Sumerian language - Knowledge

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syllable and that there was generally stress on the syllable preceding a (final) suffix/enclitic, on the penultimate syllable of a polysyllabic enclitic such as -/ani/, -/zunene/ etc., on the last syllable of the first member of a compound, and on the first syllable in a sequence of verbal prefixes. However, he found that single verbal prefixes received the stress just as prefix sequences did, and that in most of the above cases, another stress often seemed to be present as well: on the stem to which the suffixes/enclitics were added, on the second compound member in compounds, and possibly on the verbal stem that prefixes were added to or on following syllables. He also did not agree that the stress of monomorphemic words was typically initial and believed to have found evidence of words with initial as well as with final stress; in fact, he did not even exclude the possibility that stress was normally stem-final.

627:, which oversaw a "renaissance" in the use of Sumerian throughout Mesopotamia, using it as its sole official written language. There is a wealth of texts greater than from any preceding time – besides the extremely detailed and meticulous administrative records, there are numerous royal inscriptions, legal documents, letters and incantations. In spite of the dominant position of written Sumerian during the Ur III dynasty, it is controversial to what extent it was actually spoken or had already gone extinct in most parts of its empire. Some facts have been interpreted as suggesting that many scribes and even the royal court actually used Akkadian as their main spoken and native language. On the other hand, evidence has been adduced to the effect that Sumerian continued to be spoken natively and even remained dominant as an everyday language in Southern Babylonia, including 663:

manuscripts of Sumerian literary texts in general can be dated to that time, and it is often seen as the "classical age" of Sumerian literature. Conversely, far more literary texts on tablets surviving from the Old Babylonian period are in Sumerian than in Akkadian, even though that time is viewed as the classical period of Babylonian culture and language. However, it has sometimes been suggested that many or most of these "Old Babylonian Sumerian" texts may be copies of works that were originally composed in the preceding Ur III period or earlier, and some copies or fragments of known compositions or literary genres have indeed been found in tablets of Neo-Sumerian and Old Sumerian provenance. In addition, some of the first bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian

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in monomorphemic words tended to be on the first syllable, and that the same applied without exception to reduplicated stems, but that the stress shifted onto the last syllable in a first member of a compound or idiomatic phrase, onto the syllable preceding a (final) suffix/enclitic, and onto the first syllable of the possessive enclitic /-ani/. In his view, single verbal prefixes were unstressed, but longer sequences of verbal prefixes attracted the stress to their first syllable. Jagersma has objected that many of Falkenstein's examples of elision are medial and so, while the stress was obviously not on the medial syllable in question, the examples do not show where it

415: 923: 2143: 431: 2087: 7660:, which expresses the person, gender and number of its referent. The first dimensional prefix may be followed by up to two other dimensional prefixes, but unlike the first one, these prefixes never have an explicit "head" and cannot refer to animate nouns. The other slot where a pronominal prefix can occur is immediately before the stem, where it can have a different allomorph and expresses the person, gender and absolutive or the ergative participant (the transitive subject, the intransitive subject or the direct object), depending on the TA and other factors, as explained 1832: 1814: 2173: 1921: 1903: 1885: 1850: 1973: 9737:, and that it is not obligatory in the presence of plural participants, but rather seems to expressly emphasize the plurality. According to some researchers, the predominant meaning of the suppletive plural stem is, indeed, plurality of the most affected participants, whereas the predominant meaning of complete reduplication is plurality of events (because they occur at multiple times or locations). However, even with suppletive plural stems, the singular may occur with a plural participant, presumably because the event is perceived as a single one. 1110: 14430:. Alternatively, it has been contended that it must have been originally a regional dialect, since instances of apparent Emesal-like forms are attested in the area of late 3rd millennium Lagash, and some loanwords into Akkadian appear to come from Emesal rather than Emegir. Apart from such isolated glosses, Emesal is first attested in writing in the early Old Babylonian period. It is typically written with syllable signs rather than logograms. A text is often not written consistently in Emesal, but contains apparent Emegir forms as well. 2012: 1994: 2030: 2709:

paradoxical problem for the study of Sumerian is that the most numerous and varied texts written in the most phonetically explicit and precise orthography are only dated to periods when the scribes themselves were no longer native speakers and often demonstrably had less-than-perfect command of the language they were writing in; conversely, for much of the time during which Sumerian was still a living language, the surviving sources are few, unvaried and/or written in an orthography that is more difficult to interpret.

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Sumerian cuneiform spelling is highly variable, so the transcriptions and the cuneiform examples will generally show only one or at most a few common graphic forms out of many that may occur. Spelling practices have also changed significantly in the course of the history of Sumerian: the examples in the article will use the most phonetically explicit spellings attested, which usually means Old Babylonian or Ur III period spellings. except where an authentic example from another period is used.

896: 1119: 2351:, which would have been concealed by the transmission through Akkadian, as that language does not distinguish them. That would explain the seeming existence of numerous homophones in transliterated Sumerian, as well as some details of the phenomena mentioned in the next paragraph. These hypotheses are not yet generally accepted. Phonemic vowel length has also been posited by many scholars based on vowel length in Sumerian loanwords in Akkadian, occasional so-called 58: 2949:, or personal/person and impersonal/non-person. Their assignment is semantically predictable: the first gender includes humans and gods, while the second one includes animals, plants, non-living objects, abstract concepts, and groups of humans. Since the second gender includes animals, the use of the terms animate and inanimate is somewhat misleading and conventional, but it is most common in the literature, so it will be maintained in this article. 31362: 1047: 830: 2402:"he stands". Certain verbs with stem vowels spelt with /u/ and /e/, however, seem to take prefixes with a vowel quality opposite to the one that would have been expected according to this rule, which has been variously interpreted as an indication either of the existence of additional vowel phonemes in Sumerian or simply of incorrectly reconstructed readings of individual lexemes. The 3rd person plural dimensional prefix 𒉈 2528:- either due to linguistic convergence while Sumerian was still a living language or, since the data comes from the Old Babylonian period, a feature of Sumerian as pronounced by native speakers of Akkadian. The latter has also been pointed out by Jagersma, who is, in addition, sceptical about the very assumptions underlying the method used by Krecher to establish the place of stress. 7202:"he came for it". In Zólyomi's slightly different analysis, which is supported by Sallaberger, there may also be a -/b/- in the underlying form, which also elicits the allomorph -/m/-: *{i-mu-b-ši-g̃en} > /i-m-b-ši-g̃en/ > /i-m-ši-g̃en/. The vowel of the finite prefix undergoes compensatory lengthening immediately before the stem */i-mu-g̃en/ > 𒉌𒅎𒁺 20322:"their", so that the sequences of these morphemes and the genitive end in -/e(k)/. However, there is some disagreement on the treatment of content words and the nature of the whole process; see the following footnote on this matter. Finally, the genitive marker occasionally seems to be simply omitted in writing, especially after a fricative. 2683:. In addition, many literary-mythological texts from that period use a special orthographic style called UD.GAL.NUN, which seems to be based on substitution of certain signs or groups of signs for others. For example, the three signs 𒌓 UD, 𒃲 GAL and 𒉣 NUN, which the system is named for, are substituted for 𒀭 AN, 𒂗 EN, and 𒆤 LIL 2439:"let me give it to you". According to Jagersma, these assimilations are limited to open syllables and, as with vowel harmony, Jagersma interprets their absence as the result of vowel length or of stress in at least some cases. There is evidence of various cases of elision of vowels, apparently in unstressed syllables; in particular 7402:, i.e. occurrence with normally transitive verbs when their agent is not mentioned (the latter not in Northern Sumerian according to Jagersma). Some researchers also view it more generally as expressing focus or emphasis on the patient/goal and relatively low transitivity (and thereby as the polar opposite of 6718:. In affirmative usage, it has been said to signal an emphatic assertion, but some have also claimed that it expresses reported speech (either "traditional orally transmitted knowledge" or someone else's words) or that it introduces following events/states to which it is logically connected ("as X happened ( 651:

this period as well as the remaining time during which Sumerian was written are sometimes referred to as the "Post-Sumerian" period. The written language of administration, law and royal inscriptions continued to be Sumerian in the undoubtedly Semitic-speaking successor states of Ur III during the so-called

12081:"do". According to Jagersma, the nominalizing marker had the effect of geminating the preceding consonant (e.g. /šumːa/), which is evident from Akkadian loanwords, and this effect was due to its original form being /ʔa/ with a glottal stop that later assimilated to preceding consonants (/šumʔa/ > šumːa). 20810:

Only attested in late texts. For the dative and the directive, the singular form {-r-} is sometimes used with plural reference as well (resulting in {-r-a-} and {-r-i-}, respectively), and this is sometimes combined with the plural suffix {-enzen}, which otherwise normally refers only to subjects and

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The forms /menden/ or /me/ for "we" and /menzen/ for "you (pl.)" are only attested in Sumero-Akkadian lexical lists and, in the case of /mende(n)/, in an Old Babylonian literary text. Two of them seem to consist of the enclitic copula conjugated in the corresponding person and number ("(who) we are",

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This is most consistent with stops. With other consonants, there is some vacillation depending on the consonant, the following vowel, the relevant morpheme, the time period and the region; overall, sonorants favour doubling more than fricatives (especially sibilants) and affricates do, /a/ favours it

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In general, Old Babylonian Sumerian preserved many features of Northern Sumerian, in contrast to the decidedly Southern character of the Ur III standard. This is doubtlessly connected to the fact that the centre of power in Babylonia moved to the north. In particular, it uses spellings that show that

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in an intransitive verb, at least before the Old Babylonian period. Pascal Attinger considers it plausible that the original construction was indeed a directive one, whereas its new passive function as described by him arose via a reinterpretation in the Old Babylonian period; Walther Sallaberger, on

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The rare prefix -/nga/- means 'also', 'equally' (often written without the initial /n/, especially in earlier periods). It is of crucial importance for the ordering of the "conjugation prefixes", because it is usually placed between the conjugation prefix /i/- and the pronominal prefix, e.g. 𒅔𒂵𒀭𒍪

6884:, is a rare prefix, with unclear and disputed meaning, which has been variously described as affirmative ("he does it indeed"), contrapunctive ("correspondingly", "on his part"), as "reconfirming something that already ha(s) been stated or ha(s) occurred", or as "so", "therefore". It occurs both with 2515:

Joachim Krecher attempted to find more clues in texts written phonetically by assuming that geminations, plene spellings and unexpected "stronger" consonant qualities were clues to stress placement. Using this method, he confirmed Falkenstein's views that reduplicated forms were stressed on the first

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of the vowel of certain prefixes and suffixes to one in the adjacent syllable reflected in writing in some of the later periods, and there is a noticeable, albeit not absolute, tendency for disyllabic stems to have the same vowel in both syllables. These patterns, too, are interpreted as evidence for

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observes, "when we try to find out the morphophonological structure of the Sumerian language, we must constantly bear in mind that we are not dealing with a language directly but are reconstructing it from a very imperfect mnemonic writing system which had not been basically aimed at the rendering of

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were published and some researchers in the 21st century have switched to using readings from them. There is also variation in the degree to which so-called "Auslauts" or "amissable consonants" (morpheme-final consonants that stopped being pronounced at one point or another in the history of Sumerian)

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was used starting in c. 3300 BC. It is unclear what underlying language it encoded, if any. By c. 2800 BC, some tablets began using syllabic elements that clearly indicated a relation to the Sumerian language. Around 2600 BC, cuneiform symbols were developed using a wedge-shaped stylus to impress the

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and its surroundings) at least until about 1900 BC and possibly until as late as 1700 BC. Nonetheless, it seems clear that by far the majority of scribes writing in Sumerian in this point were not native speakers and errors resulting from their Akkadian mother tongue become apparent. For this reason,

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While the existence of such intransitive constructions of normally transitive verbs is widely recognized, some other scholars have disputed the view that these constructions should be called "passives". They prefer to speak of one-participant or agentless constructions and to limit themselves to the

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The initial vowel in all of the above suffixes can be assimilated to the vowel of the verb root; more specifically, it can become /u/ or /i/ if the vowel of the verb root is /u/ or /i/, respectively. It can also undergo contraction with an immediately preceding vowel. Pre-Ur III texts also spell the

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in French). Jagersma believes that the lack of expression of word-final consonants was originally mostly a graphic convention, but that in the late 3rd millennium voiceless aspirated stops and affricates (/pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/ and /tsʰ/ were, indeed, gradually lost in syllable-final position, as were the

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Like the participles, the relative clauses can describe any participant involved in the action or state expressed by the verb, and the specific participant is determined by context: e.g. 𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀭𒋧𒈠 {mu-nna-n-šum-a} can be "which he gave to him", "who gave (something) to him", etc. The nominalized

8318:"sit" generally occur with a dimensional prefix specifying a location. Thus, a verb may, albeit rarely, contain a dimensional prefix that simply modifies its meaning and has no reference. In such cases, it has no preceding pronominal prefix, even if it is the first dimensional prefix: e.g. 𒁀𒊏𒀭𒉚 2507:

In earlier scholarship, somewhat different views were expressed and attempts were made to formulate detailed rules for the effect of grammatical morphemes and compounding on stress, but with inconclusive results. Based predominantly on patterns of vowel elision, Adam Falkenstein argued that stress

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Assumed phonological and morphological forms will be between slashes // and curly brackets {}, respectively, with plain text used for the standard Assyriological transcription of Sumerian. Most of the following examples are unattested. Note also that, not unlike most other pre-modern orthographies,

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After the Old Babylonian period or, according to some, as early as 1700 BC, the active use of Sumerian declined. Scribes did continue to produce texts in Sumerian at a more modest scale, but generally with interlinear Akkadian translations and only part of the literature known in the Old Babylonian

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in archeology, was still so rudimentary that there remains some scholarly disagreement about whether the language written with it is Sumerian at all, although it has been argued that there are some, albeit still very rare, cases of phonetic indicators and spelling that show this to be the case. The

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Parpola, S., "Sumerian: A Uralic Language (I)", Proceedings of the 53th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale: Vol. 1: Language in the Ancient Near East (2 parts), edited by Leonid E. Kogan, Natalia Koslova, Sergey Loesov and Serguei Tishchenko, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press,

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In some cases, there are also mismatches between nominal and verbal markers when exact correspondences would have been possible; these may serve to express additional shades of meaning. A dative noun case marker and terminative dimensional prefix may co-occur in the Ur III period. In general, from

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continued to use Sumerian in many of their inscriptions, but Akkadian seems to have taken the place of Sumerian as the primary language of texts used for the training of scribes and their Sumerian itself acquires an increasingly artificial and Akkadian-influenced form. In some cases a text may not

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and agreement patterns vary depending on the specific verb. The component noun is usually in the absolutive case, but may be in the directive. If the phrasal verb takes another noun as a "logical object", the verbal infix is typically the directive, while the noun case is most commonly either the

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According to Jagersma and a number of other scholars, the allomorph that appears in front of the vowel-initial dimensional prefixes, i.e. in front of dative -/a/- and directive -/i/-, is a geminate /nn/. The traditional view assumes simply /n/. The geminate analysis is assumed in the examples and

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below. The "conjugation prefixes" appear to be mutually exclusive to a great extent, since the "finite" prefixes /i/~/e/- and /a/- do not appear before -, /ba/- and the sequence -/b/-+-/i/-, nor does the realization appear before /ba-/ or /b-i/. However, it is commonly assumed that the spellings

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However, the plural pronominal markers usually don't take the dative marker and never take the directive marker; intead, they express a dative or directive participant on their own (although there are some attestations of the expected /-ne-a/ and /-me-a/ from the Ur III period and Old Babylonian

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In the Old Babylonian period and after it, the Sumerian used by scribes was influenced by their mother tongue, Akkadian, and sometimes more generally by imperfect acquisition of the language. As a result, various deviations from its original structure occur in texts or copies of texts from these

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A superficially very similar, but distinct phenomenon is that if there isn't already an absolutive–ergative pronominal prefix in pre-stem position, the personal prefix of the directive participant does not receive the dimensional prefix -/i/~/e/- at all and is moved to the pre-stem position. For

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At the systemic level, there are some asymmetries between the nominal case markers and the verbal dimensional prefixes: they partly make different distinctions, and the nominal case marking is influenced by animacy. Because of these mismatches, different meanings are expressed by combinations of

7108:). However, many of its occurrences appear to express more subtle and abstract nuances or general senses, which different scholars have sought to pinpoint. They have often been derived from "abstract nearness to the speaker" or "involvement of the speaker". It has been suggested, variously, that 2486:

Sumerian stress is usually presumed to have been dynamic, since it seems to have caused vowel elisions on many occasions. Opinions vary on its placement. As argued by Bram Jagersma and confirmed by other scholars, the adaptation of Akkadian words of Sumerian origin seems to suggest that Sumerian

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The Old Babylonian period, especially its early part, has produced extremely numerous and varied Sumerian literary texts: myths, epics, hymns, prayers, wisdom literature and letters. In fact, nearly all preserved Sumerian religious and wisdom literature and the overwhelming majority of surviving

13090:. Many of them include the nominalization of a finite verb with the suffix -/a/, which is also used to form participles, as shown above. Like the participles, this nominalized clause can either modify a noun, as adjectives do, or refer to the event itself, as nouns do. It usually functions as a 1465:

There is relatively little consensus, even among reasonable Sumerologists, in comparison to the state of most modern or classical languages. Verbal morphology, in particular, is hotly disputed. In addition to the general grammars, there are many monographs and articles about particular areas of

728:, but that view has been almost universally rejected. Since its decipherment in the early 20th century, scholars have tried to relate Sumerian to a wide variety of languages. Because Sumerian has prestige as the first attested written language, proposals for linguistic affinity sometimes have a 667:

are preserved from that time (although the lists were still usually monolingual and Akkadian translations did not become common until the late Middle Babylonian period) and there are also grammatical texts - essentially bilingual paradigms listing Sumerian grammatical forms and their postulated

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agreement pattern, by turning all prefixes into suffixes. In the plural, the second person plural ending is attached in a form that differs slightly from the indicative: it is /-(n)zen/, with the -/n/- appearing only after vowels. The stem is singular even in the plural imperative. Compare the

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the Old Persian section of the Behistun inscriptions, using his knowledge of modern Persian. When he recovered the rest of the text in 1843, he and others were gradually able to translate the Elamite and Akkadian sections of it, starting with the 37 signs he had deciphered for the Old Persian.

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words under unclear circumstances, but that this was obscured by the spelling. With respect to the genitive, Jagersma tentatively suggests and Zólyomi (2017: 42-43) concurs that the variation in both content words and enclitics was determined by vowel length: a preceding short vowel generally

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for "they returned". While early Sumerian writing was highly logographic, there was a tendency towards more phonetic spelling in the Neo-Sumerian period. Consistent syllabic spelling was employed when writing down the Emesal dialect (since the usual logograms would have been read in Emegir by

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in Sumerian. Jagersma (2010) distinguishes three attested passive constructions. In each case, the ergative participant and the corresponding agreement marker on the verb are removed, so that the verb is inflected intransitively, but there may also be some additional cues to ensure a passive

9733:"stand (pl.)". The traditional view is that both of these morphological means express plurality of the absolutive participant in Sumerian. However, it has often been pointed out that complete reduplication of the verb in Sumerian can also express "plurality of the action itself" intensity or 7667:

There is some variation in the extent to which the verb of a clause that contains a noun in a given case also contains the corresponding pronominal and dimensional prefixes in the verb. The ergative participant is always expressed in the verb, as is, generally, the absolutive one (with some

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In Southern Old Sumerian, the vowel alternated between /e/ before open vowels and /i/ before close ones in accordance with the vowel harmony rule of that dialect; later, it displays assimilation of the vowel in an open syllable, depending on the vowel of the following syllable, to /ša-/ (𒊭

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Ever since its decipherment, research of Sumerian has been made difficult not only by the lack of any native speakers, but also by the relative sparseness of linguistic data, the apparent lack of a closely related language, and the features of the writing system. A further oft-mentioned and

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in forms with enclitics have been interpreted as entailing that the same rule was true of the phonological word on many occasions, i.e. that the stress could be shifted onto the enclitics; however, the fact that many of these same enclitics have allomorphs with apocopated final vowels (e.g.

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Not all epigraphists are equally reliable, and before publication of an important treatment of a text, scholars will often arrange to collate the published transliteration against the actual tablet, to see if any signs, especially broken or damaged signs, should be represented differently.

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are equivalent to {i-} + {-mu-}, {i-} + {-mu-} + {-ba-} and {i-} + {-mu-} + {-bi-}, respectively. According to Jagersma, the reason for the restrictions is that the "finite" prefixes /i/~/e/- and /a/- have been elided prehistorically in open syllables, in front of prefixes of the shape CV

3211:"hips". However, this construction is usually considered to have a more specialized meaning, variously interpreted as totality ("all the gods", "both of my hips") or distribution/separateness ("each of the gods taken separately"). An especially frequently occurring reduplicated word, 𒆳𒆳 7359:

can be analysed as a sequence of the personal prefix /b/- and the dative prefix -/a/-. However, it has been argued that, in spite of this origin, /ba-/ now occupies a slot of its own before the first pronominal prefix and the dimensional prefixes. In accordance with its assumed origin as

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The ablative does not co-occur with the terminative, and the directive does not co-occur with the locative, so these pairs may be argued to share the same slot. Accordingly, the template can be said to include the following dimensional slots: dative - comitative - ablative/terminative -

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project, begun in 1974. In 2004, the PSD was released on the Web as the ePSD. The project is currently supervised by Steve Tinney. It has not been updated online since 2006, but Tinney and colleagues are working on a new edition of the ePSD, a working draft of which is available online.

2496:še/ ~ /-š/) suggests that they were, on the contrary, unstressed when these allomorphs arose. It has also been conjectured that the frequent assimilation of the vowels of non-final syllables to the vowel of the final syllable of the word may be due to stress on it. However, a number of 7626:

Although a conjugation prefix is almost always present, Sumerian until the Old Babylonian period allows a finite verb to begin directly with the locative prefix -/ni/-, the second person singular dative -/r-a/-, or the second person directive -/r-i/- (see below), because the prefixes

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Since Akkadian, too, had developed aspiration in the realization of its voiceless (non-emphatic) consonants by that time, that aspiration was also preserved after the extinction of Sumerian, in Akkadian native speakers' pronunciation of the language, and is hence reflected even in

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can mean both "flow out" and "pour out". This depends simply on whether an ergative participant causing the event is explicitly mentioned (in the clause and in the agreement markers on the verb). Some have even concluded that instead of speaking about intransitive and transitive

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on the syllable preceding a suffix/enclitic and argues that in a prefix sequence, the stressed syllable wasn't the first one, but rather the last one if heavy and the next-to-the-last one in other cases. Attinger has also remarked that the patterns observed may be the result of

5640:(more or less consistently) with the subject and the object in person, number and gender. The verb chain may also incorporate pronominal references to the verb's other modifiers, which has also traditionally been described as "agreement", although, in fact, such a reference 1503:

Early Sumerian is conjectured to have had at least the consonants listed in the table below. The consonants in brackets are reconstructed by some scholars based on indirect evidence; if they existed, they were lost around the Ur III period in the late 3rd millennium BC.

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that time on, the choice of noun cases begins to be influenced by the government of corresponding Akkadian verbs, while the verbs themselves retain their older prefixes. According to Foxvog, /-ni-/ can resume non-locative cases such as the terminative and the dative.

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at which the action takes place or at which it is completed or non-completed is not specified and may be either past, present or future. This contrasts with the earlier view, prevalent in the first half of the 20th century, according to which the difference was one of

3230:"the great waters". In that case, the noun itself is not reduplicated. This is sometimes interpreted as an expression of simple plurality, while a minority view is that the meaning of these forms is not purely plural, but rather the same as that of noun reduplication. 2988:

The plural marker proper is (𒂊)𒉈 /-(e)ne/. It is used only with nouns of the animate gender and its use is optional. It is often omitted when other parts of the clause indicate the plurality of the referent. Thus, it is not used if the noun is modified by a numeral

7672:); the dative, comitative, the locative and directive participant (used in a local meaning) also tend to be expressed relatively consistently; with the ablative and terminative, on the other hand, there is considerable variability. There are some cases, specified 6996:

meaning. As mentioned above, it generally does not occur in front of a prefix or prefix sequence of the shape CV except, in Old Babylonian Sumerian, in front of the locative prefix 𒉌 -/ni/-, the second person dative 𒊏 -/r-a/- and the second person directive 𒊑

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Mostly based on Jagersma (2010: 359-363) and Zólyomi (2017: 126-127). Cf. also Foxvog (2016: 62-63), Thomsen: (2001: 142-154), Michalowski (2004), Rubio (2007: 1357-1359), Edzard (2003: 81-89), Sallaberger (2023: 103-106) for slightly different descriptions or

689:). Nonetheless, the study of Sumerian and copying of Sumerian texts remained an integral part of scribal education and literary culture of Mesopotamia and surrounding societies influenced by it and it retained that role until the eclipse of the tradition of 13548:

Participles can function in a very similar way to the nominalized clauses and be combined with the same kinds of adjuncts. One peculiarity is that, unlike nominalized clauses, they may also express the agent as a possessor, in the genitive case: 𒂍𒆕𒀀𒈗𒆷

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A different construction has been posited and labelled "Sumerian passive voice" by a significant number of scholars. According to them, too, a passive is formed by removing the ergative participant and the verbal marker that agrees with it, but the verb is

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of these prefixes is used seems to have, more often than not, no effect on its translation into European languages. Proposed explanations of the choice of conjugation prefix usually revolve around the subtleties of spatial grammar, information structure

12772:({NOUN-e si ...-e~i-...sa}), lit. "make the horns(?) equal with respect to something" > "put something in order"; likewise used intransitively: {NOUN-e si b-i-sa}, lit. "the horns (?) are equal with respect to something" > "something is in order". 22152:

Eleanor Robson, Information Flows in Rural Babylonia c. 1500 BC, in C. Johnston (ed.), The Concept of the Book: the Production, Progression and Dissemination of Information, London: Institute of English Studies/School of Advanced Study, January 2019

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Here and in the following, vowel-initial morphemes are denoted in parentheses with the cuneiform sign for the corresponding vowel-initial syllable, but in actual spelling, signs for consonant-vowel sequences are typically used after consonant-final

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The initial vowel /e/ appears only after a consonant and is absent after a vowel. Jagersma believes that it contracts with a preceding vowel, while lengthening it. In Old Babylonian Sumerian, spellings suggesting such assimilation are found: 𒇽𒅇𒉈

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Of course, when a CVC sound sequence is expressed by a sequence of signs with the sound values CV-VC, that does not necessarily indicate a long vowel or a sequence of identical vowels either. To mark such a thing, so-called "plene" writings with an

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Our knowledge of the readings of Sumerian signs is based, to a great extent, on lexical lists made for Akkadian speakers, where they are expressed by means of syllabic signs. The established readings were originally based on lexical lists from the

11157:

The vowel /e/ of this suffix undergoes the same allophonic changes as the initial /e/ of the person suffixes. It is regularly assimilated to /u/ in front of stems containing the vowel /u/ and a following labial consonant, /r/ or /l/, e.g. 𒋧𒈬𒁕

2355:

spellings with extra vowel signs, and some internal evidence from alternations. However, scholars who believe in the existence of phonemic vowel length do not consider it possible to reconstruct the length of the vowels in most Sumerian words.

2144: 806:. Other researchers disagree with the assumption of a single substratum language and argue that several languages are involved. A related proposal by Gordon Whittaker is that the language of the proto-literary texts from the Late Uruk period ( 2573:"written". This results in orthographic gemination that is usually reflected in Sumerological transliteration, but does not actually designate any phonological phenomenon such as length. It is also relevant in this context that, as explained 7907:

Confusingly, the subject and object prefixes (/-n-/, /-b-/, /-e-/, /-V-/) are not commonly spelled out in early texts, as both coda consonants and vowel length are often ignored in them. The "full" spellings do become more usual during the

6972:

The following description primarily follows the analysis of Jagersma (2010), largely seconded by Zólyomi (2017) and Sallaberger (2023), in its specifics; nonetheless, most of the interpretations in it are held widely, if not universally.

596:, from where the overwhelming majority of surviving texts come. The sources include important royal inscriptions with historical content as well as extensive administrative records. Sometimes included in the Old Sumerian stage is also the 13590:, which contains a verb nominalized with -/a/ and following possessive pronominal markers referring to the subject (transitive or intransitive). In the 3rd person, the form appears to end in the possessive pronominal marker alone: 𒆭𒊏𒉌 7676:, where the meanings of the cases in the noun phrase and in the verb diverge, so a noun case enclitic may not be reflected in the verb or, conversely, a verb may have a prefix that has no specific reference in the clause or in reality. 6304:(consonant-vowel). The exception is the position in front of the locative prefix -/ni/-, the second person dative 𒊏 /-r-a/ and the second person directive 𒊑 /-r-i/, where the dominant dialect of the Old Babylonian period retains them. 11097:

The function of the suffix is somewhat controversial. Some view it as having a primarily modal meaning of "must" or "can" or future meaning. Others believe that it primarily signals simply the imperfective status of a verb form, i.e. a

1386:, in an article "Sumerian-Assyrian Vocabularies", which reviewed a valuable new book on rare logograms by Bruno Meissner. Subsequent scholars have found Langdon's work, including his tablet transcriptions, to be not entirely reliable. 975:

writing beginning in the mid-third millennium. Over the long period of bi-lingual overlap of active Sumerian and Akkadian usage the two languages influenced each other, as reflected in numerous loanwords and even word order changes.

8053:"(in) there", which corresponds to a noun phrase in the locative, but doesn't seem to be preceded by any pronominal prefix and has demonstrative meaning by itself. This prefix is not to be confused with the homographic sequence 𒉌 28840:

Debourse, Céline and Gabbay, Uri, "The Late Babylonian Series of ‘Ancient Sumerian’: Structure, Contents, and the Agency of Ritual Texts", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 28-42,

15015: 25547:

expresses "focus on locus" as opposed to person; according to Thomsen (2001: 179), it is "preferred with inanimate and non-agentive subjects" and, at least in early Neo-Sumerian texts, before case prefixes referring to inanimate

2088: 1432:. While there are various points in Sumerian grammar on which Thomsen's views are not shared by most Sumerologists today, Thomsen's grammar (often with express mention of the critiques put forward by Pascal Attinger in his 1993 1833: 1815: 8624:

pronominal prefixes) before the stem if there isn't already an absolutive–ergative pronominal prefix in pre-stem position. This is typically the case when the verb is used intransitively. For example, the normal appearance of

14761:

In Southern Sumerian, the conjugation prefix 𒉌 /i/- alternated with 𒂊 /e/- in accordance with vowel harmony during the Old Sumerian period, while Northern Sumerian only had /i/-. Later Southern Sumerian generalized /i/- as

12552:

tend to be preferred with such constructions, apparently as a secondary effect of another, more subtle feature of their meaning. Concerning the history of the constructions, it has been claimed that the passive(-like) use of

2174: 4361:"that". The difference between the three has been explained in terms of increasing distance from the speaker or as a difference between proximity to the speaker, proximity to the listener and distance from both, akin to the 20643:

These variants are generally not used as counting words, but rather as adjectives meaning "single", "alone" and the like, but there are some indications that they might have functioned as numerals in very early periods or

1922: 1904: 1886: 1851: 25789:

Jagersma (2010: 381-389, 327-338). The pronominal prefix set used before dimensional prefixes and the one used as subject/object markers before the stem are commonly listed separately, but the latter are a subset of the

8328:

The directive may be replaced by the dative when its slot is occupied by the locative or when it would have had animate reference, but there is a preceding prefix, which makes any further prefixes with animate reference

6934:

exhibit morphophonemic evidence of co-occurring with a following finite "conjugation prefix", while the others do not and hence seem to be mutually exclusive with it. For this reason, Jagersma separates the first two as

1974: 23219:

Besides Edzard, Attinger and Jagersma, also accepted by Zólyomi (2017: 29 and passim), Sallaberger (2023: 35), Zamudio (2017: 45) and by Kogan and Krebernik (2021). Rejected by Michalowski (2020: 93) and Foxvog (2016:

25641:

Cf. Foxvog (2016: 91-92), Edzard (2003: 92-93). Woods (2008: 306), too, believes that "the most viable candidate, on the basis of function and meaning, remains the one implied by the analysis of the ancients, namely,

14999:

The table below shows signs used for simple syllables of the form CV or VC. As used for the Sumerian language, the cuneiform script was in principle capable of distinguishing at least 16 consonants, transliterated as

2224:

lists evidence for two lateral phonemes, two rhotics, two back fricatives, and two g-sounds (excluding the velar nasal), and assumes a phonemic difference between consonants that are dropped word-finally (such as the

7655:

of the verb chain basically correspond to, and often repeat, the case markers of the noun phrase. Like the case markers of the noun phrase, the first dimensional prefix is normally attached to a preceding "head" – a

6458:

meaning ("let him do X", "may you do X") or affirmative meaning ("he does this indeed"), partly depending on the type of verb. If the verbal form denotes a transitive action, precative meaning is expressed with the

20780:- were a single consonant, because /i/- otherwise never appears in front of a single consonant (unless it is the stem-initial one). It also explains why /mu-/ is sometimes assimilated before the locative ({mu-ni-} 6706:/ negative optative meaning ("Do not do it!"/"He must not do it!"/"May he not do it!") or affirmative meaning ("he did it indeed"), depending on the TA of verb: it almost always expresses negative meaning with the 1266:

in character. The language was called "Scythic" by some, and, confusingly, "Akkadian" by others. In 1869, Oppert proposed the name "Sumerian", based on the known title "King of Sumer and Akkad", reasoning that if

21012:

Zólyomi (2017: 201-222) refers to the "in(to)", "on(to)" and "at" constructions as "locative1", "locative2" and "locative3", respectively. Jagersma (2010: 416-428) refers to the "at" construction as the "oblique

14289:

While new verbs cannot be derived, verbal meanings may be expressed by phrasal verbs (see above); in particular, new phrasal verbs are often formed on the basis of nouns by making them the object of the verbs 𒅗

21035:

for the 1st person singular may occur, making it identical with the 2nd person singular just as they are identical in the suffixes, but this may be the result of a late analogy (Edzard 2003: 87, cf. Michalowski

12014:

Sumerian participles can function both as verbal adjectives and as verbal nouns. As verbal adjectives, they can describe any participant involved in the action or state expressed by the verb: for instance, 𒋧𒈠

4625:"be big". Furthermore, stems with adjective-like meaning sometimes occur with the nominalizing suffix /-a/, but their behaviour varies in this respect. Some stems appear to require the suffix always: e.g. 𒆗𒂵 6947:

The meaning, structure, identity and even the number of the various "conjugation prefixes" have always been a subject of disagreements. The term "conjugation prefix" simply alludes to the fact that a Sumerian

4665:(these are pairs of adjectives and verbs derived from them, respectively, according to Jagersma). In the latter case, attempts have been made to find a difference of meaning between the forms with and without 4510:

function until the Old Babylonian period, but may also stand alone in the sense "anyone, anything" in late texts. It can be added to nouns to produce further expressions with pronominal meaning such as 𒇽𒈾𒈨

26119:

Foxvog (2016: 69-70). Cf. Zólyomi (2017: 86-87), who does not mention such a possibility. Jagersma (2010) interprets such apparent absences of case markers mostly as orthographic omissions of consonant-final

25753:

12200:

stem can also occur with the suffix -/a/. Nonetheless, according to Jagersma, this form is rare outside the combination with a following possessive pronominal marker to express temporal meaning, as explained

20484:

Jagersma believes that, like the nominalizing enclitic, this marker originally began in a glottal stop (/ʔa/). The glottal stop, in his view, later assimilated to the preceding consonant and caused it to be

9323:

form meaning "I will catch it", where {-en} expresses the subject "I" and {-b-} expresses the object "it". As for the intransitive subject, it is expressed, in both TAs, by the suffixes. For example, {i-kaš-

25534:

Cf. Edzard (2003: 95), Woods (2008: 303), Civil (2020: 172, 176). Foxvog (2016: 75), Thomsen (2001: 183) and Rubio (2007: 1349) dispute the accuracy of the term, but nonetheless acknowledge the tendency of

20458:

Although the marker is never written with a sign for VC, it seems likely that there was an allomorph -/d/ used after vowels, leading to the dative marker remaining unwritten in this position in early texts.

