifidobacterium. 764:Escherichia coli 696: 695: 552:Candida albicans 508:, among others. 396:Faecalibacterium 339:Candida albicans 320:aerobic bacteria 154:aerobic bacteria 117:, resistance to 111:human microbiome 87:digestive tracts 43:Escherichia coli 21: 18:Enteric bacteria 12019: 12018: 12014: 12013: 12012: 12010: 12009: 12008: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11962: 11944: 11923: 11919:Faecal transfer 11902: 11827: 11822: 11616:Review articles 11613: 11611:Further reading 11608: 11563: 11559: 11512: 11505: 11452: 11445: 11406: 11402: 11339: 11332: 11287: 11283: 11262:(2): S150–157. 11252: 11248: 11203: 11199: 11146: 11139: 11114: 11110: 11079:10.1038/ni.3713 11059: 11055: 11016: 11012: 10965: 10958: 10912: 10903: 10864:Genome Medicine 10856: 10847: 10816: 10812: 10775: 10771: 10761: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10750: 10741: 10696: 10689: 10642: 10638: 10584: 10580: 10519: 10515: 10486:(18): 973–975. 10476: 10472: 10441:(10): 513–517. 10427: 10423: 10376: 10372: 10332: 10328: 10273: 10269: 10223: 10219: 10210: 10209: 10205: 10168: 10164: 10117: 10113: 10071: 10065: 10061: 10016: 10012: 9966: 9962: 9925: 9921: 9873: 9869: 9836: 9832: 9809: 9800: 9747: 9738: 9693: 9689: 9644: 9640: 9587: 9583: 9551: 9542: 9503: 9494: 9449: 9445: 9400: 9393: 9356: 9349: 9286: 9277: 9224: 9217: 9169: 9165: 9103: 9099: 9052: 9045: 9008:(10): 883–890. 8998: 8994: 8941: 8937: 8889: 8885: 8824: 8820: 8765: 8758: 8719: 8712: 8659: 8655: 8590: 8586: 8539: 8532: 8487: 8483: 8444: 8440: 8401: 8397: 8344: 8337: 8284: 8277: 8224: 8215: 8162: 8155: 8102: 8098: 8067: 8063: 8023: 8019: 7972: 7968: 7939:10.1038/nrg3182 7919: 7910: 7865: 7852: 7790: 7786: 7777: 7775: 7766: 7765: 7761: 7710: 7706: 7675:(5): 996–1047. 7661: 7657: 7609: 7605: 7556: 7552: 7542: 7540: 7531: 7530: 7526: 7519: 7456: 7452: 7445: 7441: 7387: 7366: 7317: 7310: 7273:(7610): 75–84. 7263: 7256: 7233:10.1038/nri3608 7217: 7210: 7165: 7161: 7124:Pathophysiology 7116: 7112: 7083:(12): 983–989. 7073: 7066: 7021: 7010: 6975: 6971: 6925: 6921: 6882: 6878: 6830: 6826: 6795: 6791: 6781: 6779: 6766: 6765: 6761: 6722: 6718: 6671: 6667: 6630: 6626: 6573: 6569: 6529: 6525: 6480: 6463: 6432: 6428: 6381: 6377: 6322: 6318: 6262: 6258: 6207: 6198: 6167:(10): 940–949. 6153: 6146: 6091: 6087: 6047: 6041: 6037: 6006: 6002: 5947: 5943: 5889: 5874: 5829: 5825: 5778: 5774: 5726: 5722: 5683: 5679: 5648: 5644: 5621: 5606: 5575: 5568: 5521: 5517: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5495: 5491: 5490: 5483: 5468: 5446: 5442: 5397: 5393: 5383: 5381: 5371: 5367: 5322: 5318: 5273: 5266: 5221: 5217: 5204: 5202: 5192: 5188: 5134: 5130: 5076: 5069: 5032:(6410): 33–34. 5022: 5018: 4981: 4977: 4969: 4967: 4949: 4945: 4936: 4934: 4922: 4918: 4909: 4907: 4899: 4898: 4889: 4836: 4832: 4793: 4789: 4750:Genome Medicine 4742: 4735: 4704: 4700: 4655: 4648: 4602: 4598: 4567: 4563: 4524:(7285): 59–65. 4509: 4505: 4452: 4448: 4403: 4399: 4348: 4344: 4313: 4298: 4251: 4247: 4202: 4195: 4150: 4135: 4090: 4075: 4030: 4019: 3980: 3945: 3890: 3886: 3825: 3821: 3784: 3771: 3734: 3727: 3696: 3671: 3632: 3599: 3584: 3568: 3543: 3536: 3510: 3499: 3452: 3448: 3411: 3404: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3335: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3281:Medicine portal 3279: 3274: 3272: 3265: 3258: 3255: 3245:Lachnospiraceae 3190: 3175:deafferentation 3167:acyl-coenzyme A 3163:gluconeogenesis 3134: 3118:tight junctions 3099: 3092: 3077: 3021: 2995: 2943:Crohn's disease 2935: 2907: 2873: 2841: 2839:Role in disease 2832: 2818: 2809: 2655: 2638: 2540: 2535: 2473:Bifidobacterium 2421: 2415: 2407:small intestine 2387: 2347: 2308:cytochrome P450 2303: 2293:such as drugs, 2280:pharmacokinetic 2276:drug metabolism 2260: 2232:hunter-gatherer 2218: 2211: 2108:in the case of 2074:polysaccharides 2062: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2028:indoxyl sulfate 1959:that scavenges 1954:neuroprotective 1947: 1922: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1911: 1906: 1904: 1898: 1893: 1887: 1885: 1875: 1867: 1862: 1856: 1854: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1820: 1812:↓Activation of 1811: 1808:Neuroprotectant 1806: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1785: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1663: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1601: 1561: 1521:class switching 1444:Microfold cells 1437: 1414: 1393: 1368:formula feeding 1289:Bifidobacterium 1260: 1236: 1223: 1207: 1141: 1128: 1123: 1107: 1101: 1086: 1080: 694: 614: 609: 604: 598: 581: 426:Bifidobacterium 363:bacterial phyla 277:small intestine 269: 267:Classifications 249:endocrine organ 170: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12017: 12007: 12006: 12001: 11996: 11991: 11986: 11981: 11964: 11963: 11961: 11960: 11949: 11946: 11945: 11943: 11942: 11937: 11931: 11929: 11925: 11924: 11922: 11921: 11916: 11910: 11908: 11904: 11903: 11901: 11900: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11875: 11874: 11873: 11868: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11837: 11835: 11829: 11828: 11821: 11820: 11813: 11806: 11798: 11792: 11791: 11739: 11694: 11648: 11618: 11617: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11606: 11557: 11503: 11443: 11416:(3): 168–180. 11400: 11330: 11301:(6): 403–414. 11281: 11246: 11197: 11137: 11108: 11073:(5): 552–562. 11053: 11026:(2): 617–626. 11010: 10956: 10901: 10845: 10826:(5): 303–315. 10810: 10789:(4): 322–337. 10769: 10739: 10710:(4): 599–604. 10687: 10636: 10578: 10513: 10470: 10421: 10370: 10326: 10281:Microorganisms 10267: 10217: 10203: 10182:(4): 477–489. 10162: 10111: 10059: 10010: 9960: 9919: 9888:(8): 506–514. 9867: 9830: 9798: 9736: 9687: 9658:(8): 655–657. 9638: 9581: 9562:(3): 319–326. 9540: 9513:(6): 552–558. 9492: 9443: 9391: 9347: 9275: 9215: 9180:(4): 621–625. 9163: 9097: 9062:(4): 236–247. 9043: 8992: 8935: 8883: 8838:(6): 356–365. 8818: 8756: 8710: 8673:(8): 683–693. 8653: 8584: 8530: 8501:(2): 319–325. 8481: 8438: 8395: 8358:(6): 481–490. 8335: 8275: 8238:(5): 273–287. 8213: 8153: 8096: 8061: 8017: 7966: 7933:(4): 260–270. 7908: 7879:(7): 402–414. 7850: 7784: 7759: 7704: 7655: 7603: 7550: 7524: 7462:(March 2009). 7450: 7364: 7308: 7254: 7227:(3): 141–153. 7208: 7179:(6): 603–611. 7159: 7110: 7064: 7008: 6969: 6919: 6892:(441): 48–55. 6876: 6824: 6789: 6759: 6732:(2): 229–238. 6716: 6665: 6644:(3): 187–193. 6624: 6567: 6540:(4): 270–274. 6523: 6494:(2): 109–117. 6461: 6442:(4): 167–173. 6426: 6375: 6316: 6265:Marco (2012). 6256: 6196: 6144: 6105:(8): e105017. 6085: 6035: 6016:(2): 161–172. 6000: 5941: 5872: 5843:(3): 209–240. 5823: 5772: 5720: 5677: 5658:(3): 255–261. 5642: 5604: 5566: 5537:(3): 216–234. 5515: 5481: 5466: 5440: 5391: 5365: 5316: 5264: 5235:(4): 433–437. 5215: 5186: 5128: 5067: 5016: 4975: 4943: 4916: 4887: 4850:(3): 352–358. 4830: 4787: 4733: 4714:(1): 107–114. 4698: 4669:(7): 688–693. 4646: 4596: 4577:(6): 915–931. 4561: 4503: 4446: 4397: 4362:(7): 539–549. 4342: 4323:(5): 247–251. 4296: 4245: 4216:(4): 589–605. 4193: 4133: 4073: 4044:(4): 275–285. 4017: 3990:(4): 227–238. 3943: 3884: 3819: 3798:(9): 560–569. 3769: 3725: 3706:(2): 337–352. 3669: 3597: 3582: 3541: 3534: 3497: 3446: 3425:(5): 699–735. 3402: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3334: 3333: 3322: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3270: 3267:Biology portal 3254: 3251: 3210:lignocellulose 3189: 3186: 3133: 3130: 3097: 3090: 3076: 3073: 3032:, which lacks 3020: 3017: 2994: 2991: 2987:Bifidobacteria 2934: 2931: 2906: 2903: 2872: 2869: 2840: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2817: 2814: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2782: 2775: 2768: 2761: 2754: 2747: 2740: 2733: 2662:microorganisms 2654: 2651: 2637: 2634: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2455:, and the gut 2447:including the 2433:neuroendocrine 2419:Gut–brain axis 2417:Main article: 2414: 2413:Gut–brain axis 2411: 2386: 2383: 2375:Actinobacteria 2346: 2343: 2302: 2299: 2295:phytochemicals 2259: 2256: 2217: 2214: 2209: 2167:production of 2147:and may cause 2137:propionic acid 2114:sugar alcohols 2059: 2058: 2048:taken by mouth 2022:and acts as a 2008:interleukin-22 1916: 1915: 1880:thickness and 1615: 1614: 1607: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1592: 1585: 1577: 1569: 1568: 1567: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1517:T helper cells 1436: 1433: 1413: 1410: 1406:gut–brain axis 1392: 1389: 1373:celiac disease 1334:bifidobacteria 1326:Actinomycetota 1293:rodent studies 1259: 1256: 1235: 1232: 1222: 1219: 1206: 1205:Malnourishment 1203: 1140: 1137: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1115:bacteriophages 1100: 1097: 1079: 1076: 1070:or increasing 1003:Pseudomonadota 999:Actinomycetota 997:(Firmicutes), 943: 942: 939: 930: 929: 926: 917: 916: 913: 905: 904: 901: 893: 892: 889: 881: 880: 877: 869: 868: 865: 857: 856: 853: 845: 844: 841: 833: 832: 829: 821: 820: 817: 809: 808: 805: 797: 796: 793: 784: 783: 780: 771: 