20385:"their". In the case of the genitive, the -/a/ of the case marker is elided instead, so that the genitive sequence ends in -/e(k)/. There is some evidence that the stem-final vowel was also dropped in some 19874:

Above all, two different signs for the syllable /ne/, which are systematically used in different morphemes, sometimes alternate so that a contraction with a following vowel /e/ causes the replacement of 𒉌

8560:

on the head"). In that case, the verb may agree with the possessor with the directive prefix, while not agreeing with the object itself: thus, "he put barley in your hand" may be expressed by {šu-z(u).a še

20142:

Nonetheless, some Sumerologists also posit genuine geminate consonants in Sumerian, as exemplified later in the article, but orthographic doubling as seen above usually is not sufficient to se predict its

19660:(c. 1732–1460 BC), which ruled in a region in Southern Mesopotamia corresponding to historical Sumer, appears to have particularly favoured Sumerian; Sumerian school documents from that time were found at 14862:

changes in the use of the nominal case markers so as to parallel the use of Akkadian prepositions, whereas the verbal case markers remain unchanged, resulting in mismatches between nominal and verbal case;

22810: 20715:

In particular, this is shown by the fact that sequences like {ba-n-ši-} and {ba-n-da-} are possible in attested Sumerian (even though {ba-b-ši-} and {ba-b-da-} remain impossible because of the origin of

2013: 1995: 1806:. In the late 3rd millennium BC, the unaspirated stops are thought to have become voiced in most positions (although not word-finally), whereas the voiceless aspirated stops maintained their aspiration. 20738:

It has been claimed by some that the marker on the noun can also be omitted when the corresponding verb prefix expresses the same meaning, but this has been interpreted as a purely graphical phenomenon.

20390:

assimilated to the /a/ and the product was a long /aː/, whereas a preceding long vowel (as in the plural marker, which they believe to have been pronounced -/eneː/) caused dropping of the following /a/.

25442:

Thomsen (2001: 183-184) accepts this with reservations. Foxvog (2016: 85) recognises the connection and the directive meaning, but rejects the /b-i-/ sequence as a whole, viewing the /i/ as epenthetic.

20969:"he loaded it on the boat for her". This restricts the possibilities of the co-occurrence of directive forms and forces the grammar to choose which participant to express: e.g. the dative prefixes and 8597:

When the dimensional prefix is dative -/a/-, the personal prefix of the 1st person appears to be absent, but the 1st person reference is expressed by the choice of the ventive conjugation prefix /mu/-

8238:

The prefixes, unlike noun phrases in the corresponding cases, normally refer only to participants with a strong relationship to the action or state expressed by the verb (e.g. a temporal meaning like

553:(3000 BC – 2500 BC), is the first stage of inscriptions that indicate grammatical elements, so the identification of the language is certain. It includes some administrative texts and sign lists from 20294:

for {lugal-ak-am} "(it) is of the king". Moreover, if /k/ is preserved, the preceding vowel often seems to be omitted at least in writing, especially after /l/, /m/, /n/, /r/, /s/, /š/ and /ḫ/: 𒈗𒄰

12182:

participle and that it has, in addition, the imperfective meanings "which is/was cutting" and "which is/was being cut". Besides the allomorphy of the suffix -/ed/ already treated above, the verb 𒅗

5707:(tense/aspect) in the following. The two members of the opposition entail different conjugation patterns and, at least for many verbs, different stems; they are theory-neutrally referred to with the 24992:

The view of Falkenstein cited in Jagersma (2010: 579). Cf. Edzard (2003: 119) for a slightly different description. Civil (2020: 139), too, admits that it sometimes simply gives "an emphatic sense".

12984:; verb finality is only violated in rare instances, in poetry. The moving of a constituent towards the beginning of the phrase may be a way to highlight it, as may the addition of the copula to it. 12609:

the contrary, believes this kind of passive to be characteristic of Neo-Sumerian and to have been lost in Old Babylonian. A further possibility is that at least some of these cases actually have an

5796:

prefixes. The suffixes are a future or imperfective marker /-ed-/, pronominal suffixes, and an /-a/ ending that nominalizes the whole verb chain. The overall structure can be summarized as follows:

12536:

With the prefix {a-}, e.g. {e al-řu}. This is only found in Northern Sumerian and can have both a stative and a dynamic sense: "The house is built (complete)" or "The house was (came to be) built".

2031: 12667:-gub} "the ox was caused to stand", {gud-e u ba-b-gu} "the ox was caused to eat grass" (lit. "grass was caused to be eaten by the ox"), {dumu-ra ninda ba-n-gu} "the child was caused to eat bread". 26641:

Jagersma (2010: 312-314), Zólyomi (2017: 129), Sallaberger (2023: 55-56). The spelling of the reduplicated form is indicated in the table only where it is not simply a doubling of the main form.

20706:. As already seen with a number of other prefixes above, assimilation generally happens in open syllables and not in closed ones. For example, no assimilation happens in the sequence /mu-n-ši-/. 20693:

forms with /a/- were interpreted as statives, increasingly marginalised in the South, but given a new additional function in the North as early as the Fara period texts (Jagersma 2010: 548-549).

2283:

as unwritten consonants, with the glottal stop even serving as the first-person pronominal prefix. However, these unwritten consonants had been lost by the Ur III period according to Jagersma.

592:(2500-2350 BC) is the first one from which well-understood texts survive. It corresponds mostly to the last part of the Early Dynastic period (ED IIIb) and specifically to the First Dynasty of 20240:

Also known traditionally as the "locative-terminative". It has been pointed out that the term "directive" is misleading, since this Sumerian case simply expresses contiguity, which may or may

2565:

Conversely, an intervocalic consonant, especially at the end of a morpheme followed by a vowel-initial morpheme, was usually "repeated" by the use of a CV sign for the same consonant; e.g. 𒊬

25421:

Cf. Foxvog (2016: 91), Rubio (2007: 1355), and Falkenstein cited in Thomsen (2001: 177). Some authors, including Thomsen (2001) herself, instead believe /mi-ni-/ to be derived from /bi-ni-/.

8218:-n-dab-en} "you cannot catch him" (lit. "you won't catch him with yourself"). The directive has the meaning "on(to)" when the verb is combined with a noun in the locative case: e.g. {banšur- 6567:

meaning and can be translated as "let me/us do X" or "I will do X". Occasional phonetic spellings show that its vowel is assimilated to following vowels, producing the allomorphs written 𒄄

12557:

does not appear before the Ur III period; Jagersma, on the contrary, states that it is attested already in the Old Sumerian period, although it becomes especially frequent in Ur III times.

7036:

meaning. According to Jagersma, it was used in the South as well during the Old Sumerian period, but only in subordinate clauses, where it regularly characterized not only stative verbs in

3549:

Additional spatial or temporal meanings can be expressed by genitive phrases like "at the head of" = "above", "at the face of" = "in front of", "at the outer side of" = "because of", etc.:

2475:, etc.) is also very common. There is some uncertainty and variance of opinion as to whether the result in each specific case is a long vowel or whether a vowel is simply replaced/deleted. 20467:

Unlike the Indo-European locative cases, the Sumerian locative can express not only a static location, but also the direction of a movement; the key feature is that the spatial meaning is

2387:. Essentially, prefixes containing /e/ or /i/ appear to alternate between /e/ in front of syllables containing open vowels and /i/ in front of syllables containing close vowels; e.g. 𒂊𒁽 4553:"thing" are also used for "someone, anyone" and "something, anything". With negation, all of these expressions naturally acquire the meanings "nobody", "nothing", "nowhere" and "never". 12629:

An intransitive verb is made transitive and thus acquires causative meaning merely by adding an ergative participant and the appropriate agreement marker: {gud i-gub} "the ox stood" - {

11050:

Before the pronominal suffixes, a suffix -/ed/ or -/d/ can be inserted (the /d/ is only realized if other vowels follow, in which case the /e/ in turn may be elided): e.g. 𒉌𒀄(𒂊)𒉈𒂗

4716:"small" appear to "agree in number" with a preceding noun in the plural by reduplication; with some other adjectives, the meaning seems to be "each of them ADJ". The colour term 𒌓(𒌓) 20986:

The locative prefix is unique in that it is never attached to a pronominal prefix, but rather combines in itself the pronominal and dimensional meanings, meaning "there" or "in there".

13809:, has been identified. Its use is not obligatory and it is attested only or almost only in texts from the Old Babylonian period or later. Another, rarely attested, particle, 𒄑(𒊺)𒂗 - 7368:

appears to have the meaning of a "3rd person inanimate dative": "for it", "to it". However, this explains only some of its occurrences. A number of other apparent meanings and uses of

4617:"the lady is great". Jagersma believes that there is a distinction in that the few true adjectives cannot be negated, and a few stems are different depending on the part of speech: 𒃲 22128:

Wagensonner. Klaus. 2018. Sumerian in the Middle Assyrian Period. In: M. J. Geller and J. Braarvig (eds.) Multilingualism, Lingua Franca and Lingua Sacra (Studies 10: Berlin): 225–297

7492:, respectively, where the consonant /b/ has undergone assimilation to the preceding /m/. Accordingly, their meaning is considered to be simply a combination of the ventive meaning of 18613:. It recounts the beginning of a war between the city-states of Lagaš and Umma during the Early Dynastic III period, one of the earliest border conflicts recorded. (RIME 1.09.05.01) 11975:'say it to him!'. However, the vowel /e/ and possibly /i/ occasionally also occur if no further prefixes follow, perhaps as a characteristic of southern dialects. The ventive prefix 9103:. While some believe that /b/ in this case is truly omitted, others assume that such forms in fact contain an assimilated sequence -/mb/- > -/mm/- > -/m/-, just like the forms 7241:, the second person dative 𒊏 /-r-a/ and the second person directive 𒊑 /-r-i/. It may, however, be assimilated to the vowel of the following syllable. This produces two allomorphs: 2645:

Sumerian texts vary in the degree to which they use logograms or opt for syllabic (phonetic) spellings instead: e.g. the word 𒃻 g̃ar "put" may also be written phonetically as 𒂷𒅈

12526:: e.g. {e ḫa-i-řu} "May the house be built!" Moreover, it continues to be used as a stative passive in Southern Sumerian, so {e i-řu} can mean "the house is built (i.e. complete)". 956:

archaic mode. Deimel (1922) lists 870 signs used in the Early Dynastic IIIa period (26th century). In the same period the large set of logographic signs had been simplified into a

32578: 28846:

Geng, Jinrui, "An Outline of the Synchronic and Diachronic Variations of Sumerian", 2nd International Conference on Education, Language and Art (ICELA 2022). Atlantis Press, 2023.

28525:

A Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy, with a Vocabulary of the Principal Roots in Sumerian, and List of the Most Important Syllabic and Vowel Transcriptions, by Stephen Langdon ...

13952:"why is it that ...?" is placed at the beginning of the clause. In addition, as already mentioned, interrogative sentences omit the copula where a declarative would have used it. 2286:

Very often, a word-final consonant was not expressed in writing—and was possibly omitted in pronunciation—so it surfaced only when followed by a vowel: for example the /k/ of the

13759:"and" was borrowed from Akkadian in the Old Akkadian period and occurs mostly in relatively colloquial texts; Old Babylonian Sumerian also borrowed from Akkadian the enclitic 𒈠 6607:

there!". The plural number of the subject was not specially marked until the Old Babylonian period, during which the 1st person plural suffix began to be added: 𒂵𒉌𒌈𒃻𒊑𒂗𒉈𒂗

28679:

Rubio, Gonzalo (2009). "Sumerian Literature". In Carl S. Ehrlich (ed.). From an antique land : an introduction to ancient Near Eastern literature. Rowman & Littlefield.

11341:

with present or future tense does work well most of the time; this may correspond to the cases in which the action was viewed by Sumerian speakers as completed or non-completed

8620:

1. The sequences 𒉌 -/ni/- (locative {-ni-} and personal + directive {-nn-i-}) and 𒉈 /bi/- (personal + directive {b-i-}) acquire the forms -/n/- and -/b/- (coinciding with the

29077:

The Origin of Ergativity in Sumerian, and the Inversion in Pronominal Agreement: A Historical Explanation Based on Neo-Aramaic parallels, by E. Coghill & G. Deutscher, 2002

7508:, on which see above. This is the analysis espoused by Jagersma and Zólyomi and it is reflected in the schemes and examples in this article. Alternatively, some authors regard 1956:

in northern and southern dialects, respectively, after the Old Akkadian period. It was first reconstructed as a voiced alveolar tap /ɾ/, but Bram Jagersma argues that it was a

646:

for religious, artistic and scholarly purposes. In addition, it has been argued that Sumerian persisted as a spoken language at least in a small part of Southern Mesopotamia (

21526:

has been variously interpreted as an obsolete locative ending, producing the interpretation of {zig-a-g̃u-ne} as 'at my rising' or as identical to the demonstrative enclitic

7964:

The generally recognized dimensional prefixes are shown in the table below; if several occur within the same verb complex, they are placed in the order they are listed in.

4609:

It is controversial whether Sumerian has adjectives at all, since nearly all stems with adjectival meaning are also attested as verb stems and may be conjugated as verbs: 𒈤

1960:

because of its reflection in loanwords in Akkadian, among other reasons, and this view is accepted by Gábor Zólyomi (2017: 28). Other suggestions that have been made is that

28157: 2544:

variation could be ignored. Especially in earlier Sumerian, coda consonants were also often ignored in spelling; e.g. /mung̃areš/ 'they put it here' could be written 𒈬𒃻𒌷

638:(c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC), Akkadian had clearly supplanted Sumerian as a spoken language in nearly all of its original territory, whereas Sumerian continued its existence as a 20442:

The allomorph -/š/ is used after vowels. In early texts, it may not be expressed graphically at all. Alternatively, the alternation may be ignored in the spelling, so that

21045:

A significant minority of Sumerologists believe that the prefixes of the 1st and 2nd person are /-en-/ rather than /-V-/ and /-e-/ when they stand for the object (i.e. in

3008:, unless this is necessary for disambiguation. Instead, the plurality of the absolutive participant is commonly expressed only by the form of the verb in the clause: e.g. 343:(the exact date is debated), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as 24816:

Sallaberger (2023: 54), Foxvog (2016: 60), cf. Edzard (2003: 36). Attinger (1993: 148) describes the logic of this reasoning, although he does not entirely agree with it.

12691:" in Sumerology in spite of the fact that they are not compounds, but idiomatic combinations). They usually involve a noun immediately before the verb, forming a lexical/ 1416:, in 1923, and for 50 years it would be the standard for students studying Sumerian. Another highly influential figure in Sumerology during much of the 20th century was 26192:

Zólyomi 1993 and 2017, Attinger 1993, Edzard (2003: 98), Jagersma 2010: 468, 477-478; originally posited by Falkenstein. Referenced and disputed by Foxvog (2016: 87-88)

14812:

Neo-Sumerian elides the conjugation prefixes 𒉌 /i/- and 𒀀 /a/- in front of the prefixes 𒉌-/ni/-, 𒊏 -/ra/- and 𒊑 -/ri/-, while Old Babylonian Sumerian retains them.

12447:

A peculiar feature of the copula is that it seems to form a relative clause without the nominalizing suffix /-a/ and thus uses the finite form: thus, instead of 𒉌𒈨𒀀

12155:

in finite forms (see above). Some Sumerologists describe its meaning as primarily modal and distinguish it from a separate imperfective participle that consists of the

28335: 22886: 20587:, clearly a combination of the personal plural "you" (sing.) and the 2nd person plural form of the copula. For these reasons, their authenticity is considered dubious. 14876:

treatment of the prefix sequences /b/-/i/- and /n/-/i/-, which originally could mark the causee in transitive verbs, as causative markers even with intransitive verbs;

12533:, e.g. {e ba-řu}. This is only found in Southern Sumerian and expresses only a dynamic passive, i.e. it refers to the event itself: "The house was (came to be) built". 2478:

Syllables could have any of the following structures: V, CV, VC, CVC. More complex syllables, if Sumerian had them, are not expressed as such by the cuneiform script.

23878:

Edzard (2003: 25, 31-32), Jagersma (2010: 270-271), Rubio (2007: 1329), Mihalowski (2004). Thomsen (2001: 65) holds the minority view that they express a superlative.

21088:

According to several researchers, -/b/- as a direct object marker may be absent under conditions that are not entirely clear; in particular, several verbs such as 𒌣

5696:"I'm going to it" are possible. Hence, the term "cross-reference" instead of "agreement" has been proposed. This article will predominantly use the term "agreement". 21439:

In some analyses, this is because the forms are morphologically identical: 1st and 2nd person singular is {i-zaḫ-en} and even 3rd person singular is {i-zaḫ} in both

13720:

are rarely used. The most common way to express the sense of "and" is by simple juxtaposition. Nominal phrases may be conjoined, perhaps emphatically, by adding 𒁉 -

8253:

The use of dimensional prefixes is sometimes more closely connected to special meanings of specific verbs and to lexical idiosyncrasies. For instance, the verb 𒇯𒁺

6836:

is a rare prefix that has been interpreted as having "frustrative" meaning, i.e. as expressing an unrealizable wish ("If only he would do it!"). It occurs both with

712:

Of the 29 royal inscriptions of the late second millennium BC 2nd dynasty of Isin about half were in Sumerian, described as "hypersophisticated classroom Sumerian".

13763:"and". There is no conjunction "or" and its sense can also be expressed by simple juxtaposition; a more explicit and emphatic alternative is the repetition of 𒃶𒅎 2487:

stress tended to be on the last syllable of the word, at least in its citation form. The treatment of forms with grammatical morphemes is less clear. Many cases of

6410:

appears to have been assimilated to the vowel of the following syllable, because it occasionally appears written as 𒈾 /na-/ in front of a syllable containing /a/.

22191:

Piotr Michalowski, "Sumerian," "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages." Ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004, Cambridge University Press). Pages 19–59

12707:

directive (dative if animate), which otherwise has the meaning "at / with respect to", or the locative (dative if animate), which otherwise has the meaning "on":

12514:-řu} "the farmer built the house" > † {e i-řu} "the house was built". As a dynamic passive, in reference to the event itself, this construction is obsolete in 2577:, many morpheme-final consonants seem to have been elided unless followed by a vowel at various stages in the history of Sumerian. These are traditionally termed 25659:

Rubio (2007: 1348, 1350-1351), Civil (2020: 141-145, 167-179), Michalowski (2007). Woods (2008: 304), in spite of his statement on the origin and composition of

21062:

A significant minority of Sumerologists believe that the prefixes of the 1st and 2nd person are /-en-/ rather than /-e-/ when they stand for the object (i.e. in

14808:

The dominant Sumerian variety of the Old Babylonian period, in turn, reflected a different regional dialect from the standard Neo-Sumerian of the Ur III period:

8214:

can, in addition, express the meaning "to be able to". In that case, there is a preceding pronominal prefix agreeing with the subject of the action: e.g. {nu-mu-

2623:

vowel sign repeating the preceding vowel were used, although that never came to be done systematically. A typical plene writing involved a sequence such as (C)V-

20685:

As a first stage in this development, Jagersma reconstructs a prehistoric Sumerian system where /a/- signalled imperfectivity and /i/- perfectivity, before the

20399:

The allomorph -/r/ is used after vowels. In early texts, it may not be expressed at all. Alternatively, the alternation may be ignored in the spelling, so that

20282:

The final consonant /k/ appears only in front of a following vowel (in the spelling, and at least by Ur III times in pronunciation as well); see the section on

7956:"you made". Vowel length never came to be expressed systematically, so the 1st person prefix was often graphically -∅- during the entire existence of Sumerian. 3871:

Besides the general meanings of the case forms outlined above, there are many lexically determined and more or less unpredictable uses of specific cases, often

1351:

working at the Louvre in Paris also made significant contributions to deciphering Sumerian with publications from 1898 to 1938, such as his 1905 publication of

697:. The most popular genres for Sumerian texts after the Old Babylonian period were incantations, liturgical texts and proverbs; among longer texts, the classics 32803: 23076: 6667:

in front of syllables containing these vowels. The prefix acquires an additional /l/ when located immediately before the stem, resulting in the allomorph 𒅇𒌌

1429: 25019:

Jagersma (2010: 579), Zamudio (2017: 183-184, 188-189), Attinger (1993: 289), Sallaberger (2023: 128, 132). In contrast, Zólyomi (2017: 240) assumes the form

22182:

McGrath, William, "Resurgent Babylon: A Cultural, Political and Intellectual History of the Second Dynasty of Isin", Dissertation, University of Toronto, 2024

20886:

Thomsen and Foxvog believe that there is also an allomorph /-ra-/ used between vowels. Jagersma (2010) generally assumes idiosyncratic case use in such cases.

20152:

Here and in the following, the first line in the interlinear glosses shows a cuneiform spelling of a Sumerian word, phrase or sentence, the second line (in a

14966:, originally expressing a sequence of the genitive marker -/ak/ and the ergative marker -/e/, simply as a marker of the genitive, equivalent to -/a(k)/ alone; 12023:

may mean either "(which was) given (to someone)", "who was given (something)" or "who gave". As verbal nouns, they denote the action or state itself, so 𒋧𒈠

9403:

Note that the prefixes of the plural transitive subject are identical to those of the singular – -/V/-, -/e/-, -/n/- – as opposed to the special plural forms

9400:} can mean "they caught (it)". Specifically, the prefix expresses only the person, while the suffix expresses both the person and the number of the subject. 6926:

Although the modal prefixes are traditionally grouped together in one slot in the verbal chain, their behaviour suggests a certain difference in status: only

3868:

In contrast with the verbal morphology, Sumerian nominal morphology consistently follows this ergative principle regardless of tense/aspect, person and mood.

2220:

The existence of various other consonants has been hypothesized based on graphic alternations and loans, though none have found wide acceptance. For example,

1458:(currently digital, but soon to be printed in revised form by Oxford University Press). Piotr Michalowski's essay (entitled, simply, "Sumerian") in the 2004 786:(Høyrup 1992). However, no conclusive evidence, only some typological features, can be found to support Høyrup's view. A more widespread hypothesis posits a 20429:

The meaning is not necessarily "up to" or "until" as with a terminative case, but rather expresses a general direction, so this case could have been called

14757:(although eventually texts in the standard variety begin to be produced in that area as well). The differences that he finds between the two varieties are: 31142: 29076: 23462: 32808: 25451:

Rubio (2007: 1347) recognises this, but considers the first element to be /ba-/. Thomsen (2001: 183-184) accepts the analysis as /b-i/ with reservations.

14741:, which eventually formed the basis for the common standard of the Neo-Sumerian (Ur III) period, and the Northern Sumerian dialect as seen in texts from 14422:

priests. It has been argued that it might have been a female language variety of the kind that exists or has existed in some cultures, such as among the

12656:-n-gu} "the farmer made the child eat bread". A further example can be {dig̃ir-e engar-ra gud i-nn-i-n-gub}: "the god made the farmer make the ox stand". 5470:(with the final vowel still surfacing in front of enclitics) in subsequent periods. However, a cardinal numeral may also have ordinal meaning sometimes. 12671:

In Old Babylonian Sumerian, new causative markers have been claimed to have arisen under the influence of Akkadian; this is explained in the section on

31735: 28599:

Pinches, Theophilus G. "Further Light upon the Sumerian Language.", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1914, pp. 436–40

14418:

is used exclusively by female characters in some literary texts. In addition, it is dominant in certain genres of cult songs such as the hymns sung by

25472:

Cf. Thomsen (2001: 183), Edzard (2003: 94), Foxvog (2016: 73). In contrast, Rubio (2007: 1349), Woods (2008: 305) and Civil (2020: 170) are sceptical.

8804:

The same phonological pattern is claimed to account for the alternation between the forms of the ventive prefix. The standard appearance is seen in:

8605:. When the intended meaning is that of the directive -/i/~/e/- ("on me", "in contact with me", etc.), it seems that the ventive conjugation prefix 𒈬 7028:

used in front of the stem, the other finite prefix, is rare in most Sumerian texts outside of the imperative form, but when it occurs, it usually has

6783:

meaning ("He should not do it!"), although some consider the latter usage rare or non-existent. It can often function as the negation of cohortative

28684:

Sumerisch: Eine Einführung in Sprache, Schrift und Texte. Mit 50 Texten von Gudea von Lagaš bis Lipit-Eštar von Isin. Band 1. Die sumerische Sprache

3237:

used in writing Akkadian and other languages. One is used with inanimate nouns and consists of the modification of the noun with the adjective 𒄭𒀀

2406:

is also unaffected, which Jagersma believes to be caused by the length of its vowel. In addition, some have argued for a second vowel harmony rule.

25053:

Rubio (2007: 1341-1342) considers the vetitive meaning rare and cites other authors who reject it. Jagersma (2010) does not mention such a meaning.

20430: 12061:"given". The verb form constructed in this way characterizes an entity with a specific action or state in the past or a state in the present (𒋾𒆷 1244:

suggested that a non-Semitic language had preceded Akkadian in Mesopotamia, and that speakers of this language had developed the cuneiform script.

26018: 3215:"foreign lands", may have simply plural meaning, and in very late usage, the meaning of the reduplication in general might be simple plurality. 3050:"I caught the men". The plural marker is not used when referring to a group of people, because a group of people is treated as inanimate; e.g. 𒀳 1240:, binding consonants to particular vowels. Furthermore, no Semitic words could be found to explain the syllabic values given to particular signs. 8573:". Alternatively, it may agree with both the possessor and the object: the possessor is then referred to by the dative prefix: {šu-z(u)-a še (i-) 6511:

in front of /u/ is attested and graphic expressions of the latter become common in the Old Babylonian period. Other scholars have contended that

6288:

More than one dimensional prefix may occur within the verb chain. If so, the prefixes are placed in a specific order, which is shown the section

546:

texts from this period are mostly administrative; there are also a number of sign lists, which were apparently used for the training of scribes.

24905:

Edzard (2003: 117), Rubio (2007: 1341), Foxvog (2016: 104). Thomsen (2001: 202, 206) tentatively treats /ḫa-/ as the main form, but is hesitant.

21447:. In others, it is because the /-e/ of the imperfective stem suffix is not visible in front of the person suffixes: 1st and 2nd person singular 21177:

In addition, Sallaberger (2020: 59) believes that there was an additional stem used in Old Sumerian specifically for leading animals, namely 𒊏

7100:, expressing movement towards the speaker or proximity to the speaker; in particular, it is an obligatory part of the 1st person dative form 𒈠 2679:

As already mentioned, texts written in the Archaic Sumerian period are difficult to interpret, because they often omit grammatical elements and

32793: 31007: 28206: 25605:

Woods (2008: 303-304) and Civil (2020: 172, 176) make the related claim that it is associated with the completion of an event and perfectivity.

22402: 21234:)); newer research has promoted a split into two verbs, although there are disagreements about the semantic/functional difference between them. 5611:"one-sixtieth", lit. "a shekel" (since a shekel is one-sixtieth of a mina). Smaller fractions are formed by combining these: e.g. one-fifth is 2581:

in Sumerology and may or may not be expressed in transliteration: e.g. the logogram 𒊮 for /šag/ > /ša(g)/ "heart" may be transliterated as

585:). However, the spelling of grammatical elements remains optional, making the interpretation and linguistic analysis of these texts difficult. 26464:

Thomsen (1984, 2001), Attinger (1993), Edzard (2003), Jagersma (2010), Zólyomi (2017), Zamudio (2017). Originally the analysis of Arno Poebel.

6799:

TA if it denies a state (past, present or future) or an action (always in the past). The vetitive meaning requires it to be combined with the

6471:. Occasionally the precative/optative form is also used in a conditional sense of "if" or "when". According to Jagersma, the base form is 𒄩 29015: 21506:

Some information regarding the case markers governed by individual Sumerian verbs is listed in the verb catalogue of Thomsen (2001: 295-323).

20605:

The initial /a/ is present after consonants (albeit not always written, especially in earlier periods), but contracts with a preceding vowel.

20534:

The initial /a/ is present after consonants (albeit not always written, especially in earlier periods), but contracts with a preceding vowel.

3540:

are expressed by the same nominal case, they can be disambiguated by the verbal prefixes. This is explained in more detail in the section on

31911: 25667:". Specifically, Rubio and Michalowski consider /imma-/ a gemination of /mu-/, which is rejected by Woods on semantic grounds (2008: 306). 23574: 22789:

Keilschrift, Transcription und Übersetzung : nebst ausführlichem Commentar und zahlreichen Excursen : eine assyriologische Studie

3136:

Likewise, the plural marker is usually (albeit not always) added only once when a whole series of coordinated nouns have plural reference:

28892: 23478:

Jagersma (2010: 401-403, 421-423), Zólyomi (2017: 163), Sallaberger (2023: 112-113), Zamudio (2017: 144), possibly Attinger (2009: 6, 31).

14190:"fate". Nouns that express the object of an action or an object possessing a characteristic are formed as compounds headed by the word 𒃻 13907:-interrogative sentences appear to have been marked only by intonation and possibly by resulting lengthening of final vowels. There is no 12648:-n-gu} "the farmer made the ox eat grass". For animates, as usual, the directive case marker is replaced by the dative one: {engar-e dumu- 9756:, regular verbs, are analysed in two ways: some scholars believe that they do not express TA at all, while others claim that they express 8552:, in which a modifier of the verb refers to a certain object, almost always a body part, but it is emphasised that the action affects the 8234:

While the meanings of the prefixes are generally the same as those of the corresponding nominal case markers, there are some differences:

8061:

is analysed as a combination of pronominal /-nn-/ and directive /-i-/ (roughly: "at him/her", "on him/her", etc.), whereas in the former,

1321:

The bewildering number and variety of phonetic values that signs could have in Sumerian led to a detour in understanding the language – a

32628: 31730: 29109: 19604: 7859:

When the prefix is placed immediately before the stem and expresses a transitive subject, the singular is used instead. See the table in

2771:, which have traditionally been called animate and inanimate, although these names do not express their membership exactly, as explained 29070: 29066: 23505:

Rubio, G. (2000). «On the Orthography of the Sumerian Literary Texts from the Ur III Period». ASJ, 22, pp. 203-225. P. 215-217, 218-220.

22616: 22034:

Huber, Peter. On the Old Babylonian Understanding of Sumerian Grammar. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 87 (Munich 2018: LINCOM GmbH)

5699:

The Sumerian verb also makes a binary distinction according to a category that some regard as tense (past vs present-future), others as

1486:

Modern knowledge of Sumerian phonology is flawed and incomplete because of the lack of speakers, the transmission through the filter of

4701:"the new house (as contrasted with the old one)", "a/the newer (kind of) house" or "the newest house", as well as nominalization, e.g. 311: 23626: 20298:. Conversely, the initial vowel /a/ of the genitive marker appears to be dropped or assimilated after a preceding stem-final vowel in 19897:*/neː/. The suspected long /eː/ also seems to be resistant to apocope and assimilation which are undergone by the suspected short /e/. 27875:

Whittaker, Gordon. "Linguistic Anthropology and the Study of Emesal as (a) Women's Language". in S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting (eds).

25650:". Thomsen (2003: 162-163), following Falkenstein, recognises the connection with /ba-/ and /bi-/, but not the connection with /im-/. 9775:"make". This -/e/ would, however, nowhere be distinguishable from the first vowel of the pronominal suffixes except for intransitive 29051: 20801:

The 1st person plural dative marker, like the corresponding singular, seems to include the ventive prefix (Jagersma 2010: 390, 410).

20203:

As is generally the case with the vowel -/e/, the vowel of the ergative ending can contract with a preceding vowel, lengthening it:

3532:

in the noun, they can nevertheless be distinguished when the verbal prefixes are taken into account. Likewise, whereas the meanings

608:

functioned as the primary official language, but texts in Sumerian (primarily administrative) did continue to be produced as well.

32568: 31786: 31135: 28251: 24833: 23601: 22180: 19986:"right". Among grammatical morphemes, length has been posited with greater or lesser confidence for the nominal plural marker 𒂊𒉈 13605:"when he entered", lit. "his entering", etc. It has been suggested that these forms actually also contain a final directive marker 12937:

Another possibility is for the component noun to be in the dative (directive if inanimate), while the object is in the absolutive:

12139:, the subject of the intended action is the same as the subject of the main clause, while it is different in the construction with 12100:"which will/should be made". Adding a locative-terminative marker /-e/ after the /-ed/ yields a form with a meaning similar to the 28148: 28129: 27877:

Sex and gender in the ancient Near East: proceedings of the 47th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Helsinki, July 2-6, 2001

27035:

Jagersma (2010: 303-307). Zolyomi (2017) also mentions the second and third constructions. Edzard (2003: 95) notes the second one.

13326:

More surprisingly, it can add both the genitive and the locative morpheme with a meaning close to "when", possibly "as soon as": (

9319:

form meaning "it caught me", where {-b-} expresses the subject "it" and {-en} expresses the object "I". However, it can also be a

31347: 29035: 21128:

The morpheme -/ne/- for the 3rd person animate plural subject was used in Old Sumerian and was replaced by -/b/- in Neo-Sumerian.

21049:). That would be indistinguishable in writing (and even possibly, according to some, also in speech) from the 3rd person animate 20222:"man (erg.)". In early texts, the length of the vowel isn't marked at all, leaving the ending with no reflection in the spelling. 13617:

his entering". Similarly, in Old Babylonian Sumerian, one sometimes finds the locative or ablative markers after the possessive (

12088:

stem can be combined with the suffix -/ed/ to form another participle, which often has a future and modal meaning similar to the

9903:"do, say". Thus, as many as four different suppletive stems can exist, as in the admittedly extreme case of the verb "to go": 𒁺 4845:

system (for example, 600 is 'ten sixties'), so that the Sumerian lexical numeral system is sexagesimal with 10 as a subbase. The

28999:

a large corpus of Sumerian texts in transliteration, largely from the Early Dynastic and Ur III periods, accessible with images.

28778: 23051: 22525:

Høyrup, Jens (1998). "Sumerian: The descendant of a proto-historical creole? An alternative approach to the Sumerian problem".

21976: 9779:

3rd person singular; in that last form, the first analysis attributes the -/e/ to the presence of the -/e(d)/ suffix described

772:. Such proposals enjoy virtually no support among modern linguists, Sumerologists and Assyriologists and are typically seen as 28394: 22854:

Marstal, Erica. The beginnings of Sumerology (I). From Delitzsch’s grammar to Adam Falkenstein. Aula Orientalis, 32: 283–297.