770: 767: 759: 758: 755: 747: 746: 743: 735: 734: 731: 723: 722: 719: 711: 710: 709:Incidence (%) 707: 703: 702: 693: 690: 686:H. pylori 680:may influence 677:H. pylori 642:Proteobacteria 638:Fusobacteriota 634:Actinobacteria 613: 610: 608: 605: 597: 594: 580: 577: 379:Pseudomonadota 375:Actinomycetota 369:(Firmicutes), 268: 265: 169: 166: 127:gut–brain axis 67:microorganisms 59:gut microbiome 55:Gut microbiota 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12016: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11980: 11977: 11976: 11974: 11959: 11951: 11950: 11947: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11932: 11930: 11926: 11920: 11917: 11915: 11912: 11911: 11909: 11905: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11863: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11838: 11836: 11834: 11830: 11826: 11819: 11814: 11812: 11807: 11805: 11800: 11799: 11796: 11788: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11770: 11766: 11762: 11758: 11754: 11750: 11746: 11740: 11736: 11732: 11727: 11722: 11717: 11712: 11708: 11704: 11700: 11695: 11691: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11663: 11659: 11655: 11649: 11645: 11641: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11625: 11620: 11619: 11615: 11614: 11602: 11598: 11593: 11588: 11584: 11580: 11576: 11572: 11568: 11561: 11553: 11549: 11545: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11529: 11525: 11521: 11517: 11510: 11508: 11499: 11495: 11490: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11469: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11450: 11448: 11439: 11435: 11431: 11427: 11423: 11419: 11415: 11411: 11404: 11396: 11392: 11387: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11369: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11337: 11335: 11326: 11322: 11317: 11312: 11308: 11304: 11300: 11296: 11292: 11285: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11265: 11261: 11257: 11250: 11242: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11224: 11220: 11216: 11212: 11208: 11201: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11144: 11142: 11134: 11130: 11126: 11122: 11118: 11112: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11080: 11076: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11057: 11049: 11045: 11041: 11037: 11033: 11029: 11025: 11021: 11014: 11006: 11002: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10963: 10961: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10926: 10922: 10918: 10910: 10908: 10906: 10897: 10893: 10888: 10883: 10878: 10873: 10869: 10865: 10861: 10854: 10852: 10850: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10814: 10806: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10773: 10754: 10748: 10746: 10744: 10735: 10731: 10727: 10723: 10718: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10694: 10692: 10683: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10655: 10651: 10647: 10640: 10632: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10602: 10598: 10594: 10590: 10582: 10574: 10570: 10565: 10560: 10556: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10524: 10517: 10509: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10493: 10489: 10485: 10481: 10474: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10454: 10449: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10425: 10417: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10374: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10330: 10322: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10304: 10300: 10295: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10278: 10271: 10263: 10259: 10255: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10237: 10233: 10229: 10221: 10213: 10207: 10199: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10181: 10177: 10173: 10166: 10158: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10122: 10115: 10107: 10103: 10098: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10070: 10063: 10055: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10014: 10006: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9988: 9984: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9964: 9956: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9938: 9934: 9930: 9923: 9915: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9871: 9863: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9834: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9807: 9805: 9803: 9794: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9760: 