13871:"Is this your name?". Sumerian proper names that consist of entire sentences normally lack a copula as well, e.g. 𒀀𒁀𒀭𒌓𒁶 4817:"newly". This, too, is interpreted by Jagersma as a deadjectival noun with a possessive clitic in the directive case: {gibil.∅ 4362: 3004:"three men"). It has also been observed that until the Ur III period, the marker generally isn't used in a noun phrase in the 2271:

in some words—though objections have been raised against that as well. A recent descriptive grammar by Bram Jagersma includes

2214:), which Jagersma argues was realized as a tap because of various evidence suggesting its phonetic similarity to /t/ and /d/. 28800: 28586: 28464: 27958: 27749: 24669: 24659: 24621:

Sallaberger (2023: 49), Zólyomi (2017: 68-69), Attinger (1993: 168), Jagersma considers this, too, to be a special noun case.

24164: 22866:

Marstal, Erica. The beginnings of Sumerology (II). From Delitzsch’s grammar to Adam Falkenstein. Aula Orientalis 33, 255–269

22743: 22308: 22158: 22150: 21901:

Sommerfeld, Walter. 2021. Old Akkadian. In: History of the Akkadian Language. Ed. M. Weeden et al. Leiden: Brill. P. 640-641.

21829: 21695: 19619: 14437:

are mostly phonological and lexical. In terms of phonology, the following are some of the most common sound correspondences:

681:

even have been meant to be read in Sumerian; instead, it may have functioned as a prestigious way of "encoding" Akkadian via

28866: 28320: 22879: 7754:

etc.). Possibly originally a glottal stop /ʔ/, which was later elided with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.

7112:

may be adding nuances of emotional closeness or alignment of the speaker with the agent or other participants of the event,

6316:. Some of them are generally combined with certain TAs; in other cases, the meaning of a modal prefix can depend on the TA. 4444:(used in the locative, terminative and ablative to express "where", "whither" and "whence", respectively) . "When" is 𒇷/𒂗 623:, which has produced extensive royal inscriptions. The second phase corresponds to the unification of Mesopotamia under the 30522: 30103: 28446: 20662:

The earliest attestation of these terms is from the Middle Babylonian period. The original Sumerian terms may have been 𒆸

20331:

In front of the vowel /a/ of the genitive marker -/ak/ and the locative marker /a/, the possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈬

12485:

his property", which appears to say "The silver was his property, he gave it to me". In the negative, the full form 𒉡𒈨𒀀

5768:, forms a so-called verbal chain which is described as a sequence of about 15 slots, though the precise models differ. The 988:, each of which corresponds to a word in the Sumerian spoken language, as a phonetic syllable (V, VC, CV, or CVC), or as a 406:. The impact was perhaps the greatest on Akkadian, whose grammar and vocabulary were significantly influenced by Sumerian. 30632: 27888:

Garcia-Ventura, A. (2017). Emesal studies today: a preliminary assessment. In L. Feliu, F. Karahashi and G. Rubio (eds.):

26895: 23157: 22169: 21137:

Jagersma (2010: 311) treats this as a suppletive stem. As another instance of the same pattern, Zólyomi (2017) cites 𒌓𒁺

13964:

is largely non-existent. An exception may be a few nouns ending in -/u/ denoting the object of a corresponding verb: 𒊬𒊒

8281:"answer" (lit. "return a word") always includes the locative. In general, verbs having a place-related meaning such as 𒁄 569:

IIIa) are the first to span a greater variety of genres, including not only administrative texts and sign lists, but also

31477: 31128: 28942:

by Margaret Jaques and Dieter Koch. Numerous intricacies and problems of Sumerian verbal morphology are discussed in the

9885:"approach" (both written 𒋼). A number of scholars do not recognise the existence of such a class or consider it dubious. 7846:

Seems to be absent in some cases, see the main text. Note that the inanimate agreement marker has no number distinction.

1910: 1839: 566: 244: 22547:

Monaco, Salvatore F., "Proto-Cuneiform And Sumerians", Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, vol. 87, no. 1/4, pp. 277–82, 2014

13911:

to the beginning of the clause, but the interrogative words are placed immediately before the verb: e.g. 𒈗𒂊𒀀𒈾𒈬𒌦𒀝

3233:

Two other ways of expressing plurality are characteristic only of very late Sumerian usage and have made their way into

537: 32798: 29604: 28178: 23621:

In the Eye of the Beholder: Quantificational, Pragmatic and Aspectual Features of the *bí- Verbal Formation in Sumerian

20702:

The common denominator is that these sequences begin in a single consonant, which makes the syllable containing /u/ an

14618:

There are also specifically Emesal lexemes that do not seem to be cognate with their Emegir counterparts, for example:

13972:"write". Compounding, on the other hand, is common in nouns. Compounds are normally left-headed. The dependent may be: 11991:'bring it here!' In Old Babylonian texts, the reduced form -/u/ and the more regular -/am/ {-a-m} are also found: 𒂷𒉡 9273: 8713:

The preceding vowel undergoes compensatory lengthening, which is sometimes indicated by its doubling in the spelling:

1064: 851: 26473:

Hayes (2000), Rubio (2007), Michalowski (2020), Sallaberger (2020), Civil (2020). Originally proposed by M. Yoshikawa.

25539:

to occur in the absence of an (explicit) agent. Both Rubio and Thomsen view it as being in some sense the opposite of

25376:

Cf. Foxvog (2016: 91), Edzard (2003: 103-109), Thomsen (2001: 173) and, with some reservations, Woods (2008: 143-153).

25230:

Cf. Thomsen (2001: 163), Rubio (2007: 1347) and Foxvog (2016: 65), who even regards /i-/ as a mere "prosthetic vowel".

13859:

Sumerian generally links a nominal predicate to the subject using the copula verb, like English. However, it does use

13364:"month", and this in turn can then stand in the locative and ablative in the same meanings as the clauses themselves: 13016:. There are no adpositions, but noun phrases in a certain case may resemble prepositions and have a similar function: 31204: 30789: 28835: 28749: 28722: 28673: 28501: 28479: 28362: 28309: 28244: 22700:

Edzard, Dietz Otto, "Wann ist Sumerisch als gesprochene Sprache ausgestorben?", Acta Sumerologica 22, pp. 53–70, 2000

22494: 22469: 22426: 21151:. Foxvog (2010: 120) points out that this class has at most these two members and considers its status to be suspect. 14927:

confusion of the locative case (-/a/) and the directive case (-/e/), as well as the various prefix-case combinations;

7912:(in the Neo-Sumerian period) and especially during the Old Babylonian period. Thus, in earlier texts, one finds 𒈬𒀝 6367:

meaning and can be translated as "not". The allomorphs /la-/ and /li-/ are used before the "conjugation prefixes" 𒁀

1086: 877: 794:

influence on it, especially in the form of polysyllabic words that appear "un-Sumerian"—making them suspect of being

22800:

Prince, J. Dyneley, "The Vocabulary of Sumerian", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 25, pp. 49–67, 1904

12437:"it is also not ..." is attested. A different word is used to express existence or being present/located somewhere: 6491:. Beginning in the later Old Akkadian period, the spelling also shows assimilation of the vowel of the prefix to 𒃶 859: 32778: 32651: 31904: 31868: 30765: 30004: 25367:

Cf. Foxvog (2016: 91), Edzard (2003: 103-109), partially accepted by Thomsen (2001: 173) and Woods (2008: 153-160).

22527:

Published: AIΩN. Annali del Dipartimento di Studi del Mondo Classico e del Mediterraneo Antico. Sezione linguistica

19609: 12592:, while others consider the tense-aspect opposition to be neutralized in it. The personal prefix is nearly always - 11269:

In more general terms, modern scholars usually state that the difference between the two forms is primarily one of

9288: 5784:

may only have suffixes. Broadly, the prefixes have been divided in three groups that occur in the following order:

2150: 1470: 1202: 22834: 21853: 21640: 20569:(sing.) and the 2nd person plural form of the copula. For these reasons, their authenticity is considered dubious. 18616: 14827:, is contracted into 𒈬 /muː/ in the Ur III standard, but into 𒈨 /meː/ in the most common Old Babylonian variety. 9029:(for himself)" is possible. In some schemes, this is formalized as the placement of the initial pronominal prefix 1341:), and for over a decade the leading Assyriologists battled over this issue. For a dozen years, starting in 1885, 29923: 29859: 29102: 26267:

The possibility is mentioned by Foxvog (2016: 93); the question is discussed in detail in Attinger (1993: §178a).

20369:, respectively. In contrast, these case markers do not cause the loss of the final /e/ in the plural marker 𒂊𒉈 7392:

separation and movement "away" from the centre of attention towards a distant goal, especially with motion verbs;

5473:

The syntax of numerals has some peculiarities. Besides just being placed after a noun like other modifiers (𒌉𒐈

234: 32493: 32481: 22443:"Urges Turks to teach culture of their race, Kemal says historians have maligned people, Sun Language revived". 14725:

Bram Jagersma and Gábor Zólyomi distinguish two regional dialects of Sumerian: the Southern Sumerian dialect of

12596:- in identified cases; views differ on whether it agrees in gender with an animate logical object, appearing as 12031:

may also mean '(the act of) giving' or 'the fact that X gave Y'. Participles are formed in the following ways:

4366: 31781: 31765: 30536: 29778: 28416: 28268:

Fragmente einer großen Sprache. Sumerisch im Kontext der Schreiberausbildung des kassitenzeitlichen Babylonien.

6519:

was the only allomorph in the Archaic Sumerian period and many have viewed it as the main form of the morpheme.

5502:, lit. "the children, being three". Finally, there is a third construction in which the possessive pronoun 𒁉 - 4105:

whom something is bought, but in another construction it uses the locative for the thing something is bartered

3057:

As the following example shows, the marker is appended to the end of the phrase, even after a relative clause:

1068: 855: 30287: 22983: 22678: 21388:

in transitive usage "to seat, set" according to Sallaberger (2023: 57). Cf. Foxvog (2016: 82) citing Attinger.

14407:. Recently, a regional differentiation into a Northern and a Southern Sumerian dialect area has been posited. 8049:

A major exception from the general system of personal and dimensional prefixes is the very frequent prefix 𒉌

6499:

in front of a syllable containing /e/; in the Ur III period, there is a tendency to generalize the variant 𒃶

4440:"what" (also used as "whoever" and "whatever" when introducing dependent clauses). The stem for "where" is 𒈨 600:

period (c. 2350 BC – c. 2200 BC), during which Mesopotamia, including Sumer, was united under the rule of the

32708: 32698: 32693: 32558: 32386: 32170: 32165: 31807: 31002: 30649: 29784: 29609: 29395: 29389: 29313: 27153: 14280:

On verbs acquiring the properties of adjectives and nouns (agent nouns and action nouns), see the section on

12151:. The analysis of this participle is controversial along the same lines as that of the meaning of the suffix 7064:

does not occur in front of a CV sequence except, in Old Babylonian Sumerian, in front of the locative prefix

5568:

Another way of expressing fractions was originally limited to weight measures, specifically fractions of the

3499:

The final vowels of most of the above markers are subject to loss if they are attached to vowel-final words.

798:—and are not traceable to any other known language. There is little speculation as to the affinities of this 28795:

Cohen, Mark E., "An Annotated Sumerian Dictionary", University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2023

28694:

Sumerisch: Eine Einführung in Sprache, Schrift und Texte II. Sumerische Texte in Keilschrift, Zeichenlisten.

21585: 20977:, while there is vacillation in the choice between prioritizing it or the locative (Jagersma 2010: 442-444). 19396:"At Enlil's command, he threw his great battle net over it and heaped up burial mounds for it on the plain." 13636:). In contrast, in the 1st and 2nd persons, the 1st and 2nd person pronouns are followed by the syllable 𒉈 12565:

inflected as an intransitive one: instead, it has a personal prefix, which refers to the "logical object": {

8617:

Two special phenomena occur if there is no absolutive–ergative pronominal prefix in the pre-stem position.

7867:

As in the singular, the 3rd person animate form begins in a geminate /nn/ according to Jagersma and others.

7623:'he also understood it'. This suggests that these two conjugation prefixes must belong to different slots. 6585:

stems, but nevertheless uses personal prefixes to express objects, which is otherwise characteristic of the

4645:"long" (these are verbs with adjectival meaning according to Jagersma). Some never take the suffix: e.g. 𒃲 619:; the most important sources come from the autonomous Second Dynasty of Lagash, especially from the rule of 208: 175: 32713: 32683: 32538: 31817: 31552: 31012: 30997: 30696: 29997: 29984: 29755: 29716: 19851:

Another, relatively uncommon opinion based on loanwords to and from Old Akkadian is that it was actually a

13945:

is normally closer to the verb, and that an interrogative word emphasized with a copula such as 𒀀𒈾𒀸𒀀𒀭

13402:

The nominalized clause can also be included in the various "prepositional constructions" mentioned above:

11282: 11130:

form "I escaped". In contrast, in the analysis of scholars who do not believe that -/ed/- is obligatory in

4705:"a/the small one" or "a small thing". Other scholars have remained sceptical about the posited contrasts. 2104: 2094: 1957: 414: 25001:

Foxvog (2016: 108), Rubio (2007: 1342-1343). Originally posited by Miguel Civil (also in Civil 2020: 139).

21497:

first occurs in Neo-Sumerian, but Jagersma (2010: 496) states that it was already present in Old Sumerian.

20995:

For this reason, it appears that a directive participant is sometimes untypically cross-referenced with a

19855: 14466: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2260: 2253: 2249: 2184: 2154: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2045: 1953: 1949: 1776: 1757: 1748: 1724: 1703: 1685: 1676: 1668: 1660: 1641: 1631: 1623: 1612: 1603: 1593: 1585: 1565: 1555: 1547: 1247:

In 1855 Rawlinson announced the discovery of non-Semitic inscriptions at the southern Babylonian sites of

351:

until the 1st century AD. Thereafter, it seems to have fallen into obscurity until the 19th century, when

32661: 32563: 32002: 31897: 31873: 31755: 31750: 31685: 31361: 30992: 30986: 30771: 30044: 29962: 29935: 29639: 29629: 25623:

Jagersma (2010: 400), Edzard (2003: 92-93), Rubio (2007: 1348, 1350-1351), Civil (2020: 141-145, 167-179)

22867: 22855: 20231:

According to Jagersma, this is a tendency due to semantic reasons, but not a strict rule of the language.

19677:

For words occurring in this article, proposed revised readings based on Old Babylonian lexical lists are

14873:

meanings ("into" and "onto") and directive -/e/ as the expression of achieving contiguity with something;

14865:

generalized use of terminative -/še/ to express direction, displacing locative -/a/ as the expression of

14370: 12981: 3528:

of the verb that the noun modifies, producing additional meanings. While the dative and directive are in

2257: 1033:

are reflected in the transliterations. This article generally used the versions with expressed Auslauts.

25310:

Jagersma (2010: 507-508), Zólyomi (2017: 152-156). Cf. Rubio (2007: 1347-1348), Thomsen (2001: 182-183).

14427: 12046:

may be a person who regularly/constantly gives, something regularly given, or the regular act of giving.

3713:

The uses of the ergative and absolutive case are those typical of ergative languages. The subject of an

32773: 32330: 31878: 31487: 30558: 30219: 30016: 29814: 29674: 29644: 29634: 29624: 29330: 29095: 29025: 27165: 26003: 20768:

explains the fact that the finite prefix /i/- occurs in front of the dative prefix sequence written 𒈾

19906:

Some frequent words considered to contain long vowels based on borrowings into or from Akkadian are 𒆹

19852: 13863:

constructions in some contexts. In interrogative sentences, the 3rd person copula is omitted: 𒀀𒈾𒈬𒍪

12640:

A transitive verb is made causative by placing the ergative participant in the directive: {engar-e gud-

9303:

TA, the transitive subject is expressed by the prefix, and the direct object by the suffix, and in the

3529: 2410: 2067: 1305: 616: 12356:

These enclitic forms are used instead of a simple sequence of finite prefix, root and personal suffix

8334:

matching or non-matching noun cases and verb prefixes. The combinations may be summarized as follows:

1348: 922: 732:

flavour. Attempts have been made to link Sumerian with a range of widely disparate groups such as the

32728: 32723: 32718: 32586: 32508: 32503: 32159: 32145: 31920: 31562: 31377: 30970: 30777: 30753: 30728: 30701: 30684: 29694: 29649: 29619: 29592: 29163: 29118: 28386:

George, Andrew (2007). "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian". In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.),

22487:

Toward Proto-Nostratic: a new approach to the comparison of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic

21824:

Krecher, J. 1992: UD.GAL.NUN versus ‘Normal’ Sumerian: Two Literatures or One? Fronzaroli, P. (ed.).

21421:

The use of capitals indicate that the pronunciation of the reduplicated stem is unknown or uncertain.

13694: 13150: 11888: 11500: 11204:

present) and timeless truths. It is also used in conditional clauses with the conjunction 𒋗𒃻𒌉𒇲𒁉

8184: 7334:) is usually seen as a sequence of the personal prefix -/b/- and the directive prefix -/i/- or -/e/-. 6243: 6089: 3850: 3196:

Another way in which a kind of plurality is expressed is by means of reduplication of the noun: 𒀭𒀭

2980:-like contexts, which occur frequently in Sumerian proverbs, animals are usually treated as animate. 2180: 1206: 787: 575: 28704:

Sumerisch: Eine Einführung in Sprache, Schrift und Texte. Band 3: Die Texte in Bearbeitung, Glossar.

28202: 21022:

Occasional exceptions from this restriction occur only in Old Babylonian texts (Jagersma 2010: 509).

8260:

has the meaning "go up" with the directive prefix, but "go down" with the ablative one, the verb 𒉚

7198:

is lost, whereas the historically preceding finite prefix is preserved: */i-mu-ši-g̃en/ > 𒅎𒅆𒁺

6652:

meaning ("after/when/if") and is also used as a mild imperative "Please do X". It is only used with

4349:

to express the meaning "this". There are rare instances of other demonstrative enclitics such as 𒂊

366:

In spite of its extinction, Sumerian exerted a significant impact on the languages of the area. The

32553: 32498: 32269: 32099: 31988: 31517: 31159: 31017: 30824: 30461: 30449: 30281: 29343: 29336: 29152: 29055: 29039: 29029: 29019: 28781: 28321:"Ancient Writing and Ancient Written Language: Pitfalls and Peculiarities in the Study of Sumerian" 23926:

Rubio (2007: 1329), Foxvog (2016: 59), Thomsen (2001: 88), Jagersma (2010: 137), Zólyomi (2017: 40)

20931: 13717: 13012:"the owner of the house", lit. "of the house, its owner") is common and may signal the possessor's 12119:= "(in order) to make". A similar meaning can be expressed by adding the locative marker: 𒁶(𒈨)𒁕 7136:

as such or that it is attracted by personal dative prefixes in general, as is the Akkadian ventive.

7124:

on a person, movement or action directed towards an entity with higher social status, prototypical

3872: 957: 840: 673: 29061:

Eléments de linguistique sumérienne (by Pascal Attinger, 1993; in French), at the digital library

28813: 24358: 20596:

The variant with /e/ is found in Old Babylonian and has a few attestations in Ur III Neo-Sumerian.

20525:

The variant with /e/ is found in Old Babylonian and has a few attestations in Ur III Neo-Sumerian.

13094:, corresponding to an English clause with "which ..." or "who ...", as in the following example: 11166:(< {šum-ed}). It is also assimilated and contracted with immediately preceding vowels, e.g. 𒄄 9840:= 1st consonant of the root, V = 1st vowel of the root). In a few cases, the template is instead C 8229: 1232:

came to suspect a non-Semitic origin for cuneiform. Semitic languages are structured according to

996:.) Some Sumerian logograms were written with multiple cuneiform signs. These logograms are called 32367: 32262: 32212: 32191: 32182: 32064: 31981: 31941: 31827: 31760: 31654: 31507: 31425: 31420: 30022: 29947: 29350: 29300: 28903: 22171:

Al-Rawi, Farouk N.H., "A Fragment of a Cylinder of Adad-Apla-Iddina", Sumer 37, pp. 116–117, 1981

14982:

use of Emesal forms in non-Emesal contexts: e.g. /umun/ "lord" and /gašan/ "lady" (instead of 𒂗

14930:

occasional use of the ergative/directive ending -/e/ instead of the genitive case marker -/a(k)/.

14369:), possibly to be interpreted as "fine tongue" or "high-pitched voice". Other apparent terms for 13174:

clause can also be a complement clause, corresponding to an English clause with "that ...", e.g.

7783:-/e/- before a consonant. -/e/- is assimilated to the preceding vowel, lengthening it (e.g. 𒈬𒂊 2595:. Thus, when the following consonant appears in front of a vowel, it can be said to be expressed 2488: 2444: 2440: 2268: 1892: 1821: 1375: 1057: 844: 733: 725: 28930: 28887: 24353:

Wilcke, Claus 2013. ’Dieser Ur-Namma hier… Eine auf die Darstellung weisende Statueninschrift.’

23566: 21916:

Black, J.A. and G. Zólyomi (2007). The study of diachronic and synchronic variation in Sumerian.

12790:({NOUN-a inim ...-e~i-...g̃ar}), lit. "place a word on something" > "claim, place a claim on" 12101: 7372:

have been noted, and most of these are subsumed by Jagersma under the overarching function of a

6714:

TA. In its negative usage, it can be said to function as the negation of the precative/optative

1378:

summarized the rapid expansion in knowledge of Sumerian and Akkadian vocabulary in the pages of

32523: 32518: 32283: 32255: 32246: 32205: 31858: 31710: 31469: 31036: 30884: 30679: 30455: 30408: 30038: 29955: 29614: 29598: 29406: 29307: 29170: 29146: 27948: 23395:

Krecher, J. 1969. Verschlußlaute und Betonung im Sumerischen, in: M. Dietrich, W. Röllig, ed.,

21164:

reduplicating stems, are indicated in the catalogue of verbs in Thomsen (2001: 295-323) and in

20503:

With animates, the construction 𒆠...(𒀀)𒋫 /ki X-a(k)-ta/, lit. "from the place of X" is used.

19827: 18768:, king of all the lands, father of all the gods, by his firm command, fixed the border between 14780:, which had originally existed in both dialects, disappears entirely apart from the variant 𒀠 12604:. Critics have argued that most alleged examples of the construction are actually instances of 11219: 9260:

first- and second-person suffix -/en/ as -/e/, making it coincide with the third person in the

7802:

etc.) in the dialects attested before the Old Babylonian period. In the Old Babylonian dialect

7125: 6313: 6139: 5805: 4429: 4342: 2716: 1965: 1525: 1263: 753: 17: 30674: 22642: 22601: 22057: 20306:, presumably standing for */dumu(k)/. The same appears to happen after the plural marker 𒂊𒉈 14903:

occasional incorporation of the constituent noun of the phrasal verb into the verb stem: e.g.

13537:

Several clauses can be nominalized by a single {-a} enclitic: {kaʾa ba-zaḫ engar-e nu-i-b-dab-

12506:

By simply eliminating the agent of a transitive verb and the corresponding agreement marker: {

9418:

The use of the personal affixes for subjects and direct objects can be summarized as follows:

9331:} can be "I will run". This means that the intransitive subject is treated like the object in 2696:. The motivation for this practice is mysterious; it has been suggested that it was a kind of 2551:. The use of VC signs for that purpose, producing more elaborate spellings such as 𒈬𒌦𒃻𒌷𒌍 2425:"let me run", but, from the Neo-Sumerian period onwards, occasional spellings like 𒄘𒈬𒊏𒀊𒋧 32675: 32548: 32528: 32276: 32071: 32009: 31527: 31082: 30980: 30669: 30472: 30262: 30251: 30213: 29820: 29794: 29699: 29689: 29372: 29288: 29139: 28623: 28604: 28302:

Evolution and Consciousness: The Role of Speech in the Origin and Development of Human Nature

22733: 22251:

Evolution and Consciousness: The Role of Speech in the Origin and Development of Human Nature

21915: 21571:

Jagersma (2010: 1), Zólyomi (2017: 15), Foxvog (2016: 21), Edzard (2003: 1), ePSD2 entry for

20961:

The prefix does not seem to surface at all between a vowel and a subject/object prefix as in

14849:

confusion of the animate and inanimate gender, resulting in use of incorrect gender pronouns;

12684: 11796: 11653: 11545: 11400: 11223: 7095: 5983: 5846: 3768: 1799: 1278:

Credit for being first to scientifically treat a bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian text belongs to

1029: 803: 799: 656: 418:

This proto-literate tablet (c. 3100 – 2900 BC) records the transfer of a piece of land (

399: 104:. Went out of vernacular use around 1700 BC; used as a classical language until about 100 AD. 30783: 30508: 28899: 27739: 24154: 23382:

Falkenstein, A. 1959. Untersuchungen zur sumerischen Grammatik. Zum Akzent des Sumerischen.

23274:

The limits of vowel harmony in Sumerian and some remarks about the need of transparent data

20256:. Similarly, the Sumerian locative expresses internal location both as a stative condition ( 14977:

use of infrequent words, sometimes inappropriately, apparently extracted from lexical lists.

13193:) "(he knows) that he built the house". Like a noun, it can be followed by case morphemes: 12903:({NOUN-da a ...ag̃}) lit. "measure out power (?) with someone" = "to give orders to someone" 6939:" and groups the others together with the finite prefix as (non-proclitic) "preformatives". 5644:

the presence of an actual modifier in the clause need not co-occur: not only 𒂍𒂠𒌈𒌈𒅆𒁺𒌦

2562:, became more common only in the Neo-Sumerian and especially in the Old Babylonian period. 2525: 1359:

at the Collège de France in Paris was another prolific and reliable scholar. His pioneering

32656: 32646: 32636: 32486: 32340: 32153: 32037: 31745: 31705: 31184: 31057: 30814: 30622: 30595: 30578: 30546: 30444: 30158: 30083: 30010: 29789: 29766: 29738: 29669: 29580: 29361: 28062: 24805:

Riches Hidden in Secret Places. Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen

23624: 23273: 20244:

be the result of movement in a certain direction. Based on its meaning, it could be called

14244:"justice". A small number of terms of professions are derived with the preposed element 𒉡 12985: 11222:), and, rarely, actions in the past that are still relevant or operative (like the English 9382: 4768:

Most commonly, adverbial meanings are expressed by noun phrases in a certain case, e.g. 𒌓

4748:

To express the comparative or superlative degree, various constructions with the word 𒋛𒀀

4507: 3434:"to", "towards", "for", "until", "in exchange (for)", "instead if", "as for", "because of" 2790:"great king"). The noun itself is not inflected; rather, grammatical markers attach to the 2448: 2384: 1928: 1857: 1400:

Friedrich Delitzsch published a learned Sumerian dictionary and grammar in the form of his

1191: 1175: 960:

comprising several hundred signs. Rosengarten (1967) lists 468 signs used in Sumerian (pre-

30942: 28514:

Kogan, L., Krebernik, M. (2021). A history of the Akkadian lexicon. In: J.-P. Vita (ed.),

25490:

Cf. Foxvog (2016: 75) and the slightly different description in Zólyomi (2017: 78, 80-81).

23397:

Lišan mitḥurti (Festschrift Wolfram Freiherr von Soden). Alter Orient und Altes Tetament 1

19664:, some of which contain year names from the reign of a king with the Sumerian throne name 12049:

Another way to form participles is by means of adding the nominalizing marker -/a/ to the

11078:{i-zaḫ-ed} "he will/must escape". This suffix is considered to account for occurrences of 5730:

It is often pointed out that a Sumerian verb does not seem to be strictly limited to only

5615:"12×1/60 = 1/5", and two-fifths are 𒑚𒇹𒂆 "2/3 + (4 × 1/60) = 5/15 + 1/15 = 6/15 = 2/5". 4657:"great" (these are genuine adjectives according to Jagersma). Finally, some alternate: 𒍣 3725:

case. In contrast, the subject of a transitive verb has a different case, which is termed

370:, originally used for Sumerian, was widely adopted by numerous regional languages such as 8: 32703: 32476: 32461: 32396: 32198: 32120: 32030: 32023: 31974: 31932: 31832: 31740: 31715: 31522: 31497: 30834: 30738: 30638: 30627: 30589: 30568: 30466: 30425: 30200: 30182: 30176: 30151: 30144: 30137: 30050: 30033: 29772: 29438: 29425: 29319: 29269: 29126: 27164:

Zólyomi, G., Voice and Topicalization in Sumerian. Kandidátusi értekezés, Budapest 1993.

26761:

Thomsen (2001: 118-120) and Jagersma (2010: 372-373), both citing Poebel and Falkenstein.

22033: 20133:

more than /e/, and doubling is more extensive in Old Sumerian than in subsequent periods.

19614: 14956:

omission of the ergative marker -/e/ and apparent loss of the notion of an ergative case;

13013: 11290: 11258:

agreement pattern depending on various conditions, as specified in the relevant sections

11215: 8672: 7909: 7121: 7113: 6958: 6249: 6223: 6101: 5637: 2728: 2712: 2653:. They also vary in the degree to which allomorphic variation was expressed, e.g. 𒁀𒄄𒌍 2375:), which also provide the overwhelming majority of material from that stage, exhibited a 2248:). Other "hidden" consonant phonemes that have been suggested include semivowels such as 1803: 1693: 1653: 1342: 1233: 1127:

Left: Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary, used by early Akkadian rulers. Right: Seal of

984:

Depending on the context, a cuneiform sign can be read either as one of several possible

765: 737: 639: 624: 513: 430: 28807: 28120: 24830: 23599: 22775: 22759: 18247: 17575: 17497: 17128: 17057: 17003: 16896: 16072: 15724: 14717:- conditioned by context in the same way as that of the corresponding Emegir prefixes). 14357: 9111:, so that the above realisations actually stand for {i-m-b-ši-g̃en} and {i-m-b-g̃a-g̃a}. 6467:

form. In contrast, if the verbal form is intransitive or stative, the TA used is always

2676:

default), for the purpose of teaching the language and often in recording incantations.

2135:, it is thought to have become voiced /dz/ in some positions in the late 3rd millennium. 1466:

Sumerian grammar, without which a survey of the field could not be considered complete.

267: 32783: 32437: 32391: 32306: 32301: 32296: 31822: 31791: 31690: 31537: 31454: 30748: 30743: 30733: 30716: 30711: 30706: 30690: 30659: 30654: 30607: 30601: 30552: 30497: 30420: 30304: 30268: 30229: 30171: 29978: 29973: 29684: 29443: 29412: 29378: 29366: 29325: 29200: 28925: 28844: 28653: 28566: 28558: 27843: 27786: 25265:

Cf. Thomsen (2001: 187), Edzard (2003: 111-112), Foxvog (2016: 66), Rubio (2007: 1351).

22824: 22709:

Sallaberger (2023: 28-29), Attinger (2009: 38-39); Mittermayer, C./P. Attinger (2006):

22582: 22574: 22396: 22368: 22360: 22333:

Gostony, C. G. 1975: Dictionnaire d'étymologie sumérienne et grammaire comparée. Paris.

21728: 16714: 13144: 13087: 11876: 11850: 11810: 11741: 11707: 11667: 11599: 11559: 11488: 11454: 11414: 11330: 11270: 9676:

The verbal stem itself can also express grammatical distinctions within the categories

9284: 9037:

and not in the following slot, where all the other initial pronominal prefixes such as

8172: 8104: 7190:. In his analysis, these combinations occur in front of a CV sequence, where the vowel 6649: 6237: 6195: 6071: 6037: 5997: 5700: 4499: 4101:"to barter" governs, in the sense to "to buy", the terminative to introduce the seller 3838: 2880: 2768: 2076: 1520: 1515: 1424:'s inscriptions. Poebel's grammar was finally superseded in 1984 on the publication of 1390: 1383: 1132: 745: 643: 419: 291: 30845: 30808: 25861:

So in Thomsen (2001), Edzard (2003), Rubio (2007), Foxvog (2016), Michalowski (2020).

22127: 7668:

vacillation for the third person singular inanimate in transitive forms, as explained

7068:-/ni/-, the second person dative 𒊏 -/r-a/- and the second person directive 𒊑 -/r-i/- 5506:

is added after the numeral, which gives the whole phrase a definite meaning: 𒌉𒐈𒀀𒁉

4369:

three-term demonstrative system. The independent demonstrative pronouns are 𒉈𒂗/𒉈𒂊

4047:

The locative with a directive verbal prefix, expressing "on(to)", is used to express:

3226:"small") are also reduplicated when the noun they modify has plural reference: 𒀀𒃲𒃲 1109: 659:, however, mostly used Akkadian in inscriptions, sometimes adding Sumerian versions. 573:, legal and literary texts (including proverbs and early versions of the famous works 224: 32641: 32618: 32613: 32591: 32533: 32311: 32234: 31812: 31669: 31649: 31584: 31502: 31459: 31179: 31174: 30759: 30664: 30644: 30583: 30563: 30274: 30235: 30206: 30194: 30131: 30077: 30055: 30028: 29968: 29941: 29760: 29721: 29711: 29679: 29478: 29460: 29454: 29356: 29274: 29188: 29045: 29002: 28831: 28796: 28745: 28718: 28669: 28657: 28645: 28610: 28582: 28570: 28529: 28497: 28475: 28460: 28442: 28358: 28305: 28288: 28240: 27954: 27745: 24665: 24160: 23043: 22739: 22586: 22490: 22465: 22422: 22372: 22304: 22154: 21720: 21691: 20169: 12418:

For a negative equivalent of the copula in the 3rd person, it seems that the word 𒉡

11303: 11278: 11197: 9280: 7383: 7032:

meaning. It is common in the Northern Old Sumerian dialect, where it can also have a

6966: 6383:

with compensatory lengthening (which is often graphically unexpressed): compare 𒉌𒁺

6379:, respectively. A following vowel /i/ or /e/ is contracted with the preceding /u/ of 5735: 4557: 3714: 3298: 2201: 1577: 1535: 1487: 1447: 1222: 1219: 1187: 1143: 1012:. The text transliteration of a tablet will show just the logogram, such as the word 972: 652: 605: 442:

AO 5477. The top half is in Sumerian, the bottom half is its translation in Akkadian.

395: 371: 333: 329: 30850: 30839: 30819: 29157: 28668:, vol. 2, pp. 1327–1379. Edited by Alan S. Kaye. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, 28391: 25663:, nevertheless calls it "a primary voice marker that is functionally independent of 12856:({NOUN-ra ki ...ag̃}) lit. "to measure out a place for someone" = "to love someone" 12625:

is expressed syntactically in two ways, depending on the transitivity of the verb.

9295:. Because of this presence of both patterns, Sumerian is considered a language with 8267:

means "sell" with the ablative prefix and "buy" with the terminative, the verb 𒌓𒁺

7770:-/r/- before a vowel (before the dative and the directive prefixes, resulting in 𒊏 3245:"sheep". The other is adding the 3rd person plural form of the enclitic copula 𒈨𒌍 1028:, which were found in the 19th century; in the 20th century, earlier lists from the 810:

3350–3100 BC) is really an early Indo-European language which he terms "Euphratic".

240: 32603: 32596: 32543: 32471: 32466: 32423: 32416: 32346: 32290: 32228: 32134: 32106: 32092: 32078: 31995: 31967: 31955: 31948: 31725: 31720: 31624: 31619: 31614: 31604: 31599: 31589: 31405: 31262: 31247: 31231: 31226: 31221: 31199: 31067: 30927: 30917: 30912: 30866: 30860: 30829: 30722: 30617: 30541: 30479: 30431: 30366: 30359: 30352: 30345: 30338: 30327: 30311: 30246: 30241: 30224: 30165: 30059: 29991: 29902: 29869: 29837: 29733: 29705: 29654: 29575: 29559: 29545: 29527: 29520: 29506: 29466: 29448: 29432: 29418: 29240: 29223: 29080: 28635: 28550: 27835: 27778: 24153:

Zólyomi, Gábor (2014). Grzegorek, Katarzyna; Borowska, Anna; Kirk, Allison (eds.).

22654: 22566: 22445: 22352: 20999:

prefix in order to allow the locative to also occur in the verb form (/b-i-/, but /

14879:

dropping of final -/m/ in the copula -/am/ and sometimes its replacement with -/e/;

14423: 11861: 11856: 11718: 11713: 11610: 11605: 11465: 11460: 11189:

Jagersma systematizes the use of the tense-aspect forms in the following patterns:

11106:

forms and in non-finite forms. In intransitive forms, it thus helps to distinguish

9296: 8407: 7386: 6564: 6200: 6181: 6167: 6048: 6043: 5633: 4846: 4132: 4036:" often seems to have very vague reference, approaching the meaning "say something 3613:

structure of the noun phrase can be further illustrated with the following phrase:

3610: 3537: 3417: 2724: 2700:. Texts written in UD.GAL.NUN are still understood very poorly and only partially. 2414:

a richer vowel inventory by some researchers. For example, we find forms like 𒂵𒁽

2359:

During the Old Sumerian period, the southern dialects (those used in the cities of

2311: 2211: 2191: 1417: 1326: 1289: 1171: 757: 749: 741: 721: 580: 387: 383: 379: 375: 315: 119: 30907: 30855: 29847: 28902:: the state of the art in the dawn of Sumerology, by the author of the first ever 28761:

The Grammar of Perspective: The Sumerian Conjugation Prefixes as a System of Voice

22735:

Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East

22485:

Bomhard, Allan R.; Hopper, Paul J. (1984). "Current Issues in Linguistic Theory".

21484:

which is not necessarily the present and is not specified by the verb form itself.

20918:

According to Jagersma (2010: 476-482) and Zólyomi (2017: 206, 215), the allomorph

9003:

to it (for himself)" is impossible. This restriction does not, however, apply for

8057:

which corresponds to an animate noun phrase in the directive. In the latter case,

4326:

are assimilated to a following case suffix containing /a/ and then have the forms

2519:

Pascal Attinger has partly concurred with Krecher, but doubts that the stress was

1363:, Paris 1905–1907, turns out to provide the foundation for P. Anton Deimel's 1934 1330: 1161:

being written 𒂗𒍪 EN.ZU), appears vertically in the right column. British Museum.

768:). Additionally, long-range proposals have attempted to include Sumerian in broad 32430: 32381: 32335: 32218: 32113: 32085: 32044: 31961: 31659: 31634: 31629: 31609: 31557: 31547: 31542: 31532: 31512: 31482: 31434: 31430: 31400: 31062: 30937: 30922: 30891: 30612: 30573: 30438: 30384: 30256: 30118: 29884: 29879: 29744: 29659: 29540: 29533: 29513: 29495: 29400: 29383: 29182: 29026:

Structural Interference from Akkadian in Old Babylonian Sumerian by Gábor Zólyomi

28990: 28523: 28436: 28398: 28282: 27890:

The First Ninety Years. A Sumerian Celebration in Honor of Miguel Civil, SANER 12

24837: 23896: 23630: 23605: 22536: 21464:

In fact, Zólyomi (2017: 123-124) retains the terminology of tense, preterite for

20172:

for each of the morphemes, and the fifth one displays a translation into English.

20157: 19657: 17053: 13568:) is specified as here, a more common construction uses the ergative: 𒂍𒈗𒂊𒆕𒀀 13091: 13004:"the house of the owner". However, the so-called anticipatory genitive (𒂍𒀀𒈗𒉈 12703: 12610: 12230:/me/ "to be" is mostly used in an enclitic form. Its conjugation is as follows: 11900: 11816: 11673: 11565: 11420: 11354: 11294: 9689: 9292: 8110: 7513: 7374: 6780: 6703: 6321: 6003: 5852: 5781: 5731: 5459: 4734:"white" appears to have always been reduplicated, and the same may be true of 𒈪 4682: 3820: 3750: 3718: 3493:"from", "since", "by (means of)", "in addition to"/"with", distributive ("each") 3439: 3302: 3288: 3005: 1530: 1491: 1443:) is the starting point of most recent academic discussions of Sumerian grammar. 1333:, argued from 1874 onward that Sumerian was not a natural language, but rather a 1268: 1153: 1128: 961: 953: 944: 783: 677: 601: 391: 111: 72: 28986: 28982: 23453:

Sallaberger (2023: 38), Jagersma (2010: 154-158, 175-176, 356-358, 641-642, 720)

12916:({NOUN-a šu ... gid}), lit. "stretch out the hand into something" = "to perform 8068:

An example of a verb chain where several dimensional slots are occupied can be:

6406:"he isn't walking". If followed by a consonant, on the other hand, the vowel of 2952:

There are some minor deviations from the gender assignment rules, for example:

2339:. Various researchers have posited the existence of more vowel phonemes such as 1393:

provided a detailed and readable summary of the decipherment of Sumerian in his

32788: 32608: 32376: 31889: 31639: 31072: 30932: 30901: 30872: 30503: 30389: 30372: 30322: 30317: 30188: 30125: 29895: 29889: 29809: 29804: 29750: 29727: 29472: 29294: 29251: 29234: 29228: 29206: 29194: 28943: 28915: 28715:

The Sumerian Language: An Introduction to Its History and Grammatical Structure

26891: 23550: 23164: 22713:. OBO Sonderband. Freiburg/Göttingen; Attinger 2019 (Lexique sumérien-français) 22533:(1992, publ. 1994). Istituto Universitario Orientale, Napoli: 21–72, Figs. 1–3. 20946:

etc. In Old Babylonian Sumerian, it is the preceding vowel that assimilated to

14870: 14419: 13941:

built the temple?" Two exceptions from this are that the constituent noun of a

13817: 13504: 13156: 12838:

Less commonly, the case of the logical object and the pronominal infix may be:

11231: 8274:"leave, go out" always has the ablative prefix, and the phrasal verb 𒅗 ... 𒄄 8230:

Differences and combinations between dimensional prefixes and noun case markers

6722:), so/then/therefore Y happened"). According to Jagersma and others, "negative 6451: 6263: 5970: 3107: 2441:

an initial vowel in a word of more than two syllables seems to have been elided

2221: 2019: 2001: 1795: 1769: 1426:

The Sumerian Language: An Introduction to its History and Grammatical Structure

1356: 1215: 1025: 992:(a marker of semantic category, such as occupation or place). (See the article 352: 147: 28993:

also contain Sumerian inscriptions (searchable by entering language:sumerian).

27820: 26743:

Thomsen (2001: 118-123), Sallaberger (2023: 88, 101), Attinger (1993: 186-187)

25319:

Jagersma (2010: 507-508), Zólyomi (2017: 152-156), cf. Thomsen (2001: 182-183)

23147:

Keetman, J. 2013. "Die sumerische Wurzelharmonie". Babel und Bibel 7 p.109-154

21327:

Traditionally, this verb was considered a four stem verb with the alternation

21243:

Traditionally, this verb was considered a four stem verb with the alternation

21190:

Traditionally, this verb was considered a four-stem verb with the alternation

20784:), but never before the personal prefix followed by the directive ({mu-nn-i}) 20729:

It has been claimed that the reflexive object may also be direct in some cases

14934:

For Middle Babylonian and later texts, additional deviations have been noted:

14776:

In Southern Sumerian after the Old Akkadian period, the conjugation prefix 𒀀

12886:(NOUN-še igi ...bar) lit. "bring out the eye towards something" = "see, look" 12605: 12127:= "(for it) to be made". The main difference is that in the construction with 12089: 11333:

use in other languages). Indeed it has been pointed out that a translation of

11329:

with past-tense reference was viewed as a stylistic device (cf. the so-called

11214:

is used to express actions in the present and future, but also non-completed (

8973:

as the head of a dimensional prefix isn't used after the "conjugation prefix"

8773:

This is to be contrasted with the syncopated version in an intransitive form:

8601:

The sequence that expresses the 1st person dative is then: /mu-/ + /-a-/ → 𒈠

7170:

and as also having ventive meaning; according to Jagersma, they consist of an

6475:, but in open syllables the prefix merges with a following conjugation prefix 5604:

split off (from the mina)" or "(a mina) minus ten shekels", respectively), 𒂆

4488:"how" (an equative case form, perhaps "like what?"). The expected form 𒀀𒈾𒁶 2973:"head", used in its secondary sense of "slave", may be treated as inanimate. 895: 32767: 31439: 31287: 31194: 30956: 30896: 30878: 30394: 30378: 30332: 30089: 29909: 29874: 29864: 29842: 29799: 29664: 29245: 29177: 28649: 28614: 28533: 28292: 26355:

Attinger 1993, Khachikyan 2007: "Towards the Aspect System in Sumerian". In:

26330:

Attinger 1993, Khachikyan 2007: "Towards the Aspect System in Sumerian". In:

22301:

Proto-Sumero-Dravidian: The Common Origin of Sumerian and Dravidian Languages

21724: 20703: 20653:

With a long vowel due to the origin from a contraction according to Jagersma.

20614:

It has been ascribed a more contrastive nuance "this (as opposed to others)".

20299: 19665: 14866: 13582:

A special subordinating construction with the temporal meaning of an English

13516: 13510: 13352:

The nominalized clause can directly modify a noun expressing time such as 𒌓

12988:(adjectives, genitive phrases etc.) are normally placed after the noun: 𒂍𒉋 12949:

ti}) lit. "make something come close to the hand" = "to receive something" ("

12688: 12585:. Some consider this construction to have only the function and meaning of a 12498: 11882: 11747: 11319: 8454: 8371: 8158: 8144: 7517: 7399: 7117: 7033: 6455: 6364: 6077: 5720: 4786:, which can be used to derive adverbs from both adjectives and nouns: 𒍣𒉈𒂠 3807: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3592: 3586: 3533: 3478: 3458: 3373: 3353: 3330: 3310: 3173: 3113: 2930: 2892: 2874: 2720: 2680: 2537: 2376: 2287: 2060: 1241: 1229: 1195: 989: 791: 773: 729: 664: 201: 29087: 23158:"Zólyomi, Gábor. 2017. An introduction to the grammar of Sumerian. P. 12-13" 22658: 22280:

DIAKONOFF, Igor M. (1997). "External Connections of the Sumerian Language".

20579:"(who) you (pl.) are"). Another form given in lexical lists is 𒍝𒂊𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 20557:"(who) you (pl.) are"). Another form given in lexical lists is 𒍝𒂊𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 14845:

times. The following effects have been found in the Old Babylonian period:

12039:

stem can function as a participle. It usually expresses timeless truths: 𒋧

8842: 7615:'he, too, knows it', but it precedes the conjugation prefix /mu/-: 𒈾𒂵𒈬𒍪 4582:"my-self", etc. The longer form appears in the third person animate (𒅎𒋼𒉌 779:

It has also been suggested that the Sumerian language descended from a late

32513: 32321: 32055: 31444: 31257: 31189: 29853: 28592:

Michalowski, Piotr (2020). "Sumerian". In: Rebecca Hasselbach-Andee (ed.).

26770:

Jagersma (2010: 372), Sallaberger (2023: 88, 101), Attinger (1993: 186-187)

21515:

Especially in earlier scholarship, the sign 𒉈 was read in this context as

19661: 18926: 14765:

In Southern Sumerian, the conjugation prefix expressing the passive was 𒁀

13498: 11322: 8206:'He made it (the dike) go out of it (a canal) for him into it (a locality)' 7422:"He brought it to it" / "He took it for himself" / "He took it away"; 𒁀𒁺 7029: 6962: 5764:

The verbal root is almost always a monosyllable and, together with various

5724: 3101: 2763:"lady"), although there are also some roots with three syllables like 𒆠𒇴 2697: 2380: 2264: 2064: 1210: 1168: 1118: 562: 434:

The first known Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual tablet dates from the reign of

356: 28707: 28697: 28687: 20494:

With animates, the corresponding case in some constructions is the dative.

18560: 18546: 18527: 18516: 18505: 18494: 18481: 18467: 18453: 18439: 18419: 18409: 18398: 18386: 18374: 18362: 18350: 18339: 18326: 18314: 18303: 18293: 18282: 18271: 18259: 18232: 18213: 18201: 18190: 18179: 18167: 18152: 18138: 18127: 18115: 18104: 18090: 18079: 18068: 18057: 18045: 18034: 18022: 18003: 17991: 17980: 17968: 17957: 17945: 17941: 17930: 17919: 17906: 17889: 17878: 17867: 17856: 17844: 17832: 17816: 17805: 17795: 17783: 17764: 17754: 17742: 17730: 17718: 17706: 17694: 17683: 17669: 17656: 17645: 17633: 17622: 17610: 17599: 17587: 17561: 17550: 17538: 17519: 17508: 17485: 17475: 17463: 17451: 17438: 17427: 17415: 17404: 17394: 17382: 17371: 17360: 17348: 17336: 17324: 17305: 17293: 17281: 17269: 17257: 17245: 17234: 17220: 17210: 17198: 17186: 17175: 17163: 17152: 17140: 17114: 17102: 17083: 17068: 17040: 17025: 17014: 16992: 16980: 16965: 16953: 16942: 16930: 16919: 16907: 16882: 16871: 16860: 16841: 16829: 16818: 16803: 16793: 16781: 16769: 16765: 16752: 16740: 16729: 16718: 16703: 16692: 16688: 16678: 16666: 16655: 16644: 16625: 16613: 16602: 16591: 16580: 16568: 16557: 16545: 16532: 16521: 16510: 16498: 16487: 16475: 16463: 16452: 16440: 16422: 16411: 16400: 16389: 16375: 16362: 16352: 16337: 16331: 16320: 16308: 16295: 16283: 16268: 16257: 16246: 16227: 16216: 16205: 16194: 16182: 16170: 16158: 16147: 16135: 16124: 16112: 16100: 16086: 16060: 16042: 16031: 16019: 16008: 15996: 15984: 15973: 15960: 15947: 15933: 15919: 15906: 15895: 15884: 15873: 15859: 15846: 15835: 15823: 15812: 15801: 15789: 15777: 15766: 15747: 15735: 15712: 15701: 15689: 15678: 15665: 15651: 15640: 15628: 15617: 15605: 15594: 15583: 15572: 15560: 15548: 15529: 15517: 15506: 15494: 15483: 15471: 15459: 15448: 15435: 15424: 15412: 15401: 15390: 15378: 15367: 15356: 15344: 15332: 15321: 15309: 15291: 15281: 15270: 15257: 15246: 15234: 15223: 15210: 15199: 15188: 15175: 15165: 15154: 15143: 15132: 15120: 15109: 15096: 15085: 15074: 13220:

his building of the house"), although this is more common in Old Sumerian.

8548:

A peculiar pattern of agreement occurs in what has been referred to as an

7860: 7669: 7661: 2921:

The possessive, plural and case markers are traditionally referred to as "

2578: 192: 31863: 31853: 31644: 31576: 31449: 31337: 31151: 28966: 28165:(about phonemes g̃ and ř and their representation using cuneiform signs). 28137:(about phonemes g̃ and ř and their representation using cuneiform signs). 25194:

For a recent detail overview of previous theories see Woods (2008: 22-44)

23553: 20472: 18773: 14990:), moreover written with the innovated logograms 𒌋 and 𒃽, respectively. 14946:(/ŋ/), with the latter merging into the former, and use of the signs for 14746: 13908: 13860: 13530: 13138: 12721:({NOUN-e igi ...-e~i-...du}), lit. "open the eye at something" > "see" 12368:

etc. For more complex forms, the independent copula form is used: 𒉌𒈨𒀀

12227: 11894: 11862: 11836: 11719: 11693: 11611: 11585: 11466: 11440: 8130: 8090: 6993: 6949: 6795:

TA if the verb denies an action (always present or future), and with the

6201: 6153: 6095: 6049: 6023: 5837: 5769: 5629: 5569: 4842: 3832: 3762: 3473:"in/into", "on/onto", "about", "by means of", "with (a certain material" 3395: 2904: 2791: 2119:. In early Sumerian, this would have been the unaspirated counterpart to 2049: 1741: 1409: 1334: 1179: 780: 769: 570: 542: 403: 336:, gradually replaced Sumerian as the primary spoken language in the area 319: 82: 28405: 21732: 21165: 20864:, found in Old Babylonian Sumerian, is the result of the contraction of 18738:𒀭𒂗𒆤 𒈗 𒆳𒆳𒊏 𒀊𒁀 𒀭𒀭𒌷𒉈𒆤 𒅗 𒄀𒈾𒉌𒋫 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄈𒋢 𒀭𒇋𒁉 𒆠 𒂊𒉈𒋩 13149: 12875:, lit. "to eject water for someone" = "to dedicate something to someone" 12672: 11887: 11499: 9392:

TA is expressed not only by the prefix, but also by the suffix: e.g. {i-

9267: 9049:

also regularly "fails" to appear after the ventive "conjugation prefix"

8183: 6242: 6088: 3849: 2504:

consisting of /e/ or beginning in /e/ are also assimilated and reduced.

672:

period continued to be copied after its end around 1600 BC. During the

32688: 32407: 32357: 32223: 31395: 31390: 29500: 28978: 28974: 28970: 28939: 28935: 28562: 23129:

Smith, Eric J M. 2007. "Harmony and the Vowel Inventory of Sumerian".

22776:

The Earliest Contributions to the Decipherment of Sumerian and Akkadian

22578: 22364: 22216: 21656: 14121:

A participle may be the head of the compound, preceded by a dependent:

12659:

The causative constructions can in turn be passivized using the prefix

12384:"I am not". Unlike the enclitic, it typically uses the normal stem 𒈨 - 11311: 9949:

The following tables show some of the most frequent stem alternations.

9719: 9685: 9007:

as a subject/object prefix immediately before the stem: thus, 𒁀𒀊𒄄𒄄

7814:) and the preceding vowel may assimilate to the -/e/- instead: e.g. 𒈨 5521:

three children" (lit. "children - the three of them"). The numerals 𒈫

4760:+ X + genitive + terminative "exceeding X", lit. "to the excess of X". 3234: 3054:"farmer" with no plural marker may refer to "(the group of) farmers". 2886: 2541: 1983: 1542: 1338: 1279: 1071: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 694: 682: 363:

inscriptions and excavated tablets that had been left by its speakers.

57: 31120: 29046:

The Life and Death of the Sumerian Language in Comparative Perspective

29003:

Mesopotamian year names. Neo-Sumerian and Old Babylonian Date Formulae

28926:

Elementary Sumerian Glossary by Daniel A. Foxvog (after M. Civil 1967)

27847: 27790: 27766: 22828: 19234:"Ningirsu, warrior of Enlil, at his just command, made war with Umma." 14839: 14273:

A noun can be formed from an adjective by conversion: for example, 𒂼

12613:

3rd person inanimate subject: "'it' has / they have built the house".

11893: 9122:- as a marker of the transitive object in the table in the section on 8848:

example, the normal position of the directive participant is seen in:

6779:

has emphatic negative meaning ("He certainly does/will not do it") or

6094: 4571:) "self", which generally occurs with possessive pronouns attached: 𒅎 2323:

The vowels that are clearly distinguished by the cuneiform script are

31700: 31385: 31272: 31209: 28920: 28581:

pp 19–59, ed. Roger Woodward. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

28438:

Sumerian Lexicon: A Dictionary Guide to the Ancient Sumerian Language

28261: 27452:

Jagersma (2010: 672-674), Zólyomi (2017: 102), Foxvog (2016: 151-152)

27326:

Jagersma 2010: 292), Zólyomi (2017: 226-227), Sallaberger (2023: 124)

22303:. Kingston, UK: History and Heritage Unit, Tamil Information Centre. 21160:

More unpredictable stem alternations of Sumerian verbs, specifically

21066:); that would often be indistinguishable from the 3rd person animate 20930:

may be assimilated to the preceding vowel, while the vowel undergoes

14754: 13794:

A quotative particle -/(e)še/ or -/ši/ "saying", variously spelt 𒂠 -

12812:, lit. "cut a fate upon someone" > "determine the fate of someone" 12732:, lit. "do work with respect to something" > "work (on) something" 12622: 11177:/gi-gi-i(d)/ < {gi-gi-ed} "which will/should return". The verb 𒁺 10065:"enter" (the use of the suppletive plural stem seems to be optional) 9734: 9377:}, the corresponding form for "they will catch it" would be {i-b-dab- 7171: 5708: 4473:"until when?", "how long?"). "How" and "why" are expressed by 𒀀𒈾𒀸 3410: 3346: 2783: 2779: 1237: 993: 985: 904: 819: 690: 558: 446:

The history of written Sumerian can be divided into several periods:

423: 367: 360: 348: 217: 185: 167: 154: 28554: 27071:

Thomsen (2001: 179, 183), Foxvog (2016: 75), Rubio (2007: 1361-1362)

22570: 22417:

Jan Braun (2004). "SUMERIAN AND TIBETO-BURMAN, Additional Studies".

21539:

However, occasionally the opposite correspondence occurs: Emegir 𒅗

14896:

occurrence of pre-stem pronominal prefixes in ḫamṭu referring to an

11226:). It is also used in conditional clauses with the conjunction 𒌓𒁕 6656:

forms. In open syllables, the vowel of the prefix is assimilated to

3922:

somebody" (but the same verb uses the directive in the phrasal verb

2536:

Sumerian writing expressed pronunciation only roughly. It was often

1046: 829: 31837: 31492: 31415: 31410: 31317: 31302: 31297: 31252: 28878: 28640: 28374:

Grammatik der Sprache Gudeas von Lagas I: Schrift- und Formenlehre.

27839: 27782: 25584:

Cf. Woods (2008: 306-307), Edzard (2003: 95), Foxvog (2016: 74-75).

24825:

See e.g. Rubio 2007, Attinger 1993, Zólyomi 2005 ("Sumerisch". In:

23285:

Michalowski, Piotr (2008): "Sumerian". In: Woodard, Roger D. (ed.)

22975: 22960:

Michalowski, Piotr (2008): "Sumerian". In: Woodard, Roger D. (ed.)

22557:

Rubio, Gonzalo (1999). "On the alleged 'pre-Sumerian substratum'".

22356: 22185: 20468: 20350:"its" are contracted and/or assimilated, so that they appear as 𒂷 20261: 20257: 20253: 20245: 20165: 19514: 19510: 18930: 18769: 18621: 18597: 14889:

occurrence of -/n/- as a transitive subject prefix in forms with a

13077:, lit. "for the name/fate of X" = "because of X" (in Neo-Sumerian). 12917: 12762:, lit. "make wood touch 'at' something" > "sacrifice something". 12741:, lit. "do hand-touching with respect to something" > "decorate" 12606:

the pre-stem personal prefix referring to the directive participant

8246:

case marker, but that normally wouldn't be cross-referenced with a

7718:

The vowel -/V/- is identical to that of the preceding prefix (𒈬𒅇

7512:

as a prefix in its own right, and it has sometimes been ascribed a

7133: 6734:" has the allomorph /nan-/ before a single consonant (written 𒈾𒀭 5539: 2926: 2922: 927: 795: 300: 252: 28862: 26704:

Thomsen (2001: 141-142), Hayes (2000: 431), Foxvog (2016: 121-122)

26004:"Structural interference from Akkadian in Old Babylonian Sumerian" 25010:

Sallaberger (2023: 128), somewhat similarly in Edzard (2003: 119).

22512:

The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue

22462:

Sumerian Turks: Civilization's Journey from Siberia to Mesopotamia

20403:

is written even after vowels. Additionally, in the Ur III period,

12869:, lit. "to pour out the voice for someone" = "to call for someone" 7542:"He made it (the ox, the group of workers) bring it here"; 𒅎𒈠𒁺 31924: 31594: 31322: 31312: 31277: 31267: 28962: 28756:(collection of Sumerian texts, some transcribed, none translated) 27148:

Jagersma, Bram. 2006. The final person-prefixes and the passive,

26578:

Jagersma (2010: 311), Zólyomi (2017: 139), Sallaberger (2023: 57)

24576:

See Thomsen (2001: 64), Edzard (2003: 47) and references therein.

23050:. Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford. 2005-03-29. 21589: 20872:, but sometimes also seems to occur because of assimilation to a 19587: 18922: 17902: 17079: 16987: 16975: 16303: 16279: 16082: 15265: 15218: 15104: 13879: 13752:"from" is also sometimes used in the sense of "and". The word 𒅇 11822: 11679: 11571: 11494: 11426: 11086:

of intransitive forms by those who do not accept the theory that

8178: 8116: 7129: 6952:

in the indicative mood must (nearly) always contain one of them.

6083: 6009: 4838: 3844: 3668: 3179: 3119: 2946: 2942: 2898: 1937: 1490:

phonology and the difficulties posed by the cuneiform script. As

1183: 699: 344: 304: 248: 32365: 28956: 28606:

Materials for a Sumerian lexicon with a grammatical introduction

28507:

Keetman, Jan (2017). Die Markierung des Passivs im Sumerischen.

28455:

Hayes, John (1990; 2nd revised ed. 2000; 3rd revised ed. 2018).

22343:

Zakar, András (1971). "Sumerian – Ural-Altaic affinities".

13306:

It can also host the enclitics -/akanam/ and -/akeš/ "because":

13260:), it has a meaning close to "before" or "as to the fact that": 12540:

The agent is never expressed in the passive clause in Sumerian.

12489:"which is not" is used, and likewise in non-relative functions. 9648:{i-n-dim-enden} (𒅔𒁶𒂗𒉈𒂗): "he created us" or "we create him" 5757:, it may be better to speak only of intransitive and transitive 5719:"slow, fat". Finally, opinions differ on whether the verb has a 5584:"two-thirds" (the former two words are of Akkadian origins), 𒑜 3524:

Note that these nominal cases enter interact with the so-called

2794:

as a whole, in a certain order. Typically, that order would be:

32016: 31342: 31292: 31214: 31096:

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.

31077: 30975: 28541:

Michalowski, Piotr (1980). "Sumerian as an Ergative Language".

28334:(Sumerological Studies in Honor of Thorkild Jakobsen): 99–121. 24594:

Foxvog (2016: 24), Hayes (2000: 98), partly Thomsen (2001: 64).

23276:". Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires 2009, No. 65 20252:

also express the destination of a movement, making the meaning

19114: 18601: 14859:

occasional use of the directive case marker -/e/ with animates;

14742: 14726: 13741: 12683:

A specific problem of Sumerian syntax is posed by the numerous

11102:

form, although its presence is obligatory only in intransitive

6936: 5777: 5773: 5745:

can mean both "enter" and "insert / bring in", and the verb 𒌣

5601: 2360: 1345:

accepted Halévy's arguments, not renouncing Halévy until 1897.

1309: 1297: 1248: 1214:

Meanwhile, many more cuneiform texts were coming to light from

965: 931: 900: 761: 686: 647: 628: 593: 506: 439: 435: 28888:

Sumerisch (An overview of Sumerian by Ernst Kausen, in German)

28474:. Languages of the World/Materials #68, LincomEuropa, Munich. 25508:

Cf. Edzard (2003: 94), Foxvog (2016: 73), Thomsen (2001: 179).

22711:

Altbabylonische Zeichenliste der sumerisch-literarischen Texte

22643:"Problems of absolute chronology in protohistoric Mesopotamia" 21307:

agreement pattern in spite of the verb itself being used with

21119:-/nne/- with geminate /n/ according to Jagersma (2010:339-340) 19480:𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠 𒉺𒄑𒉋𒂵 𒂗𒋼𒈨𒈾 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠𒅗𒆤 13813:, apparently expresses irrealis modality: "were it that ...". 13679:"when I rise". The same construction is used with the word 𒀸 13462:

The structure is shown more clearly in the following example:

6111:

PREC -VEN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -3.INAN.O- -give- -3.PL.AN.A/S.IPFV

1462:

has also been recognized as a good modern grammatical sketch.

31695: 31332: 31327: 31307: 28734:

The Reception of Sumerian Literature in the Western Periphery

27103:

Sallaberger (2023: 107); originally proposed by Claus Wilcke.

25337:

See references cited in Woods (2008: 27), Thomsen (2001: 183)

23384:

Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie

22933:

Jagersma (2010: 35-36), Kogan & Krebernik (2021: 418-419)

21614:

Jagersma (2010: 6-8), Zólyomi (2017: 19), Zamudio (2017: 264)

20411:

after possessive pronominal enclitics or the genitive marker.

20156:

font) shows the way in which that spelling is conventionally

19998:, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person plural possessive enclitics 𒈨 19208:𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄈𒋢 𒌨𒊕 𒀭𒂗𒆤𒇲𒆤 𒅗 𒋛𒁲𒉌𒋫 𒄑𒆵𒆠𒁕 𒁮𒄩𒊏 𒂊𒁕𒀝 18765: 14226:"something sweet". The meaning may also be abstract: 𒋛...𒁲 14170:

Abstract nouns are formed as compounds headed by the word 𒉆

14160:

There are a few cases of nominalized finite verbs, too: 𒁀𒍗

13961: 13737: 13663:

followed by the modal/imperfective suffix -/ed/-: 𒍣𒍣𒁕𒈬𒉈

12692: 12328:

is reduced to -/m/ after enclitics ending in a vowel: 𒂍𒈬𒌝

12189:"do, say" has a suppletive participial stem in this form: 𒁲 9664:{i-n-dim-eš} (𒅔𒁶𒈨𒌍): "they created " or "he created them" 6281:

NEG- -FIN- -INAN- -TERM- -2.O- -return.IPFV- -3.A.IPFV- -NMLZ

5765: 5703:(perfective vs imperfective), and that will be designated as 2977: 2689: 1421: 1322: 1293: 1272: 1252: 915: 802:

language, or these languages, and it is thus best treated as

705: 620: 307: 68: 28996: 28383:

Analecta orientalia 29. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.

28376:

Analecta orientalia 28. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.

18624:, king of Lagash, Room 236 Reference AO 3004, Louvre Museum. 13816:

Highlighting uses of the copula somewhat similar to English

13561:"the house built by the king". However, when the head noun ( 13379:"when/after he built the house". In this case, the particle 13288:), it can mean "as (if)", "as (when)", "when" or "because": 12178:"returning". Others believe that it this is also the normal 8592: 5480:"three children" - which may, however, also be written 𒐈𒌉 2040:

due to typesetting constraints, increasingly transcribed as

1469:

The primary institutional lexical effort in Sumerian is the

31282: 28579:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages

28275:

Esbós de gramàtica sumèria. An outline of Sumerian grammar.

22268:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages

22058:

https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/ckst/introduction/index.html

20764:

Among other things, the assumption of a geminate allomorph

20755:, too, had a tendency to assimilate to the preceding vowel. 19591: 19025: 14750: 14738: 14730: 12797:, lit. "open / remove the hand on something" > "release" 9780: 9369:

direct object. For example, while "they ran" can be {i-kaš-

7460:) are generally seen as closely related to one another and 2745: 2372: 2364: 1460:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages

1256: 323: 86: 28828:

Analysing literary Sumerian : corpus-based approaches

28233:

Eléments de linguistique sumérienne: La construction de du

19839: 19835: 19831: 19113:"He ripped out that stele and marched toward the plain of 13056:, lit. "on the skull of X" = "on top of X", "concerning X" 12832:, lit. "cut a question(?) on something" > "investigate" 9350:

There are two exceptions from the above generalization:

7120:

of the event as something essential to the message with a

2409:

There also appear to be many cases of partial or complete

1446:

More recent monograph-length grammars of Sumerian include

1434:

Eléments de linguistique sumérienne: La construction de du

1262:

In 1856, Hincks argued that the untranslated language was

1236:, whereas cuneiform, when functioning phonetically, was a 251:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

28967:

The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Royal Inscriptions

28957:

The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL)

23551:

Gábor Zólyomi: An Introduction to the Grammar of Sumerian

21641:

Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian

21567: 21565: 21079:

The inanimate agreement marker has no number distinction.

20811:

direct objects. This may be an Old Babylonian innovation.

13063:, lit. "outside of X" = "because of X" (in Old Sumerian). 12755:, lit. "do equal with respect to something" > "reach" 12518:

by the time of the earliest records according to Jagersma

12077:"know" usually omit the ending -/a/, as does the verb 𒀝 11045: 8843:

Expression of the directive by a pre-stem personal prefix

7132:" as well as focus or emphasis on the role of the agent, 4403:. For "then" and "there", the declined noun phrases 𒌓𒁀 28991:

The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period online

28729:(Well-organized with over 800 translated text excerpts.) 28390:. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, p. 37. 27044:

The same construction is described by Hayes (2000: 235).

21979:

of the Diachronic Corpus of Sumerian Literature project.

20010:, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person plural verbal prefixes 𒈨 14152:"decoration" (corresponding to the phrasal verb 𒋗...𒋳 12931:, lit. "let one's hand go across in something" = "alter" 12497:

Some scholars believe that it is possible to speak of a

11126:

alone, without -/ed/-, could have been interpreted as a

9783:. The glosses in this article assume the first analysis. 9642:{i-n-gub-en} (𒅔𒁺𒁉𒂗): "he placed me" or "I place him" 7936:

for {mu-n-ak} and {i-n-ak} "he/she made", and also 𒈬𒀝

7686:

The forms of the pronominal prefixes are the following:

7351:"He made it (the ox, the group of workers) bring (it)." 4388:

might also be used as another enclitic. "Now" is 𒉌𒉈𒂠

4345:

are concerned, Sumerian most commonly uses the enclitic

1198:

and Jean-François Champollion's transcription in 1822.)

28277:

A cura de Lluís Feliu Institut del Pròxim Orient Antic.

22223:(Rev. ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. p. 19. 21562: 20420:

With inanimates, the directive is usually used instead.

14969:

use of the ablative -/ta/ instead of the locative -/a/;

14734: 13545:

the fox had escaped and the farmer had not caught it".

6730:" are actually two different prefixes, since "negative 5532:"three" are also supplied with the nominalizing marker 3729:. This can be illustrated with the following examples: 2368: 2302:"the king's house", but it becomes obvious in 𒂍𒈗𒆷𒄰 554: 29062: 27719: 26734:

Cf. also Thomsen (2001: 120-121), Zólyomi (2017: 123).

26346:

See references and objections by Jagersma (2010: 363).

25676:

Civil (2020: 141-145, 167-179), Woods (2008: 304-305).

25543:(as does Woods): according to Rubio (2007: 347-1348), 25346:

Woods (2008: 14, 112; 303-307), Civil (2020: 172, 176)

22976:"Sound change in Sumerian: the so-called /dr/-phoneme" 22114:

Veldhuis, Niek. 2008. Kurigalzu's statue inscription.