9756: 9752: 9745: 9743: 9741: 9732: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9715: 9710: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9691: 9683: 9679: 9675: 9671: 9666: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9642: 9634: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9616: 9612: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9596: 9592: 9585: 9577: 9573: 9569: 9565: 9561: 9557: 9549: 9547: 9545: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9501: 9499: 9497: 9488: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9447: 9439: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9421: 9417: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9398: 9396: 9387: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9354: 9352: 9343: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9325: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9307: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9284: 9282: 9280: 9271: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9229: 9222: 9220: 9211: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9179: 9175: 9167: 9159: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9141: 9137: 9133: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9101: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9081: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9050: 9048: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8996: 8988: 8984: 8980: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8939: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8887: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8854: 8853:10044/1/77636 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8822: 8814: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8763: 8761: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8729:(1–2): 1–25. 8728: 8724: 8717: 8715: 8706: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8657: 8649: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8631: 8627: 8623: 8619: 8615: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8597: 8588: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8568: 8564: 8560: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8537: 8535: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8485: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8449: 8442: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8399: 8391: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8342: 8340: 8331: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8282: 8280: 8271: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8222: 8220: 8218: 8209: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8160: 8158: 8149: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8100: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8077:(1–2): 1–25. 8076: 8072: 8065: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8021: 8013: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7970: 7963: 7958: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7917: 7915: 7913: 7904: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7863: 7861: 7859: 7857: 7855: 7846: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7788: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7708: 7700: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7659: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7607: 7600: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7564:J. Biol. Chem 7561: 7554: 7538: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7517: 7515: 7509: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7432:Lactobacillus 7428: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7383: 7381: 7379: 7377: 7375: 7373: 7371: 7369: 7360: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7315: 7313: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7261: 7259: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7215: 7213: 7204: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7163: 7155: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7071: 7069: 7060: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7019: 7017: 7015: 7013: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6973: 6965: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6923: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6880: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6793: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6763: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6720: 6712: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6669: 6661: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6571: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6527: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6472: 6470: 6468: 6466: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6430: 6422: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6379: 6371: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6312: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6277:(5): e36957. 