21676:, ed. Arthur Cotterell, Penguin Books Ltd. 1980. p. 92 21371:); newer research has prompted a split into two verbs. 21287:); newer research has prompted a split into two verbs. 20623:

Jagersma considers the correct reading of the sign 𒁉

17866: 14886:

3rd person singular marker even in intransitive verbs;

14364: 14348: 14339: 14325: 14266:

Apparent coordinative compounds also exist, e.g. 𒀭𒆠

13744:"; sometimes the enclitic is further reinforced by 𒁕 12621:

Sumerian doesn't have dedicated causative morphology.

9365:

the same as those of the intransitive subject and the

8612: 7646: 7326:

in front of open vowels; Old Sumerian Ur spelling: 𒉿

7128:

with its close association with "control, agency, and

4849:

and ways of forming composite numbers are as follows:

3717:

such as "come" is in the same case as the object of a

3345:"in(to) contact with", "at", "upon", "for", "as for"; 899:

Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of

275: 44: 28628:

American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

24689: 24687: 23287:

The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum

22962:

The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum

22609:

Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences

22236:

The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Civilizations

22205:(3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books. p. 80-82. 21472:, but describes them as expressing anterior actions ( 20373:

and in the plural possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈨

19355:𒅗 𒀭𒂗𒆤𒇲𒋫 𒊓 𒌋 𒃲 𒉈𒌋 𒅖𒇯𒋺𒁉 𒂔𒈾 𒆠 𒁀𒉌𒍑𒍑 12522:

However, it is still used with modal prefixes and in

11293:, i.e. a non-completed action, or sometimes possibly 9268:

Pronominal agreement with subjects and direct objects

7862:

Pronominal agreement with subjects and direct objects

7464:

is widely considered to contain the directive prefix

7044:; in the Neo-Sumerian period, only the pre-stem form 4775:

There are two main ways to form an adverb of manner:

3502:

In addition, there are the enclitic particles 𒈾𒀭𒈾

1304:

with transcriptions of Sumerian tablets in 1884. The

952:("wedge-shaped") mode of writing co-existed with the 790:

that preceded Sumerian in Mesopotamia and exerted an

28921:

Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary (EPSD) 2

28895:

Magie chez les Chaldéens et les origines accadiennes

28173: 28171: 23982: 23980: 23978: 22514:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 143. 21711:

THUREAU-DANGIN, F. (1911). "Notes Assyriologiques".

20164:) shows a segmentation of the Sumerian phrases into 18892:𒈨𒁲 𒈗 𒆧𒆠𒆤 𒅗 𒀭𒅗𒁲𒈾𒋫 𒂠 𒃷 𒁉𒊏 𒆠𒁀 𒈾 𒉈𒆕 14893:(and, rarely, also 2nd) person ergative participant; 14071:

An older obsolete pattern was right-headed instead:

14016:

A participle (consisting of the bare verb stem): 𒃻

12581:-řu} "the house is being built". The stem is always 12392:"should not be"), except for the form prefixed with 11910:

give- -VEN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -3.INAN.O- -2.PL.A/S.IMP

11242:

In addition, different moods often require either a

9667:{i-sug-eš} (𒉌𒁻𒄀𒌍): "they stood" or "they stand". 6391:"he is walking", but /nu-i-du/ > /nuː-du/ 𒉡𒅇𒁺 4763: 28965:, including several Sumerian sub-corpora; notably, 28931:

Lexique sumérien-français by Pascal Attinger (2019)

28805: 28258:

Tableau grammatical du sumérien (problèmes choisis)

28063:

ETCSRI's Morphological Parsing. Accessed 13.06.2024

27879:. Helsinki, Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2002. 25764: 25762: 25760: 25251:

Cf. also Edzard (2003: 111-112), Foxvog (2016: 66).

24657: 23197: 23195: 23193: 20090:"pluck" take open-vowel prefixes; and the verbs 𒌣 18591: 14840:

Interference from Akkadian and other late phenomena

14308:, lit. "to do water" > "to irrigate", 𒄑𒂵...𒍮 13609:; in this example, the analysis would be {kur-a-ni- 12673:

Interference from Akkadian and other late phenomena

12430:"it is not copper") although the form 𒉡(𒌦)𒂵𒀀𒀭 12349:"it is my house". Like other final consonants, the 6988:in front of open vowels), sometimes described as a 6942: 6738:or, in front of the labial consonants /b/ and /m/, 565:from 2600 to 2500 BC (the so-called Fara period or 29016:Online publications arising from the ETCSL project 28916:Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary (EPSD) 28381:Grammatik der Sprache Gudeas von Lagas II: Syntax. 26222:Jagersma (2010: 418-419), Zolyomi (2017: 215, 219) 24684: 23299: 23297: 23295: 22764:. Mission archéologique en Iran. 1900. p. 53. 22279: 21430:Only in post-Ur III texts (Jagersma 2010: 312-314) 20310:and the plural possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈨 20273:With animates, the dative is usually used instead. 19830:transcriptions of Sumerian words with the letters 14819:, consisting of the ventive conjugation prefix 𒈬 13503: 13155: 8927:This can be contrasted with an intransitive form: 8242:may be expressed by means of a noun phrase with a 6262: 3106: 521:Old Babylonian Sumerian – c. 2000 BC to c. 1600 BC 28664:Rubio, Gonzalo (2007). "Sumerian Morphology". In 28168: 27176:Zolyomi (2017: 223-226), Jagersma (2010: 429-433) 26677:Jagersma (2010: 368-371), Sallaberger (2023: 103) 25023:with an underlying final nasal for both meanings. 23975: 22389:Sumerian affiliations. A Plea for Reconsideration 14720: 11795: 11652: 11544: 11399: 11281:, i.e. a completed action, or sometimes possibly 8898:In the same way, the normal position is seen in: 8203:FIN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -ABL- -LOC- -3.AN.A- -go.out 6324:mood; in other words, the indicative is unmarked. 5982: 5711:grammatical terms for the two respective forms – 3767: 2767:"market". There are two semantically predictable 1190:. (In a similar manner, the key to understanding 314:, dating back to at least 2900 BC. It is a local 32765: 31919: 29005:(a large part of the year names are in Sumerian) 28509:Wiener Zeitschrift fü die Kunde des Morgenlandes 27361: 27359: 25757: 25394:Zólyomi (2017: 151-155), Sallaberger (2023: 99). 25328:Rubio (2007: 1347-1348), Thomsen (2001: 182-183) 25106: 25104: 24807:, T. Abusch (ed.). Eisenbrauns, 2002, pp. 63-71. 23190: 22929: 22927: 21888: 21886: 21685: 21610: 21608: 21606: 21318:"he will take it away" (Jagersma 2010: 266-367). 20123:"live/dwell (plural)" take close-vowel prefixes. 20037:in an open syllable), the affirmative prefix 𒈾 15019:Sale of a number of fields, probably from Isin, 12821:, lit. "raise the hoe upon something" > "dig" 11184: 8671:In contrast, in an intransitive form, we find a 8226:-b-g̃a-g̃a-en} "I will put bread on the table". 6923:"So/correspondingly/accordingly(?), he ate it." 5536:before the pronoun, as the above example shows. 3942:the meaning "ago" in the construction 𒈬𒁕...𒋫 1178:, a trilingual cuneiform inscription written in 724:. Sumerian was at one time widely held to be an 676:period, approximately from 1600 to 1000 BC, the 535:The pictographic writing system used during the 450:Proto-literate period – c. 3200 BC to c. 3000 BC 27613: 27611: 25997: 25995: 25993: 25951:Jagersma (2010: 386-387, 389-392, 404, 409-410) 25906:Jagersma (2010: 386-387, 389-392, 404, 409-410) 25879:Jagersma (2010: 399, 407), Attinger (1993: 237) 25730:Jagersma (2010: 381-382, 391-392, 447, 509-511) 25238: 25236: 24925: 24923: 24398: 24396: 24394: 24355:Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 24007: 24005: 24003: 24001: 23292: 23259: 23257: 23255: 23253: 23143: 23141: 23139: 21713:Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 20627:in the possessive/demonstrative enclitic to be 20565:, clearly a combination of the personal plural 20543:The inanimate has no number distinction, so 𒁉 19990:, the 3rd person singular animate pronoun 𒀀𒉈 18933:, measured the field and set up a stele there." 15004:b, d, g, g̃, ḫ, k, l, m, n, p, r, ř, s, š, t, z 14787:In Southern Sumerian, the Old Sumerian phoneme 13438:"because he built the house" (in Neo-Sumerian), 12953:someone" is expressed by the terminative: {NOUN 8962:In some cases, the 3rd person inanimate prefix 8874:In contrast, in an intransitive form, we find: 7574:are typically analysed along the same lines as 6905:) and (first attested in Old Babylonian) to 𒋗 5950:Examples using most of the above slots may be: 5560:may be omitted. "One-half", however, is 𒋗𒊒𒀀 2723:(consistently so in its nominal morphology and 1863:As a rule, the voiceless aspirated consonants ( 1408:, both appearing in 1914. Delitzsch's student, 907:), informing him of his son's death in combat, 27737: 26179: 26177: 25888:Thomsen (2001: 221), Attinger (1993: 231, 237) 25846: 25632:Jagersma (2010: 383-384, 400), Zólyomi (2017) 25127: 25125: 24419: 24417: 24349: 24347: 23229:Sallaberger (2023: 35), Jagersma (2010: 56-57) 22556: 22537:http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED368171.pdf 22248: 21710: 20689:tense-aspect distinction took over that role. 20286:above for this phenomenon. Thus, we find 𒈗𒆷 14354: 14331: 13886:, negative sentences also omit the copula in * 13423:"because he built the house" (in Old Sumerian) 13028:, lit. "in the heart of X" = "inside/among X". 12806:, lit. "call a name on someone" > "to name" 11510:VEN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -3.INAN.O- -give- -3.AN.A 10207:"carry", "bring"/"carry an uncountable mass"? 9692:alternations that are not fully predictable. 9381:}. This pattern can be described as a case of 9307:TA it is the other way round. For example, {i- 7048:was still used and it no longer occurred with 5666:"I'm going to the house", but also 𒂍𒂠𒉌𒁺𒌦 1361:Contribution au Dictionnaire sumérien–assyrien 1271:signified the Semitic portion of the kingdom, 38: 32804:Languages attested from the 3rd millennium BC 31905: 31136: 29117: 29103: 28594:A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages 27744:. Vol. 1. Walter de Gruyter. p. 2. 27479:Jagersma (2010: 672-674), Zólyomi (2017: 102) 27373: 27371: 27356: 27208:Jagersma (2010: 300), Zólyomi (2017: 226-227) 26644: 25614:Woods (2008: 303-304), Civil (2020: 172, 176) 25575:Zólyomi (2017: 159), Jagersma (2010: 491-492) 25119:Thomsen (2001: 207-208), citing Th. Jacobsen. 25110:Jagersma (2010: 578-579), citing Falkenstein. 25101: 24156:Copular Clauses and Focus Marking in Sumerian 22924: 22484: 22067: 22065: 21883: 21820: 21818: 21816: 21688:A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages 21674:Penguin Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations 21603: 20973:take precedence over the inanimate directive 20772:and the directive prefix sequence written 𒉌 18606:This text was inscribed on a small clay cone 14795:, while in Northern Sumerian, it merged with 13045:, lit. "at the back of X" = "behind/after X". 13038:, lit. "for the eyes of X" = "in front of X". 11979:, if not followed by others, has the form 𒌝 11234:introducing direct speech are also placed in 11200:) actions in the past, but also states (past 11114:; for instance, in the above example, 𒉌𒀄𒂗 9639:{i-gub-en} (𒉌𒁺𒁉𒂗): "I stood" or "I stand" 7166:are widely seen as being formally related to 6507:, but in addition further assimilation to 𒄷 5684:"I'm going to the house" and simply 𒌈𒅆𒁺𒌦 4459:is attested for "when" (in the emphatic form 3946:"X years ago" (lit. "since X with the years") 3453:"(together) with", "because of (an emotion)" 3283:approximate English equivalents and function 3253:"kings", originally "they (who) are kings"). 32749:Families with more than 30 languages are in 31106:Families with more than 30 languages are in 28609:. Assyriologische Bibliothek, 19. Hinrichs. 28403: 28369:(grammar treatment for the advanced student) 27973:Jagersma (2010: 7, see also p. 549 on Fara). 27608: 26342: 26340: 26317: 26315: 26313: 25990: 25233: 24920: 24391: 24028: 24026: 23998: 23736: 23734: 23279: 23266: 23250: 23136: 23038: 23036: 22524: 22317: 22233: 22000: 21493:Edzard (2003: 95) believes that this use of 14784:, which only appears in subordinate clauses. 13242:"after he built the house"; the particle 𒊑 11757:VEN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -3.INAN.O- -give- -2.PL 9651:{mu-V-dim-enden} (𒈬𒁶𒂗𒉈𒂗): "we created " 9645:{i-sug-enden} (𒉌𒁻𒂗𒉈𒂗): "we stood/stand" 9373:}, just as "it caught them" can be {i-b-dab- 4779:There is a dedicated adverbiative suffix 𒂠 3701:"sheep of wool" (or "woolly sheep") to 𒉺𒇻 3510:-/akanam/ (in earlier Sumerian) or (𒀀)𒆤𒌍 2925:", but have recently also been described as 2748:is typically a one or two-syllable root (𒅆 2687:respectively, producing the name of the god 1420:, who produced a grammar of the language of 31731:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 28975:Bilinguals in Late Mesopotamian Scholarship 28775:An Introduction to the Grammar of Sumerian. 28540: 27928:Foxvog (2016: 158), Thomsen (2001: 286-294) 27892:, De Gruyter, Boston / Berlin, pp. 145-158. 27758: 26377:Sallaberger (2023: 106), Foxvog (2016: 123) 26368:Jagersma (2010: 364-366, Zólyomi 2017: 128) 26174: 25122: 24664:. Cambridge University Press. p. 236. 24414: 24370:Jagersma (2010: 225-228), Edzard (2003: 57) 24344: 24274: 24272: 23869:Sallaberger (2020: 46), Attinger (2009: 23) 23623:, Dissertation. UCLA, Los Angeles. P.83-84 23615: 23613: 22956: 22954: 22386: 22262: 22260: 22200: 22110: 22108: 21991: 21663:Thames and Hudston, Ltd. 1986 p. 30, 52–53. 20160:into the Latin alphabet, the third one (in 19605:List of languages by first written accounts 14691:In grammar, both the cohortative prefix 𒂵 13216:"when he built the house" (more literally " 12702:, lit. "open the eye" = "see, look". Their 12502:interpretation. The passive may be formed: 12321:In addition, the initial vowel of the form 11066:{i-zaḫ-ed-en} "I will/must escape", 𒉌𒀄𒂊 9816:"enter". Usually, as in this example, this 9627:Examples for TA and pronominal agreement: ( 8821:In an intransitive form, however, we find: 7178:, namely -/m/-, and the preceding prefixes 6248: 6222: 6100: 4825:For pronominal adverbs, see the section on 4752:"exceed"/"excess" are used: X + locative + 4669:; it has been suggested that the form with 3266:The generally recognized case markers are: 2941:The two genders have been variously called 1412:, published a grammar with the same title, 1300:) in 1877, and published the first part of 858:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 285: 32809:Languages extinct in the 2nd millennium BC 31912: 31898: 31143: 31129: 29110: 29096: 29036:Other online publications by Gábor Zólyomi 28997:CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative 28983:The Royal Inscriptions of Babylonia online 28963:The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus 28826:Ebeling, J., & Cunningham, G. (2007). 27368: 26509:Foxvog (2016: 120), Sallaberger (2020: 59) 24262: 24260: 24218:Attinger (1993: 287), Jagersma (2010: 328) 24112: 24110: 23697: 23695: 22778:", Cuneiform Digital Library Journal, 2011 22401:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 22298: 22215: 22062: 21962: 21960: 21958: 21813: 21110:"say" very often (but not always) lack it. 20926:is used after vowels. In the latter case, 20055:in position before the enclitic copula 𒈨 19006:𒍑 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒄑𒆵𒆠𒆤 𒉆 𒅗𒈠 𒋛𒀀𒋛𒀀𒂠 𒂊𒀝 14938:loss of the contrast between the phonemes 14803: 13832:"It is the king who came", 𒀀𒈾𒀸𒀀𒀭𒉌𒁺 11963:"he will say it to him", but 𒅗𒂵𒀭𒈾(𒀊) 11921:This may be compared with the French pair 9339:pattern ergative) and like the subject in 9276:pattern in the 1st and 2nd persons of the 5580:"one-third" (literarlly "two-sixths"), 𒑛 3697:"sheep", and the second subordinates 𒇻𒋠 3521:-/akeš/ "because of" (in later Sumerian). 2607:"in the heart" can also be interpreted as 2240:) and consonants that remain (such as the 720:Sumerian is widely accepted to be a local 541:(3200 BC – 3000 BC), corresponding to the 56: 28639: 28516:History of the Akkadian Language. Vol. I. 28318: 28280: 28037: 28035: 28033: 27053:Cf. Edzard (2003: 95), Woods (2008: 303). 26605:Zólyomi (2017: 139), Jagersma (2010: 311) 26476: 26337: 26310: 25694:Jagersma 2010, Foxvog 2016, Zólyomi 2017. 25292:Cf. Foxvog (2016: 91), Edzard (2003: 92). 24661:Numerical Notation: A Comparative History 24023: 23731: 23649: 23647: 23125: 23123: 23121: 23119: 23117: 23033: 22599: 22416: 21826:Literature and Literary Language at Ebla. 20290:for {lugal-ak} "of the king", but 𒈗𒆷𒄰 20260:meaning) or as the result of a movement ( 14270:"the universe", lit. "heaven and earth". 13399:; the basic meaning is still of "when". 12616: 12353:may not be expressed in early spelling. 8593:Use of the ventive as a 1st person marker 7673: 6818:"I certainly will not eat it!"; 𒁀𒊏𒀭𒅥 6803:TA, at least if the action is transitive. 6289: 6284:'(one) who does not bring you back to it' 6138: 4813:can be added to an adjectival stem: 𒉋𒁉 4119:For the government of phrasal verbs, see 3542: 2885: 1087:Learn how and when to remove this message 878:Learn how and when to remove this message 485:Old Akkadian Sumerian – c. 2350 – 2200 BC 28987:The Royal Inscriptions of Assyria online 28504:. (118pp overview and sketch, in French) 28434: 28304:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 28230: 27860: 27828:Journal of the American Oriental Society 27771:Journal of the American Oriental Society 26500:Jagersma (2010:314), Zólyomi (2017: 139) 26240:Jagersma (2010: 743), Zólyomi (2017: 78) 25354: 25352: 25261: 25259: 25257: 24269: 23610: 22973: 22951: 22908: 22906: 22459: 22257: 22105: 21846: 21666: 21476:) vs simultaneous or posterior actions ( 20751:in some Old Babylonian texts. Note that 18615: 15014: 14972:omission of the genitive marker -/a(k)/; 14769:, while in Northern Sumerian, it was 𒀀 14316:, lit. "to do the comb" > "to comb". 13655:"as I rose"). The verb itself may be in 13253:In the terminative case (with added 𒂠 - 12202: 11855: 11712: 11604: 11459: 11366:following indicative-imperative pairs: 11218:) actions in the past (like the English 9135:The pronominal suffixes are as follows: 8641:" (lit. 'caused (it) to go in)' > /mu 7928:in Southern Sumerian) instead of 𒈬𒌦𒀝 7643:are apparently elided in front of them. 7225:{i-mu-b-tum-e} "He will bring it here." 6180: 6166: 6042: 5484:), the numeral may be reinforced by the 4673:expresses a kind of determination, e.g. 2105:voiceless unaspirated alveolar affricate 1316:A Classified List of Sumerian Ideographs 1296:(ancient Girsu, capital of the state of 921: 894: 693:literacy itself in the beginning of the 429: 413: 31150: 28712: 28577:Michalowski, Piotr (2004). "Sumerian", 28521: 28457:A Manual of Sumerian: Grammar and Texts 28239:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht. 28058: 28056: 27578:Edzard (2003: 158), Thomsen (2001: 280) 27403: 27401: 27277: 27275: 27273: 27271: 27216: 27214: 27117: 27115: 27113: 27111: 27109: 27099: 27097: 27095: 26995: 26993: 26808: 26806: 26787: 26785: 26523: 26521: 26519: 26517: 26515: 26406: 26404: 26394: 26392: 26284: 26282: 26167: 26165: 26155: 26153: 26115: 26113: 26103: 26101: 26001: 25830: 25828: 25826: 25816: 25814: 25776: 25774: 25740: 25738: 25736: 25592: 25590: 25530: 25528: 25526: 25516: 25514: 25459: 25457: 25429: 25427: 25217: 25215: 25213: 25211: 25209: 25031: 25029: 24874: 24872: 24737: 24735: 24257: 24187: 24185: 24183: 24152: 24107: 23856: 23854: 23844: 23842: 23832: 23830: 23811: 23809: 23799: 23797: 23795: 23785: 23783: 23773: 23771: 23761: 23759: 23757: 23755: 23692: 23474: 23472: 23470: 23333: 23331: 23329: 23327: 21955: 21858:Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures 21635: 21633: 21631: 21629: 20041:and the 1st and 2nd person pronouns 𒂷 18745:lugal kur-kur-ra ab-ba dig̃ir-dig̃ir-re 14038:A participle with a dependent word: 𒃻 13278:"while he had not yet built the house". 11899: 11815: 11672: 11564: 11419: 9299:. The general principle is that in the 8109: 7959: 7237:elided in front of the locative prefix 6002: 5542:are formed with the phrase 𒅆...N...𒅅 4411:"at that place" are used; "so" is 𒄯𒁶 3819: 3749: 245:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 32766: 28621: 28602: 28489:, Universitet Leiden, The Netherlands. 28352: 28299: 28163:from the original on November 25, 2015 28030: 27818: 27764: 27204: 27202: 27200: 27080:Thomsen (2001: 179), Edzard (2003: 95) 26868: 26866: 26847: 26845: 26712: 26710: 26231:Jagersma (2010: 391-392, 447, 509-511) 26200: 26198: 25933:Thomsen 2001: 226-227, Foxvog 2016: 79 25768:Jagersma (2010: 392-396, 458-459, 474) 24913: 24911: 24332:Thomsen (2001: 73), Zólyomi (2017: 39) 23917:Thomsen (2001: 63), Michalowski (2004) 23644: 23114: 22823: 22731: 22722:Foxvog (2016: 15), Hayes (2000: 29-30) 22640: 22509: 22098: 22096: 22094: 22092: 22090: 22053: 22051: 21911: 21909: 21907: 21779: 21777: 21775: 21650: 21645:Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture 20776:. This would have been unexpected if - 20512:The substance someone fills something 20302:: e.g. {dumu-ak} is written simply 𒌉 14347:). A notable variety or sociolect was 13848:"Why is it that he came?", 𒉌𒁺𒈾𒀀𒀭 13526:back flood MID-sweep.over-NMLZ-GEN-ABL 13383:sometimes precedes the case morpheme: 13081: 11348: 11046:The modal or imperfective suffix -/ed/ 9760:TA by adding a suffix -/e/ as in 𒁶𒂊 9684:. In a number of verbs, this involves 9388:2. A plural transitive subject in the 9130: 7679: 5969: 5910:-/da/-, -/ta/-, -/ši/-, -/i/-, -/ni/- 3875:by a certain verb in a certain sense: 3721:such as "build", namely the so-called 3241:"various" (lit. "mixed"), e.g. 𒇻𒄭𒀀 3218:At least a few adjectives (notably 𒃲 3132:"the men who were caught in the house" 1986:in similar distribution to the stops: 1958:voiceless aspirated alveolar affricate 1911:voiceless unaspirated alveolar plosive 1893:voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive 1292:began excavating the Sumerian site of 1275:might describe the non-Semitic annex. 31893: 31124: 29091: 28979:Datenbank sumerischer Streitliteratur 28744:. Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico. 28388:Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern 27946: 27725: 25397: 25349: 25254: 24459:Edzard (2003: 59), Thomsen (2001: 78) 23963:Thomsen (2001: 95), Foxvog (2016: 84) 22903: 22679:"Inscriptions From Tell Abu Salabikh" 22410: 22342: 21939: 21937: 21935: 21933: 21876: 21874: 21872: 21870: 21868: 21866: 21839: 21837: 21756: 21754: 21752: 21750: 21748: 21746: 21744: 21742: 21455:{i-zaḫ-e-en} are written identically. 19656:Interestingly, the poorly documented 19620:Descent of Inanna into the Underworld 14852:occasional use of the animate plural 14324:The standard variety of Sumerian was 13515: 13509: 13281:In the equative case (with added 𒁶 - 12637:-gub} "the farmer made the ox stand". 12388:- in the 3rd person singular (𒁀𒊏𒈨 11881: 11875: 11746: 11740: 11621:give- -VEN- -3.SG.AN- -DAT- -3.INAN.O 8157: 8143: 7598:); on the meaning of these see above. 6194: 6076: 4804:'as seeds', 'in the manner of seeds'. 4032:something" ({b-i-dug} "say something 3806: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3591: 3585: 3172: 3112: 2891: 2873: 2734: 524:Post-Old Babylonian Sumerian – after 509:II period) – c. 2200 BC to c. 2100 BC 28739: 28467:. (primer for the beginning student) 28422:from the original on 26 January 2021 28146: 28135:from the original on January 3, 2017 28053: 27398: 27268: 27211: 27106: 27092: 26990: 26803: 26782: 26554:Thomsen (2001: 132), EPSD entry for 26512: 26401: 26389: 26279: 26252: 26162: 26150: 26110: 26098: 25823: 25811: 25771: 25733: 25587: 25523: 25511: 25454: 25424: 25206: 25026: 24881: 24869: 24732: 24180: 23851: 23839: 23827: 23806: 23792: 23780: 23768: 23752: 23596:Voice and Topicalization in Sumerian 23467: 23324: 23093:Jagersma (2010: 38-41, 48-49, 53-54) 22791:(Leipzig : J.C. Hinrichs, 1879) 22238:. London: Penguin Books. p. 28. 21626: 13497: 13223:In the ablative case (with added 𒋫 13197:In the locative case (with added 𒀀 13143: 11849: 11809: 11706: 11666: 11598: 11558: 11487: 11453: 11413: 9272:Sumerian verbal agreement follows a 8743:Likewise, the normal realisation of 8556:of that object (cf. English "he hit 8171: 8103: 7093:is most commonly considered to be a 6710:TA and affirmative meaning with the 6236: 6070: 6036: 5996: 5618: 4797:"rightly", "in the right way", 𒆰𒂠 3837: 3100: 2959:"statue" may be treated as animate. 2879: 2599:by the next sign: for example, 𒊮𒂵 2310:"(it) is the king's house" (compare 1840:voiceless aspirated alveolar plosive 1822:voiceless aspirated bilabial plosive 1353:Les inscriptions de Sumer et d'Akkad 1286:(The Sumerian family laws) in 1879. 1069:adding citations to reliable sources 1040: 1016:, not the separate component signs. 1000:-spellings, after the logogram 𒋛𒀀 971:The cuneiform script was adapted to 856:adding citations to reliable sources 823: 29052:Online publications by Cale Johnson 28518:Leiden–Boston, 366–476. P. 418-419. 28284:Grundzüge der sumerischen Grammatik 27197: 26863: 26842: 26707: 26195: 24908: 23073:Eléments de linguistique sumérienne 23012:Kogan and Krebernik (2021: 420-421) 22622:from the original on 9 October 2022 22087: 22048: 21904: 21772: 20846:is used before the locative prefix 20034: 15031:Sumerian CV and VC syllabic glyphs 14218:"food", 𒄭 "good, sweet" > 𒃻𒄭 13246:may express the same meaning as 𒋫 12975: 11835: 11692: 11584: 11439: 11259: 9820:reduplication follows the pattern C 9798:reduplication of the stem, e.g. 𒆭 9744:, verbs are divided in four types; 9654:{i-b-gub-e} (𒌈𒁺𒁉) "he places it" 9291:pattern in most other forms of the 9124:Pronominal agreement in conjugation 8966:appears to be unexpectedly absent. 8957: 8613:Syncope of /i/ in -/ni/- and -/bi/- 8129: 7647:Pronominal and dimensional prefixes 6022: 3996:in the sense "bring back something 3879:The comitative is used to express: 3861:king-ERG house-ABS FIN-3.AN.A-build 3685:Here, the first genitive morpheme ( 2903: 1929:voiceless unaspirated velar plosive 1414:Grundzüge der sumerischen Grammatik 1406:Grundzüge der sumerischen Grammatik 1102:Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary 1004:which is written with the signs 𒋛 24: 28788: 28692:Colonna d’Istria, Laurent (2023). 28622:Prince, J. Dynely (October 1914). 28203:"Cone of Enmetena, king of Lagash" 28118: 24795:Civil, Miguel. The Forerunners of 24702:Sallaberger (2023: 48-49, 201-204) 23399:. Neukirchen-Vluyn. 1969. 157–197. 23289:. Cambridge University Press. P.17 22964:. Cambridge University Press. P.16 21930: 21863: 21854:The Lives of the Sumerian Language 21834: 21739: 21686:Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca (2020). 19572:𒂗𒀉𒆗𒇷 𒉺𒋼𒋛 𒄑𒆵𒆠𒁕 𒆠 𒂊𒁕𒋩 13942: 13724:to the second one: 𒀭𒂗𒆤𒀭𒎏𒆤𒉌 13659:, as in the above examples, or in 13348:) "as soon as he built the house". 13086:There are various ways to express 11343:with respect to the present moment 10270:Frequent verbs with reduplicating 10042:"lead"/"carry countable objects"? 7448:or, in front of open vowels, 𒂊𒈨 7364:, it has often been observed that 4120: 3951:The directive is used to express: 3935: 3192:"farmers, shepherds and fishermen" 2443:in many cases. What appears to be 2267:that could explain the absence of 2111:, as shown by Akkadian loans from 2059:, it has also been argued to be a 979: 934:, with dedication. Louvre AO2674, 516:period) – c. 2100 BC to c. 2000 BC 25: 32820: 28880:A Descriptive Grammar of Sumerian 28851: 28522:Langdon, Stephen Herbert (1911). 28487:A Descriptive Grammar of Sumerian 28404:Halloran, John (11 August 1999). 28156:(Thesis). pp. 43–45, 50–51. 28150:A descriptive grammar of Sumerian 25499:Jagersma (2010: 383-384, 447-448) 25385:Jagersma (2010: 499-500, 509-511) 25176:Rubio 2007 and references therein 24965:Jagersma (2010: 565-569, 579-581) 24011:Jagersma (2010: 140-142, 173-174) 23945:Jagersma (2010: 137-188, 428-441) 19936:(from earlier /haj/) "house", 𒂊 15008:as well as four vowel qualities, 13955: 12842:Dative (directive if inanimate): 12426:is used predicatively (e.g. 𒍏𒉡 11760:"You (plur.) will give it to him" 9347:pattern nominative-accusative). 7940:instead of Neo-Sumerian 𒈬(𒅇)𒀝 7314:(Old Sumerian Lagaš spelling: 𒁉 6320:/Ø-/ is the prefix of the simple 6307: 4764:Adverbs and adverbial expressions 4506:"any", which is only attested in 4115:"to approach" governs the dative. 3933:"be/put something in order", see 3678:shepherd sheep wool-GEN-GEN-PL.AN 3129:man house-in MID-catch-NMLZ-PL.AN 3027:"the men ran away", 𒇽𒈬𒅇𒆪𒁉𒌍 2962:2. Words for slaves such as 𒊩𒆳 2642:} "the mother (ergative case)"). 1858:voiceless aspirated velar plosive 1456:A Descriptive Grammar of Sumerian 1036: 813: 715: 469:Old or Classical Sumerian – 322:, in the area that is modern-day 31869:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 31360: 28971:Corpus of Kassite Sumerian Texts 28777:Open Access textbook, Budapest. 28770:. Madrid: Universidad de Alcalá. 28766:Zamudio, Rafael Jiménez (2017). 28736:. Venezia: Edizioni Ca’ Foscari. 28717:. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. 28482:. (41 pp. précis of the grammar) 28195: 28140: 28122:Introduction to Sumerian grammar 28112: 28103: 28094: 28085: 28076: 28067: 28044: 28021: 28012: 28003: 27994: 27985: 27976: 27967: 27940: 27931: 27922: 27913: 27904: 27895: 27882: 27869: 27863:Die Musik der Sumerischen Kultur 27854: 27812: 27803: 27767:"Phonetic Relations in Sumerian" 27741:History of the Language Sciences 27731: 27710: 27701: 27692: 27683: 27674: 27665: 27656: 27647: 27638: 27629: 27620: 27599: 27590: 27581: 27572: 27563: 27554: 27545: 27536: 27527: 27518: 27509: 27500: 27491: 27482: 27473: 27464: 27455: 27446: 27437: 27428: 27419: 27410: 27389: 27380: 27347: 27338: 27329: 27320: 27311: 27302: 27293: 27284: 27259: 27250: 27241: 27232: 27223: 27188: 27179: 27170: 27158: 27142: 27133: 27124: 27083: 27074: 27065: 27056: 27047: 27038: 27029: 27020: 27011: 27002: 26981: 26972: 26963: 26954: 26945: 26936: 26927: 26918: 26909: 26884: 26875: 26854: 26833: 26824: 26815: 26794: 26773: 26764: 26755: 26746: 26737: 26728: 26719: 26698: 26689: 26680: 26671: 26662: 26653: 26635: 26626: 26617: 26608: 26599: 26590: 26581: 26572: 26548: 26539: 26530: 26503: 26494: 26485: 26467: 26458: 26449: 26440: 26431: 26422: 26413: 26380: 26371: 26362: 26349: 26324: 26300: 26291: 26270: 26261: 26243: 26234: 26225: 26216: 26207: 26186: 26141: 26132: 26123: 26089: 26080: 26071: 26062: 26053: 26044: 26035: 25981: 25972: 25963: 25954: 25945: 25936: 25927: 25918: 25909: 25900: 25891: 25882: 25873: 25864: 25855: 25837: 25834:Zólyomi (2017: 125-126, 162-163) 25802: 25793: 25783: 25747: 25724: 25715: 25706: 25697: 25688: 25679: 25670: 25653: 25635: 25626: 25617: 25608: 25599: 25578: 25569: 25560: 25551: 25502: 25493: 25484: 25475: 25466: 25445: 25436: 25415: 25406: 25388: 25379: 25370: 25361: 25340: 25331: 25322: 25313: 25304: 25295: 25286: 25277: 25268: 25245: 25224: 25197: 25188: 25179: 25170: 25161: 25152: 25143: 25134: 25113: 25092: 25083: 25074: 25065: 25056: 25047: 25038: 25013: 25004: 24995: 24986: 24977: 24968: 24959: 24950: 24941: 24932: 24899: 24890: 24860: 24851: 24842: 24819: 24810: 24789: 24780: 24771: 24762: 24753: 24744: 24723: 24714: 24705: 24696: 24651: 24642: 24633: 24624: 24615: 24606: 24597: 24588: 24579: 24570: 24561: 24552: 24543: 24534: 24525: 24516: 24507: 24498: 24489: 24480: 24471: 24462: 24453: 24444: 24435: 24426: 24405: 24382: 24373: 24364: 24335: 24326: 24317: 24308: 24299: 24290: 24281: 24248: 24239: 24230: 24221: 24212: 24203: 24194: 24146: 24137: 24128: 24119: 24098: 24089: 24080: 24071: 24062: 24053: 24044: 24035: 24014: 23989: 23966: 23957: 23948: 23939: 23929: 23920: 23911: 23902: 23881: 23872: 23863: 23818: 23743: 23722: 23713: 23704: 23683: 23674: 23665: 23656: 23635: 23588: 23559: 23544: 23535: 23526: 23517: 23508: 23499: 23490: 23481: 23456: 23447: 23438: 23429: 23420: 23411: 23402: 23389: 23376: 23367: 23358: 23349: 23340: 23315: 23306: 23241: 23232: 23223: 23213: 23204: 23181: 23150: 23105: 23096: 23087: 22811:"Sumerian-Assyrian Vocabularies" 21690:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 132. 21533: 21509: 21500: 21487: 21458: 21433: 21424: 21415: 21391: 21374: 21321: 21290: 21237: 21184: 21171: 21154: 21131: 21122: 21113: 21082: 21073: 21056: 21039: 21025: 21016: 21006: 20989: 20980: 20912: 20902: 20889: 20880: 20824: 20814: 20804: 20795: 20758: 20741: 20732: 20723: 20709: 20696: 20679: 20656: 20647: 20637: 20617: 20608: 20599: 20590: 20572: 20550: 20547:can mean both "its" and "their". 20537: 20528: 20519: 20506: 20497: 20488: 20478: 20461: 20452: 20436: 20423: 20414: 20393: 20325: 20276: 20267: 20234: 20225: 20197: 20175: 20146: 20136: 20126: 20062: 19900: 19868: 19610:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 19231:-ni-ta umma-da dam-ḫa-ra e-da-ak 19091:𒈾𒆕𒀀𒁉 𒉌𒉻 𒂔 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠𒂠 𒉌𒁺 18592:Inscription by Entemena of Lagaš 14699:are replaced by the morpheme 𒁕 14282: 14233:"straighten, put in order" > 13923:did the king do?", 𒂍𒀀𒁀𒀀𒅔𒆕 13883: 13227:), it means "after" or "since": 12678: 12492: 11357:construction is produced with a 9892:uses a suppletive stem, e.g. 𒅗 9699:, plurality can be expressed by 9415:found in non-pre-stem position. 9069:Similarly, instead of *𒈬𒌒𒂷𒂷 9053:: instead of expected *𒈬𒌒𒅆𒁺 8565:-i-n-g̃ar}, lit. "he put barley 8550:external possession construction 7389:(to do something "for oneself"); 6108:ḫa- -mu- -nn- -a- -b- -šum- -ene 5485: 5462:are formed with the suffix 𒄰𒈠 2914:god great-REDUP-1.POSS-PL.AN-DAT 2151:voiceless postalveolar fricative 1471:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 1318:by R. Brünnow appeared in 1889. 1117: 1108: 1045: 828: 28713:Thomsen, Marie-Louise (2001) . 28666:Morphologies of Asia and Africa 28341:from the original on 2019-08-03 28223: 28209:from the original on 2020-02-27 26898:from the original on 2021-09-26 26024:from the original on 2021-02-28 23577:from the original on 2009-09-27 23081: 23065: 23054:from the original on 2008-09-02 23024: 23015: 23006: 22997: 22986:from the original on 2023-03-19 22974:Jagersma, Bram (January 2000). 22967: 22942: 22936: 22915: 22892:from the original on 2019-08-03 22872: 22860: 22848: 22837:from the original on 2005-05-25 22817: 22803: 22794: 22781: 22768: 22752: 22725: 22716: 22703: 22694: 22671: 22634: 22593: 22550: 22541: 22518: 22503: 22478: 22453: 22436: 22380: 22336: 22327: 22292: 22273: 22266:Piotr Michalowski, "Sumerian," 22242: 22227: 22209: 22194: 22174: 22163: 22144: 22132: 22121: 22078: 22039: 22027: 22018: 22009: 21982: 21969: 21946: 21921: 21895: 21804: 21795: 21786: 21763: 21704: 20922:is used after consonant, while 19845: 19819: 19671: 19650: 14831:its reflex of the Old Sumerian 13867:"What is your name?", 𒉈𒂗𒈬𒍪 13856:"It is the case that he came". 13789: 13712: 11821: 11678: 11570: 11493: 11425: 11263: 11134:, many intransitive forms like 9353:1. A transitive subject of the 9114:For another case of absence of 8656:in early texts, later 𒈬𒉌𒅔𒆭 8177: 8115: 7516:meaning distinct from the more 7468:. One common analysis is that 7302:"He brought (it) here to you." 6463:form, and affirmative with the 6114:'Let them give it to him here!' 6082: 6008: 4539:"ever, any time". The nouns 𒇽 3889:) or to "take away" (e.g. 𒋼𒀀 3843: 3667: 3506:meaning "without" and (𒀀)𒅗𒉆 3315:/-e/ (primarily with animates) 3261: 3189:farmer shepherd fisherman-PL.AN 3178: 3118: 2897: 2739: 2727:in its verbal morphology), and 2715:, Sumerian is classified as an 2574: 2315:unaspirated stops /d/ and /g/. 1982:a simple distribution of three 1367:(vol. III of Deimel's 4-volume 1284:Die sumerischen Familiengesetze 1205:, building on the 1802 work of 1056:needs additional citations for 655:(c. 2000 BC – c. 1750 BC). The 31426:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 31421:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 28911:Dictionaries and digital tools 28702:Sallaberger, Walther (2023b). 28682:Sallaberger, Walther (2023a). 28624:"Delitzsch's Sumerian Grammar" 28494:Abrégé de Grammaire Sumérienne 24848:E.g. Attinger 1993, Rubio 2007 21679: 21617: 21578: 20878:: /ba-e-da-/ > /ba-e-de-/. 19637: 18586: 14721:Southern and Northern Sumerian 13748:"with". More surprisingly, 𒋫 13137: 12544:observation that the prefixes 12221: 12009: 11913:'Give (plur.) it to him here!' 11513:"He will give it to him here." 11196:is used to express completed ( 9953:Verbs with suppletive plurals 9361:uses unique suffixes that are 8581:-n-g̃ar}, lit. "he put barley 8089: 6828:"He certainly didn't eat it." 6761:"He must not eat it!"; 𒈾𒀭𒅥 6545:-e} "let him eat it!"; 𒄩𒀭𒅥 6152: 5600:"five-sixths" (literally "ten 4455:, but also the stem 𒈨(𒂊)𒈾 3831: 3761: 3602:outer.side sheep white-GEN-LOC 2531: 2187:, sometimes written <h>) 1802:, originally distinguished by 1225:, which were duly deciphered. 890: 13: 1: 32794:Subject–object–verb languages 31808:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 31205:Tigris–Euphrates river system 28281:Delitzsch, Friedrich (1914). 27953:. Eisenbrauns. p. 1370. 27950:Morphology of Asia and Africa 26892:"Epsd2/Sux/šum[give]" 26159:Jagersma (2010: 388, 508-509) 24323:Jagersma (2010: 214-215, 218) 24254:Jagersma (2010: 214-215, 218) 22489:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 21977:Catalogue entries across time 21482:relative to a reference point 20449:is written even after vowels. 20381:"your (pl.)" and (𒀀/𒂊)𒉈𒉈 20318:"your (pl.)" and (𒀀/𒂊)𒉈𒉈 19625: 18607: 15020: 14950:also for words with original 14823:and the 2nd person prefix 𒂊 14167:"(who) has died" > "dead" 13321:"because he built the house". 13169:"the man who built the house" 11754:mu- -nn- -a- -b- -šum- -enzen 11185:Use of the tense-aspect forms 11181:"go" never takes the suffix. 11082:in the third-person singular 9631:is rendered with past tense, 8698:in early texts, later 𒈬𒌦𒆭 8200:i- -nn- -a- -ta- -ni- -n- -ed 6438:-i-n-gu} "He didn't eat it." 4826: 4821:bi-e}, lit. "at its newness". 4772:"then", lit. "at that time". 4661:"right" often occurs as 𒍣𒁕 4604: 3708: 3400:/-r(a)/ (only with animates) 1875:) did not occur word-finally. 1794:a simple distribution of six 1498: 1365:Sumerisch-Akkadisches Glossar 1136: 935: 908: 807: 576:The Instructions of Shuruppak 525: 496: 489: 477: 470: 461: 454: 337: 98: 28806:Friedrich Delitzsch (1914). 28543:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 28435:Halloran, John Alan (2006). 27821:"The Vocabulary of Sumerian" 25566:Keetman (2017: 108-109, 120) 24658:Stephen Chrisomalis (2010). 23887:Attinger (2009: 23) glosses 23131:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 22559:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 22116:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 21556: 20168:, the fourth one contains a 20068:In particular, the verbs 𒊒 20026:, the prospective prefix 𒅇 19567: 19559: 19551: 19540: 19528: 19513:, ruler of Lagash, uncle of 19472: 19461: 19453: 19441: 19433: 19422: 19407: 19343: 19335: 19327: 19311: 19296: 19288: 19277: 19269: 19253: 19245: 19203: 19195: 19187: 19175: 19167: 19148: 19140: 19128: 19082: 19071: 19063: 19051: 19039: 19001: 18990: 18982: 18974: 18963: 18952: 18944: 18880: 18872: 18864: 18852: 18841: 18830: 18822: 18814: 18803: 18795: 18787: 18733: 18725: 18713: 18701: 18693: 18685: 18670: 18662: 18654: 18646: 18635: 14994: 14695:and the precative prefix 𒄩 14365: 14349: 14340: 14326: 13771:, "let it be": 𒇻𒃶𒅎𒈧𒃶𒅎 13166:man house FIN-3.A-build-NMLZ 12462:is used: 𒆬𒃻𒂵𒊏𒉌𒅎𒈠𒀭𒋧 12217:"when he makes (something)". 