6276: 6272: 6268: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6205: 6203: 6201: 6192: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6151: 6149: 6140: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6089: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6046: 6039: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6004: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5879: 5877: 5868: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5768: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5724: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5681: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5646: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5573: 5571: 5562: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5519: 5505:on 2004-05-26 5501: 5494: 5488: 5486: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5411:(2): S78–90. 5410: 5406: 5402: 5395: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5287:(3): 255–60. 5286: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5269: 5260: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5219: 5212: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5072: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4979: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4933: 4932: 4931:New Scientist 4927: 4920: 4906: 4902: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4883: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4763:10.1186/gm467 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4738: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4653: 4651: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4565: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4249: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4198: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3939: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3730: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3583:9780073402406 3579: 3575: 3574: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3343: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3312: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3271: 3268: 3262: 3257: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3241: 3238:the ratio of 3237: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3188:Other animals 3185: 3183: 3178: 3176: 3173:or gut vagal 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3155:blood glucose 3151: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3063: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3042:simple sugars 3039: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3016: 3014: 3013: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2983: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2915:Translocation 2912: 2902: 2900: 2895: 2894:prostaglandin 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2827: 2825: 2824: 2813: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2774: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2760: 2759: 2755: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2626: 2621: 2620:Saccharomyces 2617: 2616:Lactobacillus 2612: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2588: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2518: 2517: 2512: 2511: 2506: 2505: 2504:L. helveticus 2500: 2499: 2494: 2493: 2488: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2478:Lactobacillus 2475: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2323: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2224: 2213: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2153:organic acids 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2066:carbohydrates 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1993:Lactobacillus 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1937:tryptophanase 1934: 1930: 1926: 1909: 1902: 1897: 1891: 1883: 1882:calcification 1879: 1874: 1873:proliferation 1871: 1866: 1860: 1851: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1809: 1802: 1795: 1788: 1781: 1775: 1770: 1760: 1753: 1744: 1733: 1726: 1717: 1708: 1701: 1694: 1687: 1680: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1647: 1646:Tryptophanase 1640: 1631: 1630: 1620: 1611: 1598: 1593: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1565: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1477:immune system 1473: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1432: 1430: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1409: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285:Lactobacillus 1281: 1277: 1268: 1264: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1231: 1229: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1202: 1198: 1196: 1195:Bacteroidetes 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1152: 1148: 1147: 1136: 1132: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1106: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1044:immune system 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 983: 982:as biopsies. 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 950: 949:Gram-positive 940: 938: 936: 932: 931: 927: 925: 923: 919: 918: 914: 912: 911: 907: 906: 902: 900: 899: 895: 894: 890: 888: 887: 883: 882: 878: 876: 875: 871: 870: 866: 864: 863: 859: 858: 854: 852: 851: 847: 846: 842: 840: 839: 835: 834: 830: 828: 827: 826:Lactobacillus 823: 822: 818: 816: 815: 811: 810: 806: 804: 803: 799: 798: 794: 792: 790: 786: 785: 781: 779: 777: 773: 772: 768: 766: 765: 761: 760: 756: 754: 753: 749: 748: 744: 742: 741: 737: 736: 732: 730: 729: 725: 724: 720: 718: 717: 713: 712: 708: 705: 704: 701: 697: 689: 687: 683: 679: 678: 673: 672: 667: 666: 661: 660: 655: 654: 653:Streptococcus 649: 648: 643: 639: 635: 631: 630:Bacteroidetes 627: 623: 619: 603: 593: 590: 586: 576: 574: 570: 566: 564: 560: 558: 554: 553: 548: 544: 543: 538: 534: 530: 526: 521: 519: 515: 511: 507: 506: 501: 500: 495: 494: 489: 488: 483: 482: 477: 476: 471: 470: 465: 464: 459: 458: 457:Saccharomyces 453: 452: 446: 444: 440: 439: 438:Lactobacillus 434: 433: 428: 427: 422: 421: 416: 415: 410: 409: 404: 403: 398: 397: 392: 391: 386: 385: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 359: 357: 353: 349: 341: 340: 335: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 314:, but in the 313: 308: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 264: 262: 257: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 205:dietary fiber 203: 199: 195: 190: 188: 184: 174: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 148:, but in the 147: 143: 139: 135: 130: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 49: 45: 44: 39: 33: 19: 11984:Bacteriology 11893:Human virome 11866:In pregnancy 11752: 11748: 11706: 11702: 11661: 11657: 11630:(1): 46–57. 11627: 11623: 11574: 11570: 11560: 11519: 11515: 11463: 11459: 11413: 11409: 11403: 11350: 11346: 11298: 11294: 11284: 11259: 11255: 11249: 11214: 11210: 11200: 11157: 11153: 11120: 11116: 11111: 11070: 11066: 11056: 11023: 11019: 11013: 10976: 10972: 10924: 10920: 10867: 10863: 10823: 10819: 10813: 10786: 10782: 10772: 10760:. Retrieved 10707: 10703: 10653: 10649: 10639: 10596: 10592: 10581: 10533:(1): 18109. 10530: 10526: 10516: 10483: 10479: 10473: 10438: 10434: 10424: 10387: 10383: 10373: 10340: 10336: 10329: 10284: 10280: 10270: 10238:(1): 24–30. 10235: 10231: 10220: 10206: 10179: 10175: 10165: 10128: 10124: 10114: 10079: 10075: 10062: 10027: 10023: 10013: 9978: 9974: 9963: 9936: 9932: 9922: 9885: 9881: 9870: 9843: 9833: 9819:(1): 34–38. 9816: 9812: 9758: 9754: 9704: 9700: 9690: 9655: 9651: 9641: 9598: 9594: 9584: 9559: 9555: 9510: 9506: 9460: 9456: 9446: 9414:(1): 79–89. 9411: 9407: 9367: 9363: 9297: 9293: 9235: 9231: 9177: 9173: 9166: 9115: 9111: 9100: 9059: 9055: 9005: 9001: 8995: 8952: 8948: 8938: 8897: 8893: 8886: 8835: 8831: 8821: 8776: 8772: 8726: 8722: 8670: 8666: 8656: 8605: 8601: 8595: 8587: 8546: 8542: 8498: 8495:Microbiology 8494: 8484: 8451: 8447: 8441: 8411:(1): 39–73. 8408: 8404: 8398: 8355: 8351: 8295: 8291: 8235: 8231: 8173: 8169: 8113: 8109: 8099: 8074: 8070: 8064: 8031: 8027: 8020: 7983: 7979: 7969: 7960: 7930: 7926: 7876: 7872: 7802: 7798: 7787: 7776:. Retrieved 7774:. 2013-09-17 7771: 7762: 7721: 7717: 7707: 7672: 7668: 7658: 7617: 7613: 7606: 7597: 7567: 7563: 7553: 7541:. Retrieved 7536: 7527: 7513: 7511: 7471: 7467: 7453: 7435: 7431: 7430: 7398: 7394: 7332: 7328: 7270: 7266: 7224: 7220: 7176: 7172: 7162: 7130:(2): 67–80. 7127: 7123: 7113: 7080: 7076: 7032: 7028: 6986: 6982: 6972: 6937: 6933: 6922: 6889: 6885: 6879: 6838: 6834: 6827: 6805:: S291–294. 