12167:'which is/was making', 𒄄𒄄 12106:+ gerund (acc.) construction 9871:by adding a consonant, e.g. 9748:is always the unmarked TA. 9327:} is "I ran", and {i-kaš-ed- 8609:alone serves to express it. 8434:"he placed it on the house" 8398:"he placed it in the house" 7828:3rd person singular animate 7456:(Southern Old Sumerian 𒂊𒈠 6992:, appears to have a neutral 5553: : "one-Nth"; where 𒅅 4477:(lit. "what for?") and 𒀀𒁶 4296:𒀀/𒂊𒉈𒉈 (-a)-ne-ne, 𒁉 -bi 4205:3rd person singular animate 4014:something, follow something" 3463:/-a/ (only with inanimates) 3335:/-e/ (only with inanimates) 2095:voiceless alveolar fricative 1508:Sumerian consonant phonemes 1477: 1135:(reversed for readability), 764:nationalists as part of the 760:(the last being promoted by 543:Uruk III and Uruk IV periods 402:which was used to write the 398:; it similarly inspired the 276: 45: 7: 31874:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 31756:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 31751:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 28882:by Abraham Hendrik Jagersma 28353:Edzard, Dietz Otto (2003). 27819:Prince, J. Dyneley (1904). 27765:Prince, J. Dyneley (1919). 25703:Jagersma (2010: 8, 470-473) 22980:Acta Sumerologica 22: 81–87 22464:. Independently Published. 22449:. 2 March 1936. p. 24. 19598: 14815:The original sequence 𒈬𒂊 14319: 14277:"wide" also means "width". 14102:"innermost part of a house" 13783:"(be it) a sheep or a goat" 13458:"after he built the house". 12481:"he gave me silver (which) 11931:In addition, the prefix 𒉌 11907:šum- -mu- -nn- -a- -b- -zen 11310:was thought to express the 9061:, the meaning "he came for 8919:𒉈𒅔𒍑 ≈ "he adjoined (it) 6312:The modal prefixes express 5466:in Old Sumerian and 𒄰(𒈠) 4837:Sumerian has a combination 4832: 4495:is used in Old Babylonian. 4148:possessive suffix/enclitic 4126: 3681:"shepherds of woolly sheep" 2772: 1218:excavations, mostly in the 948:shapes into wet clay. This 709:were most commonly copied. 615:corresponds to the time of 318:that was spoken in ancient 10: 32825: 32569:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric 31879:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 28812:. J. C. Hinrichs. p. 28768:Nueva gramática de Sumerio 28759:Woods, Cristopher (2008). 28634:(1). U of Chicago: 67–78. 28379:Falkenstein, Adam (1950). 28372:Falkenstein, Adam (1949). 28270:Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 28109:Barthelmus (2016: 231-233) 27861:Hartmann, Henrike (1960). 24827:Sprachen des Alten Orients 23111:Jagersma (2010: 35-36, 38) 22738:. SUNY Press. p. 34. 22600:Whittaker, Gordon (2008). 22102:Barthelmus (2016: 230-250) 21856:", in S.L. Sanders (ed.), 21384:in intransitive usage and 19853:voiceless dental fricative 19017:nam inim-ma dirig-dirig-še 18595: 14355: 14332: 13695:Subordinating conjunctions 11939:is replaced by /-a/: 𒉌𒁺 11318:was considered to express 8949:𒌈𒍑 ≈ "(it) was adjoined 8523:"he gave it to the house" 8448:"he placed it on the man" 8325:{ba-ta-n-sa} "he sold it". 7017:-n-ře} "He brought (it)." 6869:If only he would eat it!" 6791:. It is combined with the 5794:pronominal and dimensional 5632:distinguishes a number of 5623: 4708:A few adjectives, like 𒃲 4287:3rd person plural animate 3675:sipad udu siki-(a)k-ak-ene 3605:"because of a white sheep" 3530:complementary distribution 2703: 2451:(*/aa/, */ia/, */ua/ > 2294:does not appear in 𒂍𒈗𒆷 2149:(generally described as a 1389:In 1944, the Sumerologist 1308:began excavating Sumerian 1306:University of Pennsylvania 1147: 945:Pictographic proto-writing 817: 631:and the area to its south 617:Gutian rule in Mesopotamia 266: 39: 32799:Language isolates of Asia 32737: 32674: 32627: 32577: 32457: 32450: 32405: 32356: 32320: 32245: 32181: 32144: 32054: 31931: 31846: 31800: 31774: 31678: 31575: 31468: 31376: 31369: 31358: 31240: 31167: 31158: 31091: 31050: 31027: 30966: 30955: 30799: 30532: 30521: 30489: 30416: 30407: 30296: 30113: 30102: 30069: 29931: 29922: 29830: 29588: 29574: 29488: 29283: 29265: 29216: 29134: 29125: 29119:Primary language families 28686:. Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag. 28319:Diakonoff, I. M. (1976). 28266:Bartelmus, Alexa (2016). 28256:Attinger, Pascal (2009). 28231:Attinger, Pascal (1993). 28128:. pp. 16–17, 20–21. 27353:Jagersma (2010: 413, 464) 26560:Lexique sumérien-français 26204:Jagersma (2010: 530, 499) 25969:Jagersma (2010: 442, 445) 25481:Jagersma (2010: 400, 742) 25403:Jagersma (2010: 530, 499) 25185:Woods 2008, Zólyomi 1993. 25158:Jagersma (2010: 287, 743) 24836:October 25, 2012, at the 24236:Jagersma (2010: 394, 464) 24159:. De Gruyter. p. 8. 23355:Sallaberger (2023: 36-37) 22732:Krejci, Jaroslav (1990). 22641:Wright, Henry T. (1980). 22460:Kurtkaya, Mehmet (2017). 22270:(2004, Cambridge), pg. 22 21643:". In S. L. Sanders (ed) 21031:In Old Babylonian texts, 20035:qualitatively assimilated 19865:or a sound similar to it. 18753:inim gi-na-ni-ta nin-g̃ir 14410: 13897:isn't" and use simply 𒉡 13718:Coordinating conjunctions 13586:-clause is the so-called 12970: 11507:mu- -nn- -a- -b- -šum- -e 10246: 10226: 10203: 10126: 10090: 10085: 10080: 9432: 9427: 9214: 9199: 9170: 9159: 9065:" is expressed by 𒅎𒅆𒁺 8637:-n-kur} "he brought (it) 7952:or Old Babylonian 𒈬𒂊𒀝 7858: 7835:glosses in this article. 7272:"He brought it in here." 6363:in Ur III spelling) have 5831: 5828: 5825: 5822: 5819: 5816: 5813: 5810: 5804: 5801: 5727:and how it is expressed. 4756:"which exceeds (all) X", 3904:"to know/learn something 3864:"The king built a house." 2983: 2936: 2911:dig̃ir gal-gal-g̃u-ene-ra 2481: 2318: 1768: 1740: 1692: 1652: 1576: 1541: 1512: 1454:and Bram Jagersma's 2010 1207:Georg Friedrich Grotefend 1142:. The name of Naram-Sin ( 788:Proto-Euphratean language 557:(c. 2800 BC). Texts from 409: 312:oldest attested languages 231: 215: 199: 183: 165: 160: 155:Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform 144: 126: 108: 93: 78: 64: 55: 37: 32: 27:Language of ancient Sumer 29936:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan 28959:. Includes translations. 28865:(to see Cuneiform text) 28732:Viano, Maurizio (2016). 28603:Prince, John D. (1908). 27937:Thomsen (2001: 200, 204) 27716:Jagersma (2010: 310-311) 27707:Jagersma (2010: 281-283) 27671:Jagersma (2010: 116-126) 27662:Jagersma (2010: 118-119) 27605:Jagersma (2010: 230-231) 27596:Jagersma (2010: 715-718) 27587:Jagersma (2010: 712-713) 27497:Jagersma (2009: 672–674) 27443:Jagersma (2010: 644-649) 27434:Jagersma (2010: 590-591) 27407:Jagersma (2010: 594-626) 27386:Jagersma (2010: 614-615) 27281:Jagersma (2010: 440-441) 27026:Jagersma (2010: 706-710) 27008:Jagersma (2010: 717-718) 26999:Jagersma (2010: 677-678) 26969:Jagersma (2010: 655-659) 26942:Jagersma (2010: 627-676) 26924:Jagersma (2010: 674-675) 26915:Jagersma (2010: 638-640) 26860:Jagersma (2010: 630-636) 26851:Jagersma (2010: 628-629) 26725:Jagersma (2010: 372-380) 26716:Jagersma (2010: 656-660) 26686:Jagersma (2010: 368-371) 26482:Jagersma (2010: 312-314) 26455:Jagersma (2010: 318-319) 26428:Jagersma (2010: 314-315) 26386:Jagersma (2010: 339-340) 26276:Jagersma (2010: 353-356) 26249:Jagersma (2010: 509-511) 26138:Jagersma (2010: 396-398) 26095:Jagersma (2010: 400-403) 26068:Jagersma (2010: 442-444) 26050:Jagersma (2010: 482-486) 25960:Jagersma (2010: 481-482) 25942:Jagersma (2010: 454-455) 25852:Jagersma (2010: 501-504) 25820:Jagersma (2009: 337-339) 25780:Jagersma (2010: 392-394) 25685:Jagersma (2010: 513-516) 25596:Jagersma (2010: 487-494) 25520:Jagersma (2010: 487-496) 25463:Jagersma (2010: 400-401) 25301:Jagersma (2010: 504-509) 25283:Jagersma (2010: 548-549) 25274:Jagersma (2010: 543-548) 25242:Jagersma (2010: 526-528) 25221:Jagersma (2010: 535-542) 25035:Jagersma (2010: 574-575) 24947:Jagersma (2010: 518-521) 24887:Jagersma (2010: 558-561) 24878:Jagersma (2010: 561-564) 24857:Jagersma (2010: 526-528) 24831:PPCS Morphological model 24777:Jagersma (2010: 297-299) 24750:Jagersma (2010: 260-267) 24741:Jagersma (2010: 246-250) 24693:Jagersma (2010: 242-246) 24630:Jagersma (2010: 282-283) 24585:Jagersma (2010: 279-281) 24504:Jagersma (2010: 268-269) 24486:Jagersma (2010: 234-239) 24468:Jagersma (2010: 231-234) 24402:Jagersma (2003: 228-229) 24341:Jagersma (2009: 220-225) 24287:Jagersma (2010: 210-211) 24227:Jagersma (2010: 439-443) 24209:Jagersma (2010: 435-438) 24191:Jagersma (2010: 452-454) 24143:Jagersma (2010: 615-617) 24086:Jagersma (2010: 196-200) 24077:Jagersma (2010: 180-182) 24059:Jagersma (2010: 177-178) 24050:Jagersma (2010: 161-163) 23860:Jagersma (2010: 270-272) 23836:Jagersma (2010: 114-116) 23803:Jagersma (2010: 111-112) 23765:Jagersma (2010: 109-113) 23719:Jagersma (2010: 102-105) 23680:Jagersma (2010: 101-102) 23426:Attinger (1993: 145-146) 23373:Jagersma (2010: 60, 356) 23071:Attinger, Pascal, 1993. 22602:"The Case for Euphratic" 22510:Ruhlen, Merritt (1994). 21852:Michalowski, P., 2006: " 21397:Often also written 𒂉𒂉 20932:compensatory lengthening 19630: 14882:occurrence of -/e/ as a 14703:(with the allomorphs 𒉈 14433:The special features of 14186:"cut, decide" > 𒉆𒋻 13820:are present: 𒈗𒀀𒀭𒉌𒁺 13523:egir amaru ba-ur-a-ak-ta 13303:"as he built the house". 12980:The basic word order is 12600:, or whether it remains 11983:in the imperative: 𒁺𒌝 10233:"sit", "live somewhere" 9088:here", we find 𒉌𒅎𒂷𒂷 8866:𒉈𒅔𒀝 "he applied (it) 8796:𒉌𒌈𒋛 "(it) was loaded 8537:"he gave it to the man" 7555:"It was brought here." 6742:), whereas "affirmative 6694:"If/when he eats it..." 6581:-. It is only used with 6270:nu- -i- -b- -ši- -e- -gi 5738:usage: e.g. the verb 𒆭 4693:"a new house" vs 𒂍𒉋𒆷 4590:"him/herself", 𒅎𒋼𒉈𒉈 4407:"at that time" and 𒆠𒁀 4377:) "this (thing)" and 𒄯 502:, further divided into: 453:Archaic Sumerian – 32779:Agglutinative languages 32746:have no living members. 32629:East and Southeast Asia 31103:have no living members. 28773:Zólyomi, Gábor (2017). 28706:Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag. 28696:Gladbeck: PeWe-Verlag. 28300:Dewart, Leslie (1989). 28073:Sallaberger (2023: 105) 27809:Delitzsch (1914: 20-21) 27738:Sylvain Auroux (2000). 27533:Jagersma (2010: 99-100) 27470:Thomsen (2001: 264-265) 27290:Sallaberger (2023: 124) 26779:Sallaberger (2023: 101) 26437:Zólyomi (2017: 137-140) 26297:Zólyomi (2017: 126-127) 26258:Zólyomi (2017: 151-155) 26147:Zólyomi (2017: 228-230) 26077:Zólyomi (2017: 201-221) 26059:Zólyomi (2017: 230-232) 25712:Zólyomi (2017: 162-163) 25203:Cf. Edzard (2003: 109). 25167:Hayes (2000: 43-44, 50) 25098:Thomsen (2001: 212-213) 25071:Rubio (2007: 1341-1342) 24866:Jagersma 2010 (552-555) 24803:in Old Babylonian. In: 23556:textbook, Budapest 2017 23247:Jagersma (2010: passim) 23102:Jagersma (2010: 62-63). 22659:10.3406/paleo.1980.4262 22615:(3). Tbilisi: 156–168. 22249:Dewart, Leslie (1989). 21623:ePSD2 entry for emegir. 21543:"word" - Emesal 𒂊𒉈𒉘 21468:and present-future for 21311:meaning".: e.g. 𒁀𒀭𒉐 19586:"fixed the border with 19564: 19556: 19548: 19537: 19525: 19469: 19458: 19450: 19438: 19430: 19419: 19404: 19386:-bi eden-na ki ba-ni-us 19340: 19332: 19324: 19308: 19293: 19285: 19274: 19266: 19250: 19242: 19200: 19192: 19184: 19172: 19164: 19145: 19137: 19125: 19079: 19068: 19060: 19048: 19036: 18998: 18987: 18979: 18971: 18960: 18949: 18941: 18877: 18869: 18861: 18849: 18838: 18827: 18819: 18811: 18800: 18792: 18784: 18730: 18722: 18710: 18698: 18690: 18682: 18667: 18659: 18651: 18643: 18632: 14804:Old Babylonian Sumerian 14056:"be there" > 𒃻𒍣𒅅 13701:"when, if", 𒋗𒃻𒌉𒇲𒁉 12736:𒋗𒋳...𒅗 šu-tag ...dug 12687:(traditionally called " 12422:"not" alone instead of 12376:"that he is", 𒉡𒅇𒈨𒂗 12069:"alive"). The verbs 𒌇 9671: 9118:, see the footnote on - 8890:𒁀𒀊𒀝 "it was applied 8765:𒉈𒅔𒋛 "he loaded (it) 8481:"he touched the house" 7582:, but with a preceding 7476:represent sequences of 7440:(Southern Old Sumerian 7406:as they understand it). 7150:"He brought it here." 6984:(Southern Old Sumerian 6622:"let us put it there!". 5811:"conjugation prefixes" 5349:borrowed from Akkadian 4681:"right (not left)", or 4466:and in the terminative 3882:"to run away" (e.g. 𒀄 3481:(only with inanimates) 3256: 2759:"house, household", 𒎏 2123:. Like the stop series 1940:usually represented by 1376:Stephen Herbert Langdon 1349:François Thureau-Dangin 734:Austroasiatic languages 611:The first phase of the 31711:Babylonian mathematics 31083:Unclassified languages 31037:list of sign languages 30005:Northeastern Tasmanian 28936:Sumerian verb analyser 28413:Sumerian Language Page 28328:Assyriological Studies 28273:Civil, Miquel (2020). 28100:Sallaberger (2023: 37) 27560:Edzard (2003: 157-158) 27524:Jagersma (2010: 97-99) 27488:Sallaberger (2023: 85) 27121:Attinger (2009: 26-28) 26978:Foxvog (2016: 144-145) 26960:Foxvog (2016: 139-144) 26951:Edzard (2003: 135-136) 26881:Sallaberger (2020: 60) 26839:Foxvog (2016: 112-113) 26821:Edzard (2003: 127-129) 26812:Foxvog (2016: 111-112) 26659:(Foxvog 2016: 126-127) 26623:Thomsen (2001: 133-136 26587:Thomsen (2001: 133-136 26536:Thomsen (2001: 133-136 24974:Edzard (2003: 118-119) 24929:Jagersma 2010: 569-570 24134:Edzard (2003: 158-159) 24095:Jagersma (2010: 38-39) 24020:Sallaberger (2023: 43) 23789:Sallaberger (2023: 47) 23594:Zólyomi, Gábor, 1993: 23567:"Kausen, Ernst. 2006. 23496:Jagersma (2010: 25-26) 23444:Jagersma (2010: 19-24) 23337:Jagersma (2010: 63-67) 23303:Jagersma (2010: 60-62) 23263:Jagersma (2010: 58-59) 23201:Jagersma (2010: 56-57) 23003:Jagersma (2010: 42-43) 22948:Sallaberger (2023: 36) 22921:Attinger (2009: 10-11) 22912:Jagersma (2010: 43-45) 22299:Sathasivam, A (2017). 21952:Barthelmus (2016: 1-2) 21892:Sallaberger (2023: 24) 21303:has, exceptionally, a 18625: 15027: 14113:"musician" > 𒃲𒈜 13588:pronominal conjugation 12882:Terminative: 𒅆 ...𒁇 12617:Causative construction 12159:stem alone, e.g. 𒁶𒈨 11624:"Give it to him here!" 11312:past (preterite) tense 11220:past progressive tense 10072:Verbs with suppletive 9718:"enter (pl.)" or by a 9603:3rd pl (animate only) 8645:nkur/, written 𒈬𒉌𒆭 8468:-/i/~/e/- (directive) 8421:-/i/~/e/- (directive) 8210:The comitative prefix 6965:, and, most recently, 6943:"Conjugation prefixes" 6589:conjugation: 𒂵𒉌𒌈𒃻 6339:-i-n-gu} "He ate it." 4430:interrogative pronouns 4343:demonstrative pronouns 2786:follow the noun (𒈗𒈤 1800:places of articulation 1382:, a journal edited by 1302:Découvertes en Chaldée 941: 919: 754:Sino-Tibetan languages 726:Indo-European language 668:Akkadian equivalents. 443: 427: 233:This article contains 31058:Constructed languages 28905:grammar of "Akkadian" 28884:(preliminary version) 28863:Akkadian Unicode Font 28740:Volk, Konrad (1997). 28485:Jagersma, B. (2009). 28459:. UNDENA, Malibu CA. 28082:Hayes (2000: 236-237) 27689:Thomsen (2001: 55-56) 24786:Zólyomi (2017: 86-87) 23619:Johnson, Cale, 2004: 23541:Thomsen (2001: 22-25) 23210:Attinger (2009: 9-10) 22234:John Haywood (2005). 21880:Jagersma (2010: 9-10) 21843:Thomsen (2001: 16-17) 21783:Thomsen (2001: 27-32) 20899:is used after vowels. 20516:is in the absolutive. 20407:may occur instead of 19028:, acted unspeakably." 18899:inim ištaran-na-ta eš 18895:me-silim lugal kiš-ke 18619: 15018: 12996:"a new house" 𒂍𒈗𒆷 12889:Comitative: 𒀉 ...𒉘 11618:šum- -mu- -nn- -a- -b 11224:present perfect tense 9726:"stand (sing.)" - 𒁻 9703:reduplication of the 9657:{i-b-dim-ene} (𒌈𒁶𒈨 9454:Intransitive subject 9445:Intransitive subject 9274:nominative–accusative 8977:: thus *𒁀𒀊𒅆𒌈𒄄𒄄 8495:"he touched the man" 8046:directive/locative. 7840:3rd person inanimate 7806:is preserved (e.g. 𒈬 7282:in the sequence 𒈠𒊏 7085:"It is/was brought." 4677:"righteous, true" vs 4229:3rd person inanimate 3779:king-ABS FIN-VEN-come 3409:"to", "for", "upon", 3280:most common spelling 3186:engar sipad šukuř-ene 3126:lu e-a ba-dab-a-(e)ne 2969:"slave woman" and 𒊕 2943:animate and inanimate 1030:Old Babylonian Period 1026:Neo-Babylonian Period 925: 898: 657:Old Babylonian Empire 636:Old Babylonian period 567:Early Dynastic Period 538:Proto-literate period 433: 417: 31706:Babylonian astronomy 31185:Mesopotamian Marshes 29605:Binanderean–Goilalan 29048:by Piotr Michalowski 28874:Linguistic overviews 28470:Hayes, John (1997), 28050:Zólyomi (2000: 9-13) 28027:Jagersma (2010: 170) 28009:Sallaberger 2023: 37 27910:Jagersma (2010: 8-9) 27698:Jagersma (2010: 126) 27653:Jagersma (2010: 130) 27644:Jagersma (2010: 309) 27635:Jagersma (2010: 101) 27617:Jagersma (2010: 228) 27551:Jagersma (2010: 100) 27515:Jagersma (2010: 301) 27344:Jagersma (2010: 310) 27335:Jagersma (2010: 469) 27317:Jagersma (2010: 445) 27308:Jagersma (2010: 410) 27299:Jagersma (2010: 485) 27256:Jagersma (2010: 438) 27247:Jagersma (2010: 573) 27238:Jagersma (2010: 444) 27229:Jagersma (2010: 414) 27089:Jagersma (2010: 496) 27062:Jagersma (2010: 494) 26987:Jagersma (2010: 685) 26872:Jagersma (2010: 627) 26830:Jagersma (2010: 504) 26791:Jagersma (2010: 556) 26752:Foxvog (2016: 61-62) 26695:Edzard (2003: 81-82) 26446:Edzard (2003: 74-79) 26321:Edzard (2003: 84-85) 26213:Jagersma (2010: 478) 26129:Jagersma (2010: 464) 26107:Jagersma (2010: 396) 26086:Jagersma (2010: 165) 26041:Jagersma (2010: 453) 25978:Jagersma (2010: 444) 25870:Jagersma (2010: 381) 25433:Jagersma (2010: 417) 25412:Jagersma (2010: 501) 25358:Foxvog (2016: 94-95) 24983:Jagersma (2010: 564) 24917:Jagersma (2010: 518) 24768:Jagersma (2010: 395) 24759:Foxvog (2016: 69-70) 24729:Jagersma (2010: 256) 24720:Jagersma (2010: 244) 24639:Jagersma (2010: 137) 24603:Jagersma (2010: 284) 24567:Jagersma (2010: 279) 24549:Attinger (1993: 148) 24540:Jagersma (2010: 269) 24531:Jagersma (2010: 267) 24513:Jagersma (2010: 278) 24388:Jagersma (2003: 228) 24266:Edzard (2003: 55-56) 24245:Jagersma (2010: 413) 24200:Jagersma (2010: 202) 24125:Jagersma (2010: 193) 24116:Jagersma (2010: 439) 24041:Jagersma (2010: 145) 24032:Foxvog (2016: 39-40) 23954:Jagersma (2010: 154) 23749:Jagersma (2010: 107) 23238:Edzard (2003: 13-14) 23187:Edzard (2003: 13-14) 23021:Attinger (1993: 145) 22880:"Diakonoff 1976:112" 22774:Kevin J. Cathcart, " 22387:Bobula, Ida (1951). 22345:Current Anthropology 22201:Georges Roŭ (1993). 21760:Jagersma (2010: 4-6) 20967:-a mu-na-*(e)-n-g̃ar 20076:"produce fluid", 𒃡 18929:, at the command of 14027:"give(n)" > 𒃻𒁀 13709:"until" also exist. 13541:b-i-n-dug} "he said 13201:), it means "when": 12006:, both "come here!" 11949:"he went", but 𒁺𒈾 11361:stem, but using the 11337:with past tense and 9742:tense-aspect marking 9383:tripartite alignment 9179:3rd person singular 9168:2nd person singular 9157:1st person singular 9033:in the same slot as 8351:nominal case marker 8345:nominal case marker 8292:"be (somewhere), 𒃻 8250:prefix on the verb). 7960:Dimensional prefixes 7759:2nd person singular 7704:1st person singular 7653:dimensional prefixes 7496:and the meanings of 7040:, but also verbs in 6771:"He ate it indeed." 6555:"He ate it indeed." 6291:Dimensional prefixes 5826:future/imperfective 5820:pronominal prefix 2 5814:pronominal prefix 1 5790:conjugation prefixes 4613:"great" > 𒎏𒀠𒈤 4425:, lit. "like that". 4183:2nd person singular 4153:1st person singular 4121:the relevant section 3620:sipad udu siki-ka-ke 3543:Dimensional prefixes 3526:dimensional prefixes 2627:(-VC/CV), e.g. 𒂼𒀀 2394:"he runs", but 𒉌𒁺 2385:advanced tongue root 2036:(frequently printed 1729:⟨ř~dr⟩ 1430:Marie-Louise Thomsen 1192:Egyptian hieroglyphs 1176:Behistun inscription 1065:improve this article 852:improve this section 582:The Kesh temple hymn 505:Early Neo-Sumerian ( 488:Neo-Sumerian – 400:Old Persian alphabet 32387:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 32171:Northwest Caucasian 32166:Northeast Caucasian 31787:Destruction by ISIL 31741:Sumerian literature 31716:Akkadian literature 31152:Ancient Mesopotamia 30887:(Maku-Auari/Jukude) 30790:Tequiraca–Canichana 30633:Harákmbut–Katukinan 29396:Northwest Caucasian 29390:Northeast Caucasian 29314:Chukotko-Kamchatkan 28830:. London: Equinox. 28809:Sumerisches glossar 28496:, Geuthner, Paris. 28492:Jestin, J. (1951). 28262:Online publication. 28091:Attinger (2009: 24) 28018:Attinger (2009: 23) 27919:Thomsen (2001: 294) 27626:Attinger (2009: 26) 27569:Thomsen (2001: 279) 27506:Zólyomi (2017: 104) 27461:Zólyomi (2017: 102) 27265:Zólyomi (2017: 218) 27220:Zólyomi (2017: 218) 27185:Jagersma (2010: 74) 27139:Keetman (2017: 121) 27017:Zólyomi (2017: 112) 26933:Jagersma (2010: 38) 26527:Zólyomi (2017: 139) 26491:Zólyomi (2017: 129) 26419:Rubio (2007: 1337), 26410:Thomsen (2001: 125) 26288:Zólyomi (2017: 125) 25924:Thomsen (2001: 223) 25721:Jagersma (210: 382) 25149:Thomsen (2001: 207) 25080:Thomsen (2001: 193) 24648:Jagersma (2010: 85) 24612:Jagersma (2010: 83) 24450:Jagersma (2010: 59) 24423:Thomsen (2001: 119) 24104:Jagersma (2010: 38) 23986:Zólyomi (2017: 203) 23972:Attinger (2009: 28) 23824:Attinger (2009: 23) 23777:Attinger (2009: 22) 23598:. PhD Dissertation 23346:Zólyomi (2017: 33). 23272:Keetman, J. 2009. " 23044:"Sumerian language" 23030:Jagersma (2010: 53) 22825:Kramer, Samuel Noah 22118:60, 25–51. P. 28-31 20850:).) The variant 𒉈 20342:"your (sing.)", 𒉌 20033:(but shortened and 19954:"firm, true", 𒋼𒀀 19615:Sumerian literature 19583:umma-da ki e-da-sur 19499:-ga en-mete-na ensi 18611: 2400 BC 15032: 14441: 14384:"straight tongue", 14257:> 𒉡𒄑𒊬 nu-kiri 14174:"fate, status": 𒌉 13968:"document" < 𒊬 13818:cleft constructions 13082:Subordinate clauses 12982:subject–object–verb 12695:unit: e.g. 𒅆...𒂃 12529:With the prefix 𒁀 12234: 11633:𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀊𒋧𒈬𒌦𒍢𒂗 11370: 11349:The imperative mood 11325:, while the use of 11297:. In contrast, the 11291:imperfective aspect 10351:string up together 10275: 10077: 9954: 9740:2. With respect to 9695:1. With respect to 9661:): "they create it" 9457:Transitive subject 9448:Transitive subject 9422: 9289:ergative–absolutive 9139: 9131:Pronominal suffixes 9084:for "he is placing 8691:kur/, written 𒈬𒆭 8622:absolutive–ergative 8338: 7968: 7910:Third Dynasty of Ur 7690: 7681:Pronominal prefixes 7432:"It was brought." 7248:in the sequences 𒈪 7024:, with the variant 6787:and of affirmative 6726:" and "affirmative 5843:coordinator prefix 5817:dimensional prefix 4853: 4531:"anywhere", 𒌓𒈾𒈨 4527:"anything", 𒆠𒈾𒈨 4303:The stem vowels of 4291:𒀀/𒂊𒉈𒉈 a/e-ne-ne 4139: 4071:"give (as a name)" 3325:transitive subject 3270: 2955:1. The word for 𒀩 2947:human and non-human 2917:"for my great gods" 2845:An example may be: 2798: 2769:grammatical genders 2729:subject-object-verb 1944:(sometimes written 1680:⟨ḫ~h⟩ 1509: 1402:Sumerisches Glossar 1369:Sumerisches Lexikon 1343:Friedrich Delitzsch 1194:was the bilingual 1167:The key to reading 1140: 2250 BC 958:logosyllabic script 939: 2400 BC 912: 2400 BC 766:Sun language theory 738:Dravidian languages 625:Third Dynasty of Ur 613:Neo-Sumerian period 590:Old Sumerian period 529: 1600 BC 512:Late Neo-Sumerian ( 500: 2000 BC 493: 2200 BC 481: 2350 BC 474: 2500 BC 465: 2500 BC 458: 3000 BC 341: 2000 BC 310:. It is one of the 102: 2900 BC 32652:Austronesian–Ongan 32451:Proposed groupings 31823:Mesopotamian myths 30509:Tarascan/Purépecha 29998:Northern Tasmanian 29756:South Bougainville 29717:North Bougainville 28900:François Lenormant 28596:. Wiley-Blackwell. 28406:"Sumerian Lexicon" 28397:2020-07-31 at the 28287:. J. C. Hinrichs. 28179:"CDLI-Found Texts" 28119:Foxvog, Daniel A. 28041:Zólyomi (2017: 21) 28000:Zólyomi (2017: 19) 27982:Zólyomi (2017: 19) 27901:Foxvog (2016: 158) 27680:Thomsen (2003: 58) 27542:Edzard (2003: 162) 27425:Edzard (2003: 154) 27416:Edzard (2003: 152) 27395:Edzard (2003: 160) 27377:Thomsen (2001: 89) 26800:Edzard (2003: 128) 26632:Foxvog (2016: 120) 26614:Foxvog (2016: 120) 26596:Foxvog (2016: 120) 26545:Foxvog (2016: 120) 26398:Rubio (2007: 1338) 26171:Zólyomi (2017: 81) 25987:Zólyomi (2017: 78) 25915:Jagersma 2010: 449 25897:Rubio (2007: 1351) 25843:Jagersma 2010: 403 25744:Zólyomi (2017: 86) 25140:Foxvog (2016: 109) 25131:Edzard (2003: 120) 25089:Edzard (2003: 117) 25062:Edzard (2003: 116) 25044:Edzard (2003: 117) 24956:Foxvog (2016: 107) 24938:Edzard (2003: 115) 24896:Rubio (2007: 1341) 24829:, ed. M. Streck), 24522:Thomsen (2001: 64) 24495:Zólyomi (2017: 92) 24441:Thomsen (2001: 77) 24278:Thomsen (2001: 67) 23995:Zólyomi (2017: 40) 23908:Thomsen (2001: 62) 23815:Thomsen (2001: 61) 23689:Zólyomi (2017: 15) 23653:Rubio (2007: 1329) 23641:Thomsen (2001: 49) 23629:2013-06-22 at the 23604:2008-10-01 at the 23569:Sumerische Sprache 23532:Michalowski (2004) 23523:Thomsen (2001: 22) 23435:Zólyomi (2017: 18) 23364:Zólyomi (2017: 33) 23312:Thomsen (2001: 40) 22830:Sumerian Mythology 22407:(Mimeographed ms.) 22084:Andrew (2007: 49). 22071:Barthelmus (2016: 22045:Jagersma (2010: 6) 22006:Thomsen (2001: 17) 21943:Thomsen (2001: 31) 21860:, Chicago, 159–184 21828:Firenze. 285-303. 21792:Zólyomi (2017: 16) 21672:The A.K. Grayson, 20022:, the ablative 𒋫 19893:*/ne/ + */e/ > 19643:Also written 𒅴𒄀 19102:-pad edin lagaš-še 18626: 15030: 15028: 14440: 14391:"oblique tongue", 14178:"child" > 𒉆𒌉 14148:"touch" > 𒋗𒋳 14009:"great" > 𒌨𒈤 13469:egir a-ma-ru ba-ur 12810:𒉆...𒋻 nam ...tar 12801:𒈬...𒄷𒈿 mu ...sa 12301:(Old Sumerian 𒀭 - 12233: 12209:: e.g. 𒁶(𒈨)𒁕𒉌 11923:vous le lui donnez 11369: 11331:historical present 11250:stem and either a 10269: 10071: 9952: 9421: 9227:3rd person plural 9212:2nd person plural 9197:1st person plural 9138: 8814:𒈬𒌦𒀝 "he did it 8385:-/ni/- (locative) 8366:example (animate) 8337: 7967: 7891:3rd person plural 7873:2nd person plural 7851:1st person plural 7689: 7395:a change of state; 5957:ḫa-mu-un-na-ab-šum 5829:pronominal suffix 4863:explanation notes 4852: 4637:"beautiful", 𒁍𒁕 4500:indefinite pronoun 4266:2nd person plural 4241:1st person plural 4138: 4075:somebody/something 3954:the objects of 𒍏 3858:lugal-e e-∅ i-n-du 3689:) subordinates 𒋠 3269: 3249:to a noun (𒈗𒈨𒌍 2869:gal-gal-g̃u-ene-ra 2852:dig̃ir gal-gal-g̃u 2797: 2735:Nominal morphology 2526:Akkadian influence 1569:⟨g̃⟩ 1507: 1495:morphophonemics". 1395:Sumerian Mythology 1391:Samuel Noah Kramer 1384:Charles Virolleaud 1228:By 1850, however, 942: 920: 644:classical language 444: 428: 420:Walters Art Museum 404:eponymous language 32774:Sumerian language 32761: 32760: 32670: 32669: 32662:Sino-Austronesian 32446: 32445: 31921:Language families 31887: 31886: 31838:Ziggurat (Temple) 31813:Sumerian religion 31571: 31570: 31518:Middle Babylonian 31460:Kish civilization 31356: 31355: 31180:Lower Mesopotamia 31175:Upper Mesopotamia 31118: 31117: 31068:Language isolates 31046: 31045: 30951: 30950: 30517: 30516: 30403: 30402: 30098: 30097: 30045:Western Tasmanian 29963:Eastern Tasmanian 29918: 29917: 29640:East Geelvink Bay 29570: 29569: 29261: 29260: 28801:978-1-64602-196-3 28742:A Sumerian Reader 28587:978-05-2156-256-0 28465:978-0-9798937-4-2 28357:. Leiden: Brill. 27960:978-1-57506-109-2 27751:978-3-11-019400-5 26668:Edzard (2003: 82) 26011:Acta Sumerologica 25557:Woods (2008: 304) 24711:Foxvog (2016: 51) 24671:978-0-521-87818-0 24477:Foxvog (2016: 36) 24432:Edzard (2003: 27) 24411:Foxvog (2016: 35) 24379:Edzard (2003: 49) 24314:Edzard (2003: 55) 24305:Foxvog (2016: 30) 24166:978-3-11-040169-1 23848:Foxvog (2016: 23) 23740:Foxvog (2016: 23) 23728:Hayes 2000: 49-50 23710:Edzard (2003: 29) 23701:Foxvog (2016: 22) 23514:Viano (2016: 141) 23487:Foxvog (2016: 15) 23321:Foxvog (2016: 41) 23048:The ETCSL project 22745:978-0-7914-0168-2 22419:Wydawnictwo Agade 22391:. Washington D.C. 22324:pp. 181-210, 2010 22310:978-1-85201-024-9 22159:978-0-9927257-4-7 22015:Rubio (2009: 37). 21997:George (2007: 45) 21927:Andrew (2007: 43) 21810:Hayes (2000: 389) 21801:Rubio (2009: 16). 21697:978-1-119-19380-7 21647:: 91–120 Chicago. 20155: 19947:"highpriest", 𒄀 19517:, ruler of Lagaš" 19215:-su ur-sag en-lil 18584: 18583: 14689: 14688: 14644:, later spelling 14616: 14615: 14373:or dialects were 14301:"make": 𒀀...𒅗 14001:An adjective: 𒌨 13987:"cook" > 𒂍𒈬 13976:Another noun: 𒂍 13691:"I alone", etc. 13474: 13114: 12319: 12318: 11919: 11918: 11779: 11645: 11528: 11392: 11279:perfective aspect 11043: 11042: 10267: 10266: 10069: 10068: 9752:The stems of the 9625: 9624: 9589:-/e/-...-/enzen/ 9566:-/V/-...-/enden/ 9343:(which makes the 9335:(which makes the 9257: 9256: 8824:{i-mu-g̃en} > 8807:{i-mu-n-ak} > 8589:, in your hand". 8542: 8541: 8504:-/e/ (directive) 8462:-/e/ (directive) 8082: 8065:is unanalysable. 8043: 8042: 7905: 7904: 7658:pronominal prefix 6847:E.g.: 𒉡𒍑𒌈𒅥𒂊 6807:E.g.: 𒁀𒊏𒀊𒅥𒂗 6636:"Let me eat it!" 6131: 5962: 5954:𒄩𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀊𒋧𒈬𒉈 5948: 5947: 5619:Verbal morphology 5457: 5456: 5450:"a big totality" 5430:"ten totalities" 4847:cardinal numerals 4558:reflexive pronoun 4519:"anyone", 𒃻𒈾𒈨 4301: 4300: 4192:, Old Babylonian 4133:personal pronouns 3798: 3741: 3715:intransitive verb 3625: 3561: 3497: 3496: 3148: 3143:engar sipad šu-ku 3077: 2857: 2843: 2842: 2828:possessive marker 2540:, so much of the 2445:vowel contraction 2269:vowel contraction 2258:glottal fricative 2202:lateral consonant 2192:liquid consonants 1791: 1790: 1780:⟨r⟩ 1752:⟨l⟩ 1707:⟨z⟩ 1672:⟨š⟩ 1664:⟨s⟩ 1645:⟨k⟩ 1635:⟨t⟩ 1627:⟨p⟩ 1607:⟨g⟩ 1597:⟨d⟩ 1589:⟨b⟩ 1559:⟨n⟩ 1551:⟨m⟩ 1448:Dietz-Otto Edzard 1234:consonantal forms 1223:Akkadian language 1097: 1096: 1089: 888: 887: 880: 674:Middle Babylonian 653:Isin-Larsa period 549:The next period, 289: 274: 259: 258: 241:rendering support 237:phonetic symbols. 138:Northern Sumerian 135:Southern Sumerian 16:(Redirected from 32816: 32729:Proto-Euphratean 32455: 32454: 32363: 32362: 32331:Great Andamanese 31914: 31907: 31900: 31891: 31890: 31736:Sumerian cuisine 31726:Warfare in Sumer 31721:Economy of Sumer 31374: 31373: 31364: 31248:Fertile Crescent 31232:Sinjar Mountains 31227:Hamrin Mountains 31222:Zagros Mountains 31200:Taurus Mountains 31165: 31164: 31145: 31138: 31131: 31122: 31121: 30964: 30963: 30918:Huaorani/Waorani 30802:(extant in 2000) 30766:Esmeralda–Yaruro 30537:Andoque–Urequena 30530: 30529: 30414: 30413: 30220:Plateau Penutian 30111: 30110: 30086:(Northern Daly?) 29929: 29928: 29815:Northwest Papuan 29779:Trans–New Guinea 29645:East New Britain 29620:Central Solomons 29586: 29585: 29331:Great Andamanese 29281: 29280: 29132: 29131: 29112: 29105: 29098: 29089: 29088: 29081:Internet Archive 28823: 28821: 28820: 28763:. Leiden: Brill. 28755: 28728: 28661: 28643: 28618: 28574: 28537: 28452: 28448:978-0978-64291-4 28441:. Logogram Pub. 28431: 28429: 28427: 28421: 28410: 28368: 28355:Sumerian Grammar 28349: 28347: 28346: 28340: 28325: 28315: 28296: 28250: 28218: 28217: 28215: 28214: 28199: 28193: 28192: 28190: 28189: 28175: 28166: 28164: 28162: 28155: 28147:Jagersma, A. H. 28144: 28138: 28136: 28134: 28127: 28116: 28110: 28107: 28101: 28098: 28092: 28089: 28083: 28080: 28074: 28071: 28065: 28060: 28051: 28048: 28042: 28039: 28028: 28025: 28019: 28016: 28010: 28007: 28001: 27998: 27992: 27991:Jagersma 2010: 7 27989: 27983: 27980: 27974: 27971: 27965: 27964: 27944: 27938: 27935: 27929: 27926: 27920: 27917: 27911: 27908: 27902: 27899: 27893: 27886: 27880: 27873: 27867: 27866: 27858: 27852: 27851: 27825: 27816: 27810: 27807: 27801: 27800: 27798: 27797: 27762: 27756: 27755: 27735: 27729: 27723: 27717: 27714: 27708: 27705: 27699: 27696: 27690: 27687: 27681: 27678: 27672: 27669: 27663: 27660: 27654: 27651: 27645: 27642: 27636: 27633: 27627: 27624: 27618: 27615: 27606: 27603: 27597: 27594: 27588: 27585: 27579: 27576: 27570: 27567: 27561: 27558: 27552: 27549: 27543: 27540: 27534: 27531: 27525: 27522: 27516: 27513: 27507: 27504: 27498: 27495: 27489: 27486: 27480: 27477: 27471: 27468: 27462: 27459: 27453: 27450: 27444: 27441: 27435: 27432: 27426: 27423: 27417: 27414: 27408: 27405: 27396: 27393: 27387: 27384: 27378: 27375: 27366: 27363: 27354: 27351: 27345: 27342: 27336: 27333: 27327: 27324: 27318: 27315: 27309: 27306: 27300: 27297: 27291: 27288: 27282: 27279: 27266: 27263: 27257: 27254: 27248: 27245: 27239: 27236: 27230: 27227: 27221: 27218: 27209: 27206: 27195: 27192: 27186: 27183: 27177: 27174: 27168: 27162: 27156: 27146: 27140: 27137: 27131: 27128: 27122: 27119: 27104: 27101: 27090: 27087: 27081: 27078: 27072: 27069: 27063: 27060: 27054: 27051: 27045: 27042: 27036: 27033: 27027: 27024: 27018: 27015: 27009: 27006: 27000: 26997: 26988: 26985: 26979: 26976: 26970: 26967: 26961: 26958: 26952: 26949: 26943: 26940: 26934: 26931: 26925: 26922: 26916: 26913: 26907: 26906: 26904: 26903: 26888: 26882: 26879: 26873: 26870: 26861: 26858: 26852: 26849: 26840: 26837: 26831: 26828: 26822: 26819: 26813: 26810: 26801: 26798: 26792: 26789: 26780: 26777: 26771: 26768: 26762: 26759: 26753: 26750: 26744: 26741: 26735: 26732: 26726: 26723: 26717: 26714: 26705: 26702: 26696: 26693: 26687: 26684: 26678: 26675: 26669: 26666: 26660: 26657: 26651: 26648: 26642: 26639: 26633: 26630: 26624: 26621: 26615: 26612: 26606: 26603: 26597: 26594: 26588: 26585: 26579: 26576: 26570: 26558:, P. Attinger's 26552: 26546: 26543: 26537: 26534: 26528: 26525: 26510: 26507: 26501: 26498: 26492: 26489: 26483: 26480: 26474: 26471: 26465: 26462: 26456: 26453: 26447: 26444: 26438: 26435: 26429: 26426: 26420: 26417: 26411: 26408: 26399: 26396: 26387: 26384: 26378: 26375: 26369: 26366: 26360: 26353: 26347: 26344: 26335: 26328: 26322: 26319: 26308: 26304: 26298: 26295: 26289: 26286: 26277: 26274: 26268: 26265: 26259: 26256: 26250: 26247: 26241: 26238: 26232: 26229: 26223: 26220: 26214: 26211: 26205: 26202: 26193: 26190: 26184: 26181: 26172: 26169: 26160: 26157: 26148: 26145: 26139: 26136: 26130: 26127: 26121: 26117: 26108: 26105: 26096: 26093: 26087: 26084: 26078: 26075: 26069: 26066: 26060: 26057: 26051: 26048: 26042: 26039: 26033: 26032: 26030: 26029: 26023: 26008: 26002:Zólyomi (2000). 