6802: 6798: 6792: 6780:. Retrieved 6772:ScienceDaily 6771: 6762: 6729: 6725: 6719: 6682: 6678: 6668: 6641: 6637: 6627: 6584: 6580: 6570: 6537: 6533: 6526: 6491: 6487: 6439: 6435: 6429: 6392: 6388: 6378: 6333: 6329: 6319: 6274: 6270: 6259: 6222: 6218: 6164: 6160: 6102: 6098: 6088: 6055: 6051: 6038: 6013: 6009: 6003: 5958: 5954: 5944: 5901: 5897: 5840: 5836: 5826: 5789: 5785: 5775: 5738: 5734: 5723: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5655: 5651: 5645: 5631:(2): 25–31. 5628: 5624: 5585:(1): 12–16. 5582: 5578: 5534: 5530:Gut Microbes 5528: 5518: 5507:. Retrieved 5500:the original 5449: 5443: 5408: 5404: 5394: 5382:. Retrieved 5378: 5368: 5333: 5329: 5319: 5284: 5280: 5232: 5228: 5218: 5210: 5203:. Retrieved 5199: 5189: 5146: 5142: 5131: 5088: 5084: 5029: 5025: 5019: 4994: 4988: 4978: 4968:, retrieved 4956: 4946: 4935:. Retrieved 4929: 4919: 4908:. Retrieved 4904: 4847: 4843: 4833: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4753: 4749: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4666: 4663:EMBO Reports 4662: 4614: 4610: 4599: 4574: 4570: 4564: 4521: 4517: 4506: 4463: 4459: 4449: 4414: 4410: 4400: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4320: 4316: 4262: 4258: 4248: 4213: 4209: 4161: 4157: 4101: 4097: 4041: 4037: 3987: 3983: 3901: 3897: 3887: 3836: 3832: 3822: 3795: 3791: 3748:(1): 45–56. 3745: 3741: 3703: 3699: 3639: 3635: 3572: 3517: 3463: 3459: 3449: 3422: 3418: 3360: 3356: 3346: 3326: 3310: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3191: 3179: 3159:glycogenesis 3152: 3143:healthy diet 3135: 3103:downregulate 3094:expression. 3078: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3049: 3034:whole grains 3022: 3010: 3003:constipation 2996: 2986: 2982:Lactobacilli 2980: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2936: 2923:interstitium 2908: 2875: 2874: 2853:colon cancer 2842: 2833: 2821: 2819: 2810: 2798: 2791: 2784: 2777: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2749: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2715: 2700: 2682: 2656: 2639: 2629: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2613: 2606: 2591: 2581: 2578:C. difficile 2577: 2575: 2564: 2541: 2520: 2516:L. plantarum 2514: 2510:L. rhamnosus 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2477: 2471: 2461: 2422: 2388: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2348: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2320: 2304: 2288: 2268:Homo sapiens 2267: 2261: 2223:Ruminococcus 2221: 2219: 2207: 2196: 2187: 2173: 2141:butyric acid 2122: 2063: 1992: 1977:distribution 1971:. Following 1940: 1901:Uremic toxin 1626: 1541:fermentation 1530: 1494: 1488: 1474: 1461:goblet cells 1457: 1452:transcytosis 1426: 1415: 1394: 1382: 1361: 1356: 1346: 1329: 1325: 1322:Bacteroidota 1321: 1314: 1302: 1288: 1284: 1278:of a normal 1273: 1261: 1247: 1237: 1224: 1210:Malnourished 1208: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1187:Burkina Faso 1176: 1160: 1144: 1142: 1133: 1129: 1111:human virome 1108: 1087: 1021: 1014: 991:Bacteroidota 984: 972: 967: 963: 959: 946: 933: 920: 908: 896: 884: 872: 860: 848: 836: 824: 812: 800: 787: 776:Enterobacter 774: 762: 750: 738: 726: 714: 699: 685: 675: 669: 663: 657: 651: 645: 621: 615: 582: 567: 561: 550: 540: 528: 522: 517: 509: 505:Galactomyces 503: 497: 491: 485: 479: 473: 467: 461: 455: 449: 447: 442: 436: 430: 424: 418: 412: 408:Ruminococcus 406: 400: 394: 388: 382: 371:Bacteroidota 360: 345: 337: 328:human genome 309: 270: 253: 217:butyric acid 191: 179: 162:human genome 131: 115:colonization 69:, including 62: 58: 54: 53: 41: 12004:Microbiomes 11833:Human flora 10390:: 473–487. 10287:(8): 1669. 9118:(1): 4457. 7962:individual. 6330:BMC Biology 6058:: 127–138. 5693:(1): 5–11. 3363:(4): 1096. 3218:cockroaches 3055:Veillonella 3050:Lachnospira 2964:vagus nerve 2498:B. infantis 2453:vagus nerve 2437:neuroimmune 2367:Bacteroides 2335:Eggerthella 2328:Eggerthella 2291:xenobiotics 2157:lactic acid 2133:acetic acid 2038:. AST-120 ( 2018:(GLP-1) in 1957:antioxidant 1878:Aortic wall 1834:Antioxidant 1814:glial cells 1627:Clostridium 1553:eosinophils 1545:neutrophils 1533:metabolites 1485:homeostasis 1470:metabolites 1450:(GALT) via 1364:antibiotics 1357:Bacteroides 1353:enterococci 1343:formula-fed 1248:Bacteroides 1167:lipoic acid 1066:by causing 1032:mutualistic 964:Bacteroides 935:Peptococcus 671:Haemophilus 659:Veillonella 596:Composition 529:Penicillium 510:Rhodotorula 493:Sclerotinia 475:Rhodotorula 469:Penicillium 463:Aspergillus 443:Bacteroides 432:Escherichia 414:Peptococcus 402:Eubacterium 390:Clostridium 384:Bacteroides 241:xenobiotics 213:acetic acid 198:mutualistic 101:of the gut 11973:Categories 11664:: 931574. 10762:21 October 10656:: 637010. 10131:: 275287. 9701:The Lancet 9601:: 100436. 9238:: 86–100. 8779:: e33953. 7980:Microbiome 7778:2020-12-09 7395:Genome Med 7321:Elinav, E. 6841:: 105195. 6679:Microbiome 6389:Microbiome 6336:(1): 127. 5741:(1): 153. 5735:Microbiome 5509:2023-01-02 4970:2024-07-25 4957:StatPearls 4937:2024-07-25 4910:2024-07-25 4164:(4): e72. 4038:IUBMB Life 3636:The Lancet 3339:References 3304:Skin flora 3240:Firmicutes 2857:infections 2711:synbiotics 2707:prebiotics 2686:refers to 2684:Synbiotics 2680:for them. 2666:prebiotics 2658:Probiotics 2582:Salmonella 2556:pathogenic 2457:microbiota 2399:DNA damage 2371:Firmicutes 2359:bile acids 2316:irinotecan 2264:metagenome 2262:The human 2228:great apes 2155:, such as 2149:flatulence 1973:absorption 1933:tryptophan 1852:production 1837:–Inhibits 1829:DNA damage 1818:astrocytes 1752:epithelium 1750:Intestinal 1738:Intestinal 1650:expressing 1629:sporogenes 1619:Tryptophan 1559:Metabolism 1519:to induce 1505:antibodies 1496:Clostridia 1475:The human 1385:1 diabetes 1228:Surinamese 1191:Firmicutes 1146:Prevotella 1113:is mostly 1048:propionate 1040:fermenting 789:Klebsiella 706:Bacterium 692:Intestines 647:Prevotella 626:Firmicutes 607:Bacteriome 600:See also: 585:enterotype 579:Enterotype 356:microbiota 233:bile acids 202:fermenting 103:microbiota 95:metagenome 11994:Bacillota 11979:Gut flora 11940:OpenBiome 11914:Dysbiosis 11898:Mycobiota 11709:: 71–86. 11552:206182668 11377:0027-8424 11176:0892-6638 11135:16648838. 11087:1529-2916 10951:206687974 10870:(1): 42. 10726:0025-6196 10555:2045-2322 10500:0028-4793 10365:205100508 10303:2076-2607 9905:2164/4189 9615:2589-5370 9324:0027-8424 9252:1075-9964 9210:254132108 9194:0934-9723 9140:2041-1723 9092:252970168 9076:1740-1526 9022:1389-2002 8971:0092-8674 8914:1078-0432 8862:1759-5045 8795:2050-084X 8743:0378-5173 8687:0090-9556 8630:0036-8075 8563:0090-9556 8517:1350-0872 8468:0036-8075 8425:0360-2532 8372:2198-641X 8312:0036-8075 8252:1740-1526 8190:0036-8075 7827:0036-8075 7772:Tufts Now 7738:0959-8278 7650:224824871 7634:0009-2665 7460:Siuzdak G 7401:(1): 46. 6871:258302702 6855:0149-7634 6754:205859933 6685:(1): 48. 6587:: 23129. 6395:(1): 48. 6352:1741-7007 6225:: 63–80. 6161:BioEssays 5476:241261974 5205:April 21, 4864:2150-5594 4844:Virulence 4803:(4): 16. 4756:(7): 63. 4433:2058-5276 4384:0169-5347 3920:2235-2988 3861:0028-0836 3592:886600661 3397:216108564 3357:Nutrients 3331:cells/ml. 3226:phylogeny 2927:infection 2909:Normally- 2696:synergism 2678:substrate 2642:pregnancy 2636:Pregnancy 2486:B. longum 2468:probiotic 2385:Dysbiosis 2286:profile. 2145:signaling 1839:β-amyloid 1549:basophils 1493:and some 1481:cytokines 1418:cytokines 1397:pathogens 1391:Functions 1330:Bacillota 1306:vaginally 1171:α-amylase 1163:glutamine 1139:Geography 1121:Variation 1084:Mycobiome 1078:Mycobiome 1068:infection 1060:vitamin K 1036:symbiotic 1028:commensal 995:Bacillota 589:ecosystem 525:mycobiome 487:Pleospora 367:Bacillota 312:anaerobes 229:vitamin K 225:vitamin B 194:commensal 146:anaerobes 119:pathogens 63:gut flora 11958:Category 11888:Salivary 11878:Placenta 11787:21885731 11735:21847343 11690:25759850 11644:21207512 11601:26655763 11544:26348261 11498:24487532 11430:24487819 11395:25368157 11325:23686721 11276:26916014 11241:19366864 11211:Diabetes 11192:41553220 11184:11024006 11103:30078908 11095:28346408 11048:27328940 11040:27115907 11005:28077947 10943:26424567 10896:27098727 10840:27179626 10805:23395397 10734:28209367 10682:34179053 10631:29555994 10573:36302811 10465:26982085 10457:23848393 10416:25525379 10357:25070051 10321:39203511 10312:11357468 10262:33659736 10254:20453678 10198:25196939 10157:19753318 10106:27050865 10054:26604335 10005:26431716 9955:21861940 9914:24912386 9862:87078157 9825:26845162 9793:22914093 9731:40683723 9723:12781578 9674:21716124 9633:32642633 9576:15546686 9535:21424690 9527:26372511 9487:25392516 9438:36408538 9386:28187526 9342:18757757 9270:28279860 9232:Anaerobe 9202:29196878 9158:32901017 9084:36253479 9038:13979774 9030:29708069 8979:27259147 8930:26655779 8922:16489087 8870:28270698 8813:29761785 8751:18682282 8705:34074730 8648:23869020 8571:24947972 8390:33312848 8330:31196984 8298:(6445). 8270:26972811 8208:28642381 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