25999: 25988: 25985: 25979: 25976: 25970: 25967: 25961: 25958: 25952: 25949: 25943: 25940: 25934: 25931: 25925: 25922: 25916: 25913: 25907: 25904: 25898: 25895: 25889: 25886: 25880: 25877: 25871: 25868: 25862: 25859: 25853: 25850: 25844: 25841: 25835: 25832: 25821: 25818: 25809: 25808:Michalowski 2004 25806: 25800: 25797: 25791: 25787: 25781: 25778: 25769: 25766: 25755: 25751: 25745: 25742: 25731: 25728: 25722: 25719: 25713: 25710: 25704: 25701: 25695: 25692: 25686: 25683: 25677: 25674: 25668: 25657: 25651: 25639: 25633: 25630: 25624: 25621: 25615: 25612: 25606: 25603: 25597: 25594: 25585: 25582: 25576: 25573: 25567: 25564: 25558: 25555: 25549: 25532: 25521: 25518: 25509: 25506: 25500: 25497: 25491: 25488: 25482: 25479: 25473: 25470: 25464: 25461: 25452: 25449: 25443: 25440: 25434: 25431: 25422: 25419: 25413: 25410: 25404: 25401: 25395: 25392: 25386: 25383: 25377: 25374: 25368: 25365: 25359: 25356: 25347: 25344: 25338: 25335: 25329: 25326: 25320: 25317: 25311: 25308: 25302: 25299: 25293: 25290: 25284: 25281: 25275: 25272: 25266: 25263: 25252: 25249: 25243: 25240: 25231: 25228: 25222: 25219: 25204: 25201: 25195: 25192: 25186: 25183: 25177: 25174: 25168: 25165: 25159: 25156: 25150: 25147: 25141: 25138: 25132: 25129: 25120: 25117: 25111: 25108: 25099: 25096: 25090: 25087: 25081: 25078: 25072: 25069: 25063: 25060: 25054: 25051: 25045: 25042: 25036: 25033: 25024: 25017: 25011: 25008: 25002: 24999: 24993: 24990: 24984: 24981: 24975: 24972: 24966: 24963: 24957: 24954: 24948: 24945: 24939: 24936: 24930: 24927: 24918: 24915: 24906: 24903: 24897: 24894: 24888: 24885: 24879: 24876: 24867: 24864: 24858: 24855: 24849: 24846: 24840: 24823: 24817: 24814: 24808: 24793: 24787: 24784: 24778: 24775: 24769: 24766: 24760: 24757: 24751: 24748: 24742: 24739: 24730: 24727: 24721: 24718: 24712: 24709: 24703: 24700: 24694: 24691: 24682: 24681: 24679: 24678: 24655: 24649: 24646: 24640: 24637: 24631: 24628: 24622: 24619: 24613: 24610: 24604: 24601: 24595: 24592: 24586: 24583: 24577: 24574: 24568: 24565: 24559: 24556: 24550: 24547: 24541: 24538: 24532: 24529: 24523: 24520: 24514: 24511: 24505: 24502: 24496: 24493: 24487: 24484: 24478: 24475: 24469: 24466: 24460: 24457: 24451: 24448: 24442: 24439: 24433: 24430: 24424: 24421: 24412: 24409: 24403: 24400: 24389: 24386: 24380: 24377: 24371: 24368: 24362: 24351: 24342: 24339: 24333: 24330: 24324: 24321: 24315: 24312: 24306: 24303: 24297: 24296:Thomsen 2001: 68 24294: 24288: 24285: 24279: 24276: 24267: 24264: 24255: 24252: 24246: 24243: 24237: 24234: 24228: 24225: 24219: 24216: 24210: 24207: 24201: 24198: 24192: 24189: 24178: 24177: 24175: 24173: 24150: 24144: 24141: 24135: 24132: 24126: 24123: 24117: 24114: 24105: 24102: 24096: 24093: 24087: 24084: 24078: 24075: 24069: 24068:Zólyomi 2017: 40 24066: 24060: 24057: 24051: 24048: 24042: 24039: 24033: 24030: 24021: 24018: 24012: 24009: 23996: 23993: 23987: 23984: 23973: 23970: 23964: 23961: 23955: 23952: 23946: 23943: 23937: 23933: 23927: 23924: 23918: 23915: 23909: 23906: 23900: 23885: 23879: 23876: 23870: 23867: 23861: 23858: 23849: 23846: 23837: 23834: 23825: 23822: 23816: 23813: 23804: 23801: 23790: 23787: 23778: 23775: 23766: 23763: 23750: 23747: 23741: 23738: 23729: 23726: 23720: 23717: 23711: 23708: 23702: 23699: 23690: 23687: 23681: 23678: 23672: 23671:Michalowski 2008 23669: 23663: 23662:Civil (2020: 43) 23660: 23654: 23651: 23642: 23639: 23633: 23617: 23608: 23592: 23586: 23585: 23583: 23582: 23563: 23557: 23548: 23542: 23539: 23533: 23530: 23524: 23521: 23515: 23512: 23506: 23503: 23497: 23494: 23488: 23485: 23479: 23476: 23465: 23460: 23454: 23451: 23445: 23442: 23436: 23433: 23427: 23424: 23418: 23415: 23409: 23408:Op.cit. 178-179. 23406: 23400: 23393: 23387: 23380: 23374: 23371: 23365: 23362: 23356: 23353: 23347: 23344: 23338: 23335: 23322: 23319: 23313: 23310: 23304: 23301: 23290: 23283: 23277: 23270: 23264: 23261: 23248: 23245: 23239: 23236: 23230: 23227: 23221: 23217: 23211: 23208: 23202: 23199: 23188: 23185: 23179: 23178: 23176: 23175: 23169: 23163:. Archived from 23162: 23154: 23148: 23145: 23134: 23127: 23112: 23109: 23103: 23100: 23094: 23091: 23085: 23079: 23069: 23063: 23062: 23060: 23059: 23040: 23031: 23028: 23022: 23019: 23013: 23010: 23004: 23001: 22995: 22994: 22992: 22991: 22971: 22965: 22958: 22949: 22946: 22940: 22934: 22931: 22922: 22919: 22913: 22910: 22901: 22900: 22898: 22897: 22891: 22884: 22876: 22870: 22864: 22858: 22852: 22846: 22845: 22843: 22842: 22821: 22815: 22814: 22807: 22801: 22798: 22792: 22785: 22779: 22772: 22766: 22765: 22756: 22750: 22749: 22729: 22723: 22720: 22714: 22707: 22701: 22698: 22692: 22691: 22689: 22688: 22683: 22675: 22669: 22668: 22666: 22665: 22638: 22632: 22631: 22629: 22627: 22621: 22606: 22597: 22591: 22590: 22554: 22548: 22545: 22539: 22534: 22522: 22516: 22515: 22507: 22501: 22500: 22482: 22476: 22475: 22457: 22451: 22450: 22446:The News Journal 22440: 22434: 22432: 22414: 22408: 22406: 22400: 22392: 22384: 22378: 22376: 22340: 22334: 22331: 22325: 22321: 22315: 22314: 22296: 22290: 22289: 22277: 22271: 22264: 22255: 22254: 22246: 22240: 22239: 22231: 22225: 22224: 22213: 22207: 22206: 22198: 22192: 22189: 22183: 22178: 22172: 22167: 22161: 22148: 22142: 22136: 22130: 22125: 22119: 22112: 22103: 22100: 22085: 22082: 22076: 22069: 22060: 22055: 22046: 22043: 22037: 22031: 22025: 22024:Rubio (2009: 40) 22022: 22016: 22013: 22007: 22004: 21998: 21995: 21989: 21988:Rubio (2009: 39) 21986: 21980: 21973: 21967: 21966:Viano (2016: 24) 21964: 21953: 21950: 21944: 21941: 21928: 21925: 21919: 21913: 21902: 21899: 21893: 21890: 21881: 21878: 21861: 21850: 21844: 21841: 21832: 21822: 21811: 21808: 21802: 21799: 21793: 21790: 21784: 21781: 21770: 21769:Foxvog (2016: 4) 21767: 21761: 21758: 21737: 21736: 21708: 21702: 21701: 21683: 21677: 21670: 21664: 21654: 21648: 21637: 21624: 21621: 21615: 21612: 21601: 21600: 21598: 21597: 21588:. Archived from 21582: 21576: 21569: 21550: 21537: 21531: 21513: 21507: 21504: 21498: 21491: 21485: 21462: 21456: 21437: 21431: 21428: 21422: 21419: 21413: 21395: 21389: 21378: 21372: 21325: 21319: 21294: 21288: 21241: 21235: 21188: 21182: 21175: 21169: 21158: 21152: 21135: 21129: 21126: 21120: 21117: 21111: 21086: 21080: 21077: 21071: 21060: 21054: 21043: 21037: 21029: 21023: 21020: 21014: 21010: 21004: 20993: 20987: 20984: 20978: 20916: 20910: 20906: 20900: 20893: 20887: 20884: 20868:and a following 20836: 20831: 20822: 20818: 20812: 20808: 20802: 20799: 20793: 20762: 20756: 20745: 20739: 20736: 20730: 20727: 20721: 20713: 20707: 20700: 20694: 20683: 20677: 20660: 20654: 20651: 20645: 20641: 20635: 20621: 20615: 20612: 20606: 20603: 20597: 20594: 20588: 20576: 20570: 20554: 20548: 20541: 20535: 20532: 20526: 20523: 20517: 20510: 20504: 20501: 20495: 20492: 20486: 20482: 20476: 20465: 20459: 20456: 20450: 20440: 20434: 20427: 20421: 20418: 20412: 20397: 20391: 20346:"his/her" and 𒁉 20329: 20323: 20280: 20274: 20271: 20265: 20238: 20232: 20229: 20223: 20201: 20195: 20179: 20173: 20153: 20150: 20144: 20140: 20134: 20130: 20124: 20101:"do, say", 𒇯𒁺 20066: 20060: 19904: 19898: 19872: 19866: 19857: 19849: 19843: 19823: 19817: 19675: 19669: 19654: 19648: 19641: 18671:dig̃ir-dig̃ir-re 18612: 18609: 18563: 18549: 18530: 18519: 18508: 18497: 18484: 18470: 18456: 18442: 18422: 18412: 18401: 18389: 18377: 18365: 18353: 18342: 18329: 18317: 18306: 18296: 18285: 18274: 18262: 18250: 18235: 18216: 18204: 18193: 18182: 18170: 18155: 18141: 18130: 18118: 18107: 18093: 18082: 18071: 18060: 18048: 18037: 18025: 18006: 17994: 17983: 17971: 17960: 17948: 17933: 17922: 17909: 17892: 17881: 17870: 17859: 17847: 17835: 17819: 17808: 17798: 17786: 17767: 17757: 17745: 17733: 17721: 17709: 17697: 17686: 17672: 17659: 17648: 17636: 17625: 17613: 17602: 17590: 17578: 17564: 17553: 17541: 17522: 17511: 17500: 17488: 17478: 17466: 17454: 17441: 17430: 17418: 17407: 17397: 17385: 17374: 17363: 17351: 17339: 17327: 17308: 17296: 17284: 17272: 17260: 17248: 17237: 17223: 17213: 17201: 17189: 17178: 17166: 17155: 17143: 17131: 17117: 17105: 17086: 17071: 17060: 17043: 17028: 17017: 17006: 16995: 16983: 16968: 16956: 16945: 16933: 16922: 16910: 16899: 16885: 16874: 16863: 16844: 16832: 16821: 16806: 16796: 16784: 16772: 16755: 16743: 16732: 16721: 16706: 16695: 16681: 16669: 16658: 16647: 16628: 16616: 16605: 16594: 16583: 16571: 16560: 16548: 16535: 16524: 16513: 16501: 16490: 16478: 16466: 16455: 16443: 16425: 16414: 16403: 16392: 16378: 16365: 16355: 16340: 16334: 16323: 16311: 16298: 16286: 16271: 16260: 16249: 16230: 16219: 16208: 16197: 16185: 16173: 16161: 16150: 16138: 16127: 16115: 16103: 16089: 16075: 16063: 16045: 16034: 16022: 16011: 15999: 15987: 15976: 15963: 15950: 15936: 15922: 15909: 15898: 15887: 15876: 15862: 15849: 15838: 15826: 15815: 15804: 15792: 15780: 15769: 15750: 15738: 15727: 15715: 15704: 15692: 15681: 15668: 15654: 15643: 15631: 15620: 15608: 15597: 15586: 15575: 15563: 15551: 15532: 15520: 15509: 15497: 15486: 15474: 15462: 15451: 15438: 15427: 15415: 15404: 15393: 15381: 15370: 15359: 15347: 15335: 15324: 15312: 15294: 15284: 15273: 15260: 15249: 15237: 15226: 15213: 15202: 15191: 15178: 15168: 15157: 15146: 15135: 15123: 15112: 15099: 15088: 15077: 15033: 15029: 15025: 15022: 14856:with inanimates; 14621: 14620: 14468: 14442: 14439: 14368: 14362: 14361: 14360: 14352: 14346: 14337: 14336: 14335: 14329: 14204:"eat" > 𒃻𒅥 14182:"childhood", 𒋻 14129:"clay tablet" + 14117:"chief musician" 13882:?" As explained 13683:"alone": 𒀸𒈬𒉈 13519: 13513: 13507: 13501: 13468: 13466:𒂕𒀀𒈠𒊒𒁀𒃡𒊏𒋫 13356:"day, time", 𒈬 13159: 13153: 13147: 13141: 13100: 12976:General features 12873:𒀀 ...𒊒 a ...ru 12816:𒀠...𒆕 al ...řu 12396:, which is 𒃶𒅎 12235: 12232: 11956:"go!", 𒅔𒈾𒀊𒁉 11903: 11897: 11891: 11885: 11879: 11865: 11859: 11853: 11839: 11825: 11819: 11813: 11799: 11769: 11750: 11744: 11722: 11716: 11710: 11696: 11682: 11676: 11670: 11656: 11635: 11614: 11608: 11602: 11588: 11574: 11568: 11562: 11548: 11522: 11503: 11497: 11491: 11469: 11463: 11457: 11443: 11429: 11423: 11417: 11403: 11386: 11371: 11368: 11094:stem formant. 10546:be bad, destroy 10276: 10268: 10078: 10070: 9955: 9951: 9919:sing.), (𒂊)𒁻 ( 9707:stem (e.g. 𒆭𒆭 9423: 9420: 9297:split ergativity 9140: 9137: 9025:"he will return 8999:"he will return 8958:Absence of {-b-} 8870:" (said of oil). 8735:𒉌𒅔𒆭 "he went 8415:-/a/ (locative) 8379:-/a/ (locative) 8339: 8336: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8161: 8147: 8133: 8119: 8113: 8107: 8093: 8074: 7969: 7966: 7691: 7688: 7379:. They include: 6266: 6252: 6246: 6240: 6226: 6204: 6198: 6184: 6170: 6156: 6142: 6121: 6104: 6098: 6092: 6086: 6080: 6074: 6052: 6046: 6040: 6026: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5986: 5973: 5956: 5799: 5798: 5460:Ordinal numerals 4854: 4851: 4809:the enclitic 𒁉 4621:"big", but 𒄖𒌌 4384:"that (thing)"; 4338:'to you (sg.)'. 4281:𒍪𒉈𒉈 -zu-ne-ne 4140: 4137: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3823: 3810: 3789: 3782:"The king came." 3776:lugal-∅ i-m-g̃en 3771: 3765: 3753: 3735: 3671: 3665: 3659: 3653: 3645:siki-(a)k-ak-ene 3619: 3599:bar udu ḫad-ak-a 3595: 3589: 3555: 3358:/-a(k)/, /-(k)/ 3271: 3268: 3182: 3176: 3142: 3122: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3063: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2851: 2799: 2796: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2262: 2255: 2251: 2212:rhotic consonant 2186: 2178: 2177: 2176: 2156: 2148: 2147: 2146: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2047: 2035: 2034: 2033: 2017: 2016: 2015: 1999: 1998: 1997: 1984:nasal consonants 1978: 1977: 1976: 1955: 1951: 1948:), which became 1931:), later voiced. 1926: 1925: 1924: 1913:), later voiced; 1908: 1907: 1906: 1895:), later voiced; 1890: 1889: 1888: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1819: 1818: 1817: 1781: 1778: 1759: 1753: 1750: 1730: 1726: 1708: 1705: 1687: 1681: 1678: 1673: 1670: 1665: 1662: 1646: 1643: 1636: 1633: 1628: 1625: 1614: 1608: 1605: 1598: 1595: 1590: 1587: 1570: 1567: 1560: 1557: 1552: 1549: 1510: 1506: 1452:Sumerian Grammar 1441: 1418:Adam Falkenstein 1290:Ernest de Sarzec 1282:, who published 1149: 1141: 1138: 1121: 1112: 1092: 1085: 1081: 1078: 1072: 1049: 1041: 940: 937: 913: 910: 883: 876: 872: 869: 863: 832: 824: 809: 758:Turkic languages 742:Uralic languages 722:language isolate 551:Archaic Sumerian 530: 527: 501: 498: 494: 491: 482: 479: 475: 472: 466: 463: 459: 456: 368:cuneiform script 342: 339: 334:Semitic language 316:language isolate 298: 295: 287: 284: 282: 273:romanized: 272: 270: 227: 211: 195: 188: 179: 178: 170: 150: 120:Language isolate 114: 103: 100: 60: 51: 42: 41: 30: 29: 21: 32824: 32823: 32819: 32818: 32817: 32815: 32814: 32813: 32764: 32763: 32762: 32757: 32756: 32733: 32724:Paleo-Laplandic 32719:Pre-Finno-Ugric 32666: 32623: 32587:Greater Siangic 32573: 32559:Uralic–Yukaghir 32509:Ibero-Caucasian 32504:Elamo-Dravidian 32442: 32401: 32352: 32316: 32241: 32177: 32160:North Caucasian 32140: 32050: 31989:Paleo-Sardinian 31927: 31918: 31888: 31883: 31842: 31796: 31770: 31679:Culture/society 31674: 31567: 31563:Muslim conquest 31533:Fall of Babylon 31464: 31365: 31352: 31236: 31154: 31149: 31119: 31114: 31113: 31087: 31073:Mixed languages 31042: 31023: 30958: 30947: 30801: 30795: 30650:Katembri–Taruma 30524: 30513: 30485: 30399: 30292: 30105: 30094: 30065: 29914: 29826: 29785:Turama–Kikorian 29695:Lower Mamberamo 29650:East Strickland 29578: 29566: 29484: 29272: 29267: 29257: 29212: 29121: 29116: 28981:. In addition, 28854: 28849: 28818: 28816: 28791: 28789:Further reading 28786: 28752: 28725: 28555:10.2307/1359671 28449: 28425: 28423: 28419: 28408: 28399:Wayback Machine 28365: 28344: 28342: 28338: 28323: 28312: 28247: 28236: 28226: 28221: 28212: 28210: 28201: 28200: 28196: 28187: 28185: 28177: 28176: 28169: 28160: 28153: 28145: 28141: 28132: 28125: 28117: 28113: 28108: 28104: 28099: 28095: 28090: 28086: 28081: 28077: 28072: 28068: 28061: 28054: 28049: 28045: 28040: 28031: 28026: 28022: 28017: 28013: 28008: 28004: 27999: 27995: 27990: 27986: 27981: 27977: 27972: 27968: 27961: 27945: 27941: 27936: 27932: 27927: 27923: 27918: 27914: 27909: 27905: 27900: 27896: 27887: 27883: 27874: 27870: 27859: 27855: 27823: 27817: 27813: 27808: 27804: 27795: 27793: 27763: 27759: 27752: 27736: 27732: 27728:, p. 1369. 27724: 27720: 27715: 27711: 27706: 27702: 27697: 27693: 27688: 27684: 27679: 27675: 27670: 27666: 27661: 27657: 27652: 27648: 27643: 27639: 27634: 27630: 27625: 27621: 27616: 27609: 27604: 27600: 27595: 27591: 27586: 27582: 27577: 27573: 27568: 27564: 27559: 27555: 27550: 27546: 27541: 27537: 27532: 27528: 27523: 27519: 27514: 27510: 27505: 27501: 27496: 27492: 27487: 27483: 27478: 27474: 27469: 27465: 27460: 27456: 27451: 27447: 27442: 27438: 27433: 27429: 27424: 27420: 27415: 27411: 27406: 27399: 27394: 27390: 27385: 27381: 27376: 27369: 27364: 27357: 27352: 27348: 27343: 27339: 27334: 27330: 27325: 27321: 27316: 27312: 27307: 27303: 27298: 27294: 27289: 27285: 27280: 27269: 27264: 27260: 27255: 27251: 27246: 27242: 27237: 27233: 27228: 27224: 27219: 27212: 27207: 27198: 27194:Johnson 2004:22 27193: 27189: 27184: 27180: 27175: 27171: 27163: 27159: 27147: 27143: 27138: 27134: 27129: 27125: 27120: 27107: 27102: 27093: 27088: 27084: 27079: 27075: 27070: 27066: 27061: 27057: 27052: 27048: 27043: 27039: 27034: 27030: 27025: 27021: 27016: 27012: 27007: 27003: 26998: 26991: 26986: 26982: 26977: 26973: 26968: 26964: 26959: 26955: 26950: 26946: 26941: 26937: 26932: 26928: 26923: 26919: 26914: 26910: 26901: 26899: 26890: 26889: 26885: 26880: 26876: 26871: 26864: 26859: 26855: 26850: 26843: 26838: 26834: 26829: 26825: 26820: 26816: 26811: 26804: 26799: 26795: 26790: 26783: 26778: 26774: 26769: 26765: 26760: 26756: 26751: 26747: 26742: 26738: 26733: 26729: 26724: 26720: 26715: 26708: 26703: 26699: 26694: 26690: 26685: 26681: 26676: 26672: 26667: 26663: 26658: 26654: 26649: 26645: 26640: 26636: 26631: 26627: 26622: 26618: 26613: 26609: 26604: 26600: 26595: 26591: 26586: 26582: 26577: 26573: 26553: 26549: 26544: 26540: 26535: 26531: 26526: 26513: 26508: 26504: 26499: 26495: 26490: 26486: 26481: 26477: 26472: 26468: 26463: 26459: 26454: 26450: 26445: 26441: 26436: 26432: 26427: 26423: 26418: 26414: 26409: 26402: 26397: 26390: 26385: 26381: 26376: 26372: 26367: 26363: 26357:Babel und Bibel 26354: 26350: 26345: 26338: 26332:Babel und Bibel 26329: 26325: 26320: 26311: 26305: 26301: 26296: 26292: 26287: 26280: 26275: 26271: 26266: 26262: 26257: 26253: 26248: 26244: 26239: 26235: 26230: 26226: 26221: 26217: 26212: 26208: 26203: 26196: 26191: 26187: 26182: 26175: 26170: 26163: 26158: 26151: 26146: 26142: 26137: 26133: 26128: 26124: 26118: 26111: 26106: 26099: 26094: 26090: 26085: 26081: 26076: 26072: 26067: 26063: 26058: 26054: 26049: 26045: 26040: 26036: 26027: 26025: 26021: 26006: 26000: 25991: 25986: 25982: 25977: 25973: 25968: 25964: 25959: 25955: 25950: 25946: 25941: 25937: 25932: 25928: 25923: 25919: 25914: 25910: 25905: 25901: 25896: 25892: 25887: 25883: 25878: 25874: 25869: 25865: 25860: 25856: 25851: 25847: 25842: 25838: 25833: 25824: 25819: 25812: 25807: 25803: 25799:Edzard 2003: 87 25798: 25794: 25788: 25784: 25779: 25772: 25767: 25758: 25752: 25748: 25743: 25734: 25729: 25725: 25720: 25716: 25711: 25707: 25702: 25698: 25693: 25689: 25684: 25680: 25675: 25671: 25658: 25654: 25640: 25636: 25631: 25627: 25622: 25618: 25613: 25609: 25604: 25600: 25595: 25588: 25583: 25579: 25574: 25570: 25565: 25561: 25556: 25552: 25533: 25524: 25519: 25512: 25507: 25503: 25498: 25494: 25489: 25485: 25480: 25476: 25471: 25467: 25462: 25455: 25450: 25446: 25441: 25437: 25432: 25425: 25420: 25416: 25411: 25407: 25402: 25398: 25393: 25389: 25384: 25380: 25375: 25371: 25366: 25362: 25357: 25350: 25345: 25341: 25336: 25332: 25327: 25323: 25318: 25314: 25309: 25305: 25300: 25296: 25291: 25287: 25282: 25278: 25273: 25269: 25264: 25255: 25250: 25246: 25241: 25234: 25229: 25225: 25220: 25207: 25202: 25198: 25193: 25189: 25184: 25180: 25175: 25171: 25166: 25162: 25157: 25153: 25148: 25144: 25139: 25135: 25130: 25123: 25118: 25114: 25109: 25102: 25097: 25093: 25088: 25084: 25079: 25075: 25070: 25066: 25061: 25057: 25052: 25048: 25043: 25039: 25034: 25027: 25018: 25014: 25009: 25005: 25000: 24996: 24991: 24987: 24982: 24978: 24973: 24969: 24964: 24960: 24955: 24951: 24946: 24942: 24937: 24933: 24928: 24921: 24916: 24909: 24904: 24900: 24895: 24891: 24886: 24882: 24877: 24870: 24865: 24861: 24856: 24852: 24847: 24843: 24838:Wayback Machine 24824: 24820: 24815: 24811: 24794: 24790: 24785: 24781: 24776: 24772: 24767: 24763: 24758: 24754: 24749: 24745: 24740: 24733: 24728: 24724: 24719: 24715: 24710: 24706: 24701: 24697: 24692: 24685: 24676: 24674: 24672: 24656: 24652: 24647: 24643: 24638: 24634: 24629: 24625: 24620: 24616: 24611: 24607: 24602: 24598: 24593: 24589: 24584: 24580: 24575: 24571: 24566: 24562: 24557: 24553: 24548: 24544: 24539: 24535: 24530: 24526: 24521: 24517: 24512: 24508: 24503: 24499: 24494: 24490: 24485: 24481: 24476: 24472: 24467: 24463: 24458: 24454: 24449: 24445: 24440: 24436: 24431: 24427: 24422: 24415: 24410: 24406: 24401: 24392: 24387: 24383: 24378: 24374: 24369: 24365: 24352: 24345: 24340: 24336: 24331: 24327: 24322: 24318: 24313: 24309: 24304: 24300: 24295: 24291: 24286: 24282: 24277: 24270: 24265: 24258: 24253: 24249: 24244: 24240: 24235: 24231: 24226: 24222: 24217: 24213: 24208: 24204: 24199: 24195: 24190: 24181: 24171: 24169: 24167: 24151: 24147: 24142: 24138: 24133: 24129: 24124: 24120: 24115: 24108: 24103: 24099: 24094: 24090: 24085: 24081: 24076: 24072: 24067: 24063: 24058: 24054: 24049: 24045: 24040: 24036: 24031: 24024: 24019: 24015: 24010: 23999: 23994: 23990: 23985: 23976: 23971: 23967: 23962: 23958: 23953: 23949: 23944: 23940: 23934: 23930: 23925: 23921: 23916: 23912: 23907: 23903: 23886: 23882: 23877: 23873: 23868: 23864: 23859: 23852: 23847: 23840: 23835: 23828: 23823: 23819: 23814: 23807: 23802: 23793: 23788: 23781: 23776: 23769: 23764: 23753: 23748: 23744: 23739: 23732: 23727: 23723: 23718: 23714: 23709: 23705: 23700: 23693: 23688: 23684: 23679: 23675: 23670: 23666: 23661: 23657: 23652: 23645: 23640: 23636: 23631:Wayback Machine 23618: 23611: 23606:Wayback Machine 23593: 23589: 23580: 23578: 23565: 23564: 23560: 23549: 23545: 23540: 23536: 23531: 23527: 23522: 23518: 23513: 23509: 23504: 23500: 23495: 23491: 23486: 23482: 23477: 23468: 23461: 23457: 23452: 23448: 23443: 23439: 23434: 23430: 23425: 23421: 23416: 23412: 23407: 23403: 23394: 23390: 23381: 23377: 23372: 23368: 23363: 23359: 23354: 23350: 23345: 23341: 23336: 23325: 23320: 23316: 23311: 23307: 23302: 23293: 23284: 23280: 23271: 23267: 23262: 23251: 23246: 23242: 23237: 23233: 23228: 23224: 23218: 23214: 23209: 23205: 23200: 23191: 23186: 23182: 23173: 23171: 23167: 23160: 23156: 23155: 23151: 23146: 23137: 23128: 23115: 23110: 23106: 23101: 23097: 23092: 23088: 23082: 23070: 23066: 23057: 23055: 23042: 23041: 23034: 23029: 23025: 23020: 23016: 23011: 23007: 23002: 22998: 22989: 22987: 22972: 22968: 22959: 22952: 22947: 22943: 22937: 22932: 22925: 22920: 22916: 22911: 22904: 22895: 22893: 22889: 22882: 22878: 22877: 22873: 22865: 22861: 22853: 22849: 22840: 22838: 22822: 22818: 22809: 22808: 22804: 22799: 22795: 22786: 22782: 22773: 22769: 22758: 22757: 22753: 22746: 22730: 22726: 22721: 22717: 22708: 22704: 22699: 22695: 22686: 22684: 22681: 22677: 22676: 22672: 22663: 22661: 22639: 22635: 22625: 22623: 22619: 22604: 22598: 22594: 22571:10.2307/1359726 22555: 22551: 22546: 22542: 22523: 22519: 22508: 22504: 22497: 22483: 22479: 22472: 22458: 22454: 22442: 22441: 22437: 22429: 22415: 22411: 22394: 22393: 22385: 22381: 22341: 22337: 22332: 22328: 22322: 22318: 22311: 22297: 22293: 22278: 22274: 22265: 22258: 22247: 22243: 22232: 22228: 22214: 22210: 22199: 22195: 22190: 22186: 22179: 22175: 22168: 22164: 22149: 22145: 22137: 22133: 22126: 22122: 22113: 22106: 22101: 22088: 22083: 22079: 22070: 22063: 22056: 22049: 22044: 22040: 22032: 22028: 22023: 22019: 22014: 22010: 22005: 22001: 21996: 21992: 21987: 21983: 21974: 21970: 21965: 21956: 21951: 21947: 21942: 21931: 21926: 21922: 21914: 21905: 21900: 21896: 21891: 21884: 21879: 21864: 21851: 21847: 21842: 21835: 21823: 21814: 21809: 21805: 21800: 21796: 21791: 21787: 21782: 21773: 21768: 21764: 21759: 21740: 21709: 21705: 21698: 21684: 21680: 21671: 21667: 21655: 21651: 21639:Woods C. 2006 " 21638: 21627: 21622: 21618: 21613: 21604: 21595: 21593: 21592:on 27 June 2013 21584: 21583: 21579: 21570: 21563: 21559: 21554: 21553: 21549: 21538: 21534: 21520: 21514: 21510: 21505: 21501: 21492: 21488: 21463: 21459: 21451:{i-zaḫ-en} and 21438: 21434: 21429: 21425: 21420: 21416: 21409: 21402: 21396: 21392: 21379: 21375: 21361: 21350: 21343: 21332: 21326: 21322: 21316: 21301: 21295: 21291: 21277: 21266: 21259: 21248: 21242: 21238: 21224: 21213: 21206: 21195: 21189: 21185: 21176: 21172: 21166:Halloran (1999) 21159: 21155: 21149: 21142: 21136: 21132: 21127: 21123: 21118: 21114: 21100: 21093: 21087: 21083: 21078: 21074: 21061: 21057: 21044: 21040: 21030: 21026: 21021: 21017: 21011: 21007: 20994: 20990: 20985: 20981: 20966: 20959: 20943: 20917: 20913: 20907: 20903: 20894: 20890: 20885: 20881: 20862: 20855: 20843: 20834: 20825: 20819: 20815: 20809: 20805: 20800: 20796: 20763: 20759: 20746: 20742: 20737: 20733: 20728: 20724: 20714: 20710: 20701: 20697: 20684: 20680: 20674: 20669:"short" and 𒁍 20667: 20661: 20657: 20652: 20648: 20642: 20638: 20632: 20622: 20618: 20613: 20609: 20604: 20600: 20595: 20591: 20584: 20577: 20573: 20562: 20555: 20551: 20542: 20538: 20533: 20529: 20524: 20520: 20511: 20507: 20502: 20498: 20493: 20489: 20483: 20479: 20466: 20462: 20457: 20453: 20447: 20441: 20437: 20428: 20424: 20419: 20415: 20398: 20394: 20355: 20336: 20330: 20326: 20281: 20277: 20272: 20268: 20239: 20235: 20230: 20226: 20220: 20216: 20208: 20202: 20198: 20191: 20187: 20180: 20176: 20151: 20147: 20141: 20137: 20131: 20127: 20121: 20116:"bind", and 𒅊 20113: 20106: 20095: 20088: 20083:"drag", and 𒌴 20081: 20072:"lay down", 𒋩 20067: 20063: 20053: 20046: 20031: 19982:"crime" and 𒍣 19979: 19966:"musician", 𒉣 19962:"reed mat", 𒈜 19952: 19941: 19934: 19929:"merchant", 𒂍 19927: 19922:"vessel", 𒁮𒃼 19905: 19901: 19891: 19880: 19873: 19869: 19850: 19846: 19824: 19820: 19814: 19807: 19800: 19793: 19786: 19779: 19740: 19729: 19722: 19676: 19672: 19666:Aya-dara-galama 19658:Sealand Dynasty 19655: 19651: 19642: 19638: 19633: 19628: 19601: 19596: 19582: 19578: 19570: 19562: 19554: 19546: 19544: 19535: 19532: 19523: 19519: 19506: 19502: 19498: 19494: 19490: 19486: 19478: 19476: 19467: 19465: 19456: 19448: 19445: 19436: 19428: 19426: 19417: 19415: 19411: 19402: 19398: 19393: 19389: 19385: 19381: 19377: 19373: 19369: 19365: 19361: 19353: 19351: 19347: 19338: 19330: 19322: 19319: 19315: 19306: 19304: 19300: 19291: 19283: 19281: 19272: 19264: 19261: 19257: 19248: 19240: 19236: 19230: 19226: 19222: 19218: 19214: 19206: 19198: 19190: 19182: 19179: 19170: 19162: 19160: 19156: 19152: 19143: 19135: 19132: 19123: 19119: 19109: 19105: 19101: 19097: 19089: 19086: 19077: 19075: 19066: 19058: 19055: 19046: 19043: 19034: 19030: 19024:"Ush, ruler of 19020: 19016: 19012: 19004: 18996: 18994: 18985: 18977: 18969: 18967: 18958: 18956: 18947: 18939: 18935: 18918: 18914: 18911:-ra ki-ba na bi 18910: 18906: 18902: 18898: 18890: 18888: 18884: 18875: 18867: 18859: 18856: 18847: 18845: 18836: 18834: 18825: 18817: 18809: 18807: 18798: 18790: 18782: 18778: 18761:-bi ki e-ne-sur 18760: 18756: 18752: 18748: 18744: 18736: 18728: 18720: 18717: 18708: 18705: 18696: 18688: 18680: 18678: 18674: 18665: 18657: 18649: 18641: 18639: 18630: 18610: 18604: 18594: 18589: 18559: 18556: 18545: 18526: 18515: 18504: 18493: 18480: 18477: 18466: 18463: 18452: 18449: 18438: 18418: 18414: 18408: 18402: 18397: 18385: 18379: 18373: 18361: 18355: 18349: 18338: 18325: 18319: 18313: 18302: 18298: 18292: 18287: 18281: 18270: 18264: 18258: 18246: 18245: 18237: 18231: 18212: 18206: 18200: 18189: 18178: 18166: 18157: 18151: 18137: 18132: 18126: 18120: 18114: 18103: 18100: 18095: 18089: 18084: 18078: 18073: 18067: 18056: 18050: 18044: 18033: 18027: 18021: 18002: 17996: 17990: 17979: 17973: 17967: 17956: 17950: 17940: 17929: 17924: 17918: 17905: 17899: 17894: 17888: 17883: 17877: 17872: 17855: 17849: 17843: 17831: 17827: 17821: 17815: 17804: 17800: 17794: 17788: 17782: 17763: 17759: 17753: 17747: 17741: 17729: 17723: 17717: 17705: 17699: 17693: 17682: 17668: 17666: 17661: 17655: 17650: 17644: 17638: 17632: 17621: 17615: 17609: 17598: 17592: 17586: 17574: 17571: 17566: 17560: 17555: 17549: 17543: 17537: 17518: 17513: 17507: 17496: 17490: 17484: 17474: 17462: 17456: 17450: 17437: 17432: 17426: 17420: 17414: 17403: 17398: 17393: 17387: 17381: 17370: 17365: 17359: 17353: 17347: 17335: 17329: 17323: 17304: 17298: 17292: 17280: 17274: 17268: 17256: 17250: 17244: 17233: 17219: 17215: 17209: 17203: 17197: 17185: 17180: 17174: 17168: 17162: 17151: 17145: 17139: 17127: 17126: 17119: 17113: 17107: 17101: 17082: 17073: 17067: 17056: 17050: 17045: 17039: 17036: 17030: 17024: 17013: 17008: 17002: 16997: 16991: 16979: 16964: 16958: 16952: 16941: 16935: 16929: 16918: 16912: 16906: 16895: 16892: 16887: 16881: 16876: 16870: 16865: 16859: 16840: 16834: 16828: 16817: 16816: 16808: 16802: 16792: 16780: 16774: 16764: 16751: 16745: 16739: 16728: 16723: 16717: 16708: 16702: 16687: 16683: 16677: 16671: 16665: 16654: 16649: 16643: 16624: 16618: 16612: 16601: 16596: 16590: 16579: 16573: 16567: 16556: 16550: 16544: 16531: 16526: 16520: 16509: 16503: 16497: 16486: 16480: 16474: 16462: 16457: 16451: 16445: 16439: 16421: 16410: 16399: 16388: 16374: 16372: 16367: 16361: 16357: 16351: 16350: 16342: 16336: 16330: 16319: 16313: 16307: 16294: 16288: 16282: 16267: 16262: 16256: 16251: 16245: 16226: 16221: 16215: 16204: 16193: 16181: 16175: 16169: 16157: 16146: 16140: 16134: 16123: 16117: 16111: 16099: 16096: 16091: 16085: 16077: 16071: 16065: 16059: 16041: 16030: 16024: 16018: 16007: 16001: 15995: 15983: 15978: 15972: 15959: 15957: 15952: 15946: 15943: 15938: 15932: 15929: 15924: 15918: 15916: 15911: 15905: 15900: 15894: 15889: 15883: 15872: 15869: 15864: 15858: 15856: 15851: 15845: 15840: 15834: 15828: 15822: 15811: 15806: 15800: 15794: 15788: 15776: 15771: 15765: 15746: 15740: 15734: 15723: 15717: 15711: 15700: 15688: 15683: 15677: 15664: 15661: 15656: 15650: 15645: 15639: 15633: 15627: 15616: 15610: 15604: 15593: 15588: 15582: 15577: 15571: 15559: 15553: 15547: 15528: 15522: 15516: 15505: 15499: 15493: 15482: 15476: 15470: 15458: 15453: 15447: 15434: 15429: 15423: 15417: 15411: 15400: 15395: 15389: 15383: 15377: 15366: 15361: 15355: 15349: 15343: 15331: 15326: 15320: 15314: 15308: 15290: 15286: 15280: 15275: 15269: 15256: 15251: 15245: 15239: 15233: 15222: 15215: 15209: 15198: 15193: 15187: 15174: 15170: 15164: 15159: 15153: 15142: 15137: 15131: 15125: 15119: 15108: 15101: 15095: 15084: 15079: 15073: 15023: 15006: 14997: 14964: 14922: 14915: 14908: 14842: 14835:phoneme is /d/. 14806: 14723: 14715: 14708: 14676: 14607: 14570: 14532: 14485: 14454:Emesal example 14451:Emegir example 14413: 14389: 14382: 14377:"high tongue", 14356: 14344: 14333: 14322: 14313: 14306: 14295: 14260: 14253: 14242: 14238: 14231: 14223: 14216: 14209: 14202: 14195: 14165: 14133:"write" > 𒁾 14100: 14093: 14086: 14079: 14065: 14061: 14054: 14043: 14032: 14021: 13992: 13981: 13958: 13950: 13935: 13928: 13891: 13876: 13853: 13845: 13841: 13829: 13825: 13799: 13792: 13780: 13776: 13768: 13757: 13733: 13729: 13715: 13688: 13676: 13649: 13645: 13630: 13622: 13595: 13577: 13573: 13566: 13558: 13554: 13535: 13533:had swept over" 13521: 13491: 13483: 13475: 13472: 13467: 13452: 13448: 13435: 13417: 13413: 13392: 13388: 13373: 13369: 13335: 13331: 13315: 13311: 13301: 13297: 13293: 13286: 13275: 13269: 13265: 13258: 13236: 13232: 13210: 13206: 13183: 13179: 13171: 13161: 13131: 13123: 13115: 13112: 13108: 13104: 13099: 13092:relative clause 13084: 13075: 13066:𒈬/𒉆 ... 𒀀𒂠 13053: 13036: 13025: 13009: 13001: 12993: 12978: 12973: 12963: 12957: 12914: 12906:Locative "in": 12901: 12894: 12867: 12863: 12854: 12829: 12819: 12804: 12779:Locative "on": 12770: 12753: 12749: 12739: 12729: 12719: 12704:case government 12700: 12681: 12619: 12495: 12479: 12471: 12467: 12460: 12455:, simply 𒀀𒀭 - 12452: 12442: 12435: 12413: 12409: 12401: 12381: 12373: 12361: 12340: 12333: 12326: 12306: 12298: 12283: 12262: 12224: 12214: 12187: 12176: 12172: 12164: 12124: 12117: 12113: 12097: 12090:Latin gerundive 12066: 12058: 12044: 12028: 12020: 12012: 12004: 11996: 11988: 11968: 11945: 11936: 11915: 11905: 11868: 11842: 11828: 11802: 11788: 11780: 11777: 11774:-mu-un-na-ab-ze 11773: 11768: 11762: 11752: 11733: 11725: 11699: 11685: 11659: 11646: 11643: 11639: 11636:mu-un-na-ab-šum 11634: 11626: 11616: 11591: 11577: 11551: 11537: 11529: 11526: 11521: 11515: 11505: 11480: 11472: 11446: 11432: 11406: 11393: 11390: 11387:mu-un-na-ab-šum 11385: 11355:imperative mood 11351: 11295:durative aspect 11283:punctual aspect 11187: 11175: 11171: 11163: 11143: 11139: 11123: 11119: 11075: 11071: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11048: 11014: 11001: 10997: 10990: 10982: 10975: 10961: 10957: 10949: 10936: 10932: 10914: 10910: 10902: 10873: 10869: 10861: 10847: 10843: 10839: 10835: 10827: 10809: 10805: 10797: 10783: 10779: 10771: 10741: 10737: 10729: 10710: 10695: 10691: 10672: 10668: 10649: 10645: 10637: 10623: 10619: 10611: 10597: 10593: 10585: 10571: 10564: 10556: 10505: 10498: 10478: 10471: 10463: 10449: 10445: 10437: 10424: 10417: 10409: 10395: 10391: 10372: 10368: 10360: 10332: 10328: 10310: 10306: 10298: 10259: 10252: 10243: 10223: 10204:-------------- 10200: 10191: 10177: 10168: 10123: 10061: 10052: 10038: 10029: 10015: 10008: 9994: 9980: 9939: 9928: 9897: 9883: 9859: 9855: 9851: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9814: 9810: 9803: 9773: 9765: 9731: 9716: 9712: 9690:morphonological 9674: 9635:with present): 9293:indicative mood 9270: 9248: 9229:(animate only) 9220: 9205: 9133: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9082: 9078: 9023: 9019: 8997: 8993: 8989: 8960: 8947: 8943: 8917: 8912: 8862: 8845: 8830: 8792: 8786: 8761: 8733: 8727: 8707: 8696: 8683:-kur} "he went 8665: 8654: 8615: 8595: 8510:-/a/- (dative) 8507:-/ra/ (dative) 8465:-/ra/ (dative) 8418:-/ra/ (dative) 8323: 8312: 8305: 8290: 8279: 8272: 8265: 8258: 8232: 8208: 8198: 8190: 8164: 8150: 8136: 8122: 8096: 8083: 8081: 8078:-na-ta-ni-in-ed 8077: 8073: 8072:𒅔𒈾𒋫𒉌𒅔𒌓𒁺 8033:-/i/-~-/e/- 𒂊 8027: 8003: 7962: 7949: 7921: 7898: 7893:(animate only) 7882: 7877: 7798: 7766: 7750: 7742: 7725: 7684: 7649: 7632: 7571: 7563: 7553: 7540: 7501: 7485: 7445: 7430: 7420: 7387:indirect object 7349: 7344: 7331: 7323: 7311: 7300: 7270: 7222: 7207: 7183: 7163: 7148: 7083: 7057: 7011: 6981: 6945: 6921: 6902: 6881: 6866: 6862: 6826: 6815: 6769: 6758: 6750:E.g.: 𒈾𒀊𒅥𒂊 6693: 6672: 6661: 6645: 6634: 6618: 6612: 6597: 6579: 6572: 6553: 6544: 6534: 6529: 6523:E.g.: 𒃶𒅁𒅥𒂊 6516: 6504: 6496: 6488: 6480: 6447: 6432: 6425: 6400: 6388: 6376: 6360: 6333: 6310: 6286: 6277: 6273: 6268: 6255: 6229: 6217: 6213: 6207: 6187: 6173: 6159: 6145: 6132: 6129: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6106: 6063: 6055: 6029: 6015: 5989: 5975: 5963: 5960: 5955: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5919: 5917: 5915: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5879: 5871: 5869: 5867: 5782:non-finite verb 5750: 5743: 5691: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5661: 5654: 5650: 5626: 5621: 5609: 5597: 5593: 5564:, later 𒋗𒊑𒀀 5558: 5551: 5530: 5511: 5500: 5493: 5478: 5445: 5425: 5406: 5381: 5364: 5317: 5282: 5261: 5244: 5226: 5209: 5186: 5136: 5069: 5062: 5021: 5009: 4984: 4961: 4954: 4921: 4866:cuneiform sign 4835: 4802: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4766: 4739: 4728: 4721: 4698: 4690: 4683:restrictiveness 4653:"small" and 𒈤 4642: 4634: 4629:"mighty", 𒊷𒂵 4607: 4595: 4587: 4580: 4576: 4565: 4551: 4544: 4536: 4524: 4516: 4493: 4486: 4471: 4464: 4449: 4436:"who" and 𒀀𒈾 4423: 4416: 4397: 4393: 4382: 4324: 4316: 4274: 4249: 4190: 4177: 4168: 4129: 4099: 4082: 4069: 4055: 4024:"say something 4022: 4008: 3994: 3982:"add something 3966: 3961:"surround", 𒊏 3959: 3931: 3916: 3887: 3866: 3856: 3825: 3812: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3774: 3755: 3742: 3739: 3734: 3719:transitive verb 3711: 3683: 3673: 3642: 3634: 3626: 3623: 3618: 3607: 3597: 3578: 3570: 3562: 3559: 3554: 3519: 3515: 3430: 3386: 3264: 3259: 3222:"great" and 𒌉 3209: 3205: 3194: 3184: 3165: 3157: 3149: 3146: 3141: 3134: 3124: 3094: 3086: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3023: 3019: 3013: 3006:absolutive case 3002: 2998: 2986: 2967: 2939: 2919: 2909: 2866: 2858: 2855: 2850: 2823:relative clause 2818:genitive phrase 2757: 2742: 2737: 2706: 2693: 2686: 2669: 2658: 2650: 2612: 2604: 2593: 2586: 2569:"write" - 𒊬𒊏 2560: 2556: 2549: 2534: 2484: 2437: 2433: 2423: 2399: 2392: 2321: 2307: 2299: 2238: 2181:velar fricative 2172: 2171: 2142: 2141: 2086: 2085: 2075:a set of three 2029: 2028: 2011: 2010: 1993: 1992: 1972: 1971: 1920: 1919: 1902: 1901: 1884: 1883: 1849: 1848: 1831: 1830: 1813: 1812: 1796:stop consonants 1779: 1751: 1728: 1706: 1679: 1671: 1663: 1644: 1634: 1626: 1606: 1596: 1588: 1568: 1558: 1550: 1501: 1492:I. M. Diakonoff 1480: 1439: 1437: 1203:Henry Rawlinson 1165: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1139: 1129:Akkadian Empire 1124: 1123: 1122: 1114: 1113: 1104: 1103: 1093: 1082: 1076: 1073: 1062: 1050: 1039: 982: 980:Transliteration 954:proto-cuneiform 938: 918:(ancient Girsu) 911: 893: 884: 873: 867: 864: 849: 833: 822: 816: 784:creole language 774:fringe theories 718: 604:. At this time 602:Akkadian Empire 528: 499: 492: 480: 473: 464: 457: 412: 340: 296: 292:native language 280: 264: 239:Without proper 223: 207: 204: 191: 184: 174: 173: 166: 151: 146: 122: 115: 112:Language family 110: 101: 49: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 32822: 32812: 32811: 32806: 32801: 32796: 32791: 32786: 32781: 32776: 32759: 32758: 32755: 32754: 32747: 32739: 32738: 32735: 32734: 32732: 32731: 32726: 32721: 32716: 32711: 32706: 32701: 32696: 32691: 32686: 32680: 32678: 32672: 32671: 32668: 32667: 32665: 32664: 32659: 32654: 32649: 32644: 32639: 32633: 32631: 32625: 32624: 32622: 32621: 32616: 32611: 32606: 32601: 32600: 32599: 32594: 32583: 32581: 32575: 32574: 32572: 32571: 32566: 32561: 32556: 32554:Uralo-Siberian 32551: 32546: 32541: 32539:Serbi–Mongolic 32536: 32531: 32526: 32521: 32516: 32511: 32506: 32501: 32499:Dravido-Korean 32496: 32494:Dené–Yeniseian 32491: 32490: 32489: 32484: 32482:Dené–Caucasian 32479: 32469: 32464: 32458: 32452: 32448: 32447: 32444: 32443: 32441: 32440: 32435: 32427: 32420: 32412: 32410: 32403: 32402: 32400: 32399: 32394: 32389: 32384: 32379: 32373: 32371: 32360: 32354: 32353: 32351: 32350: 32343: 32338: 32333: 32327: 32325: 32318: 32317: 32315: 32314: 32309: 32304: 32299: 32294: 32287: 32280: 32273: 32266: 32259: 32251: 32249: 32243: 32242: 32240: 32239: 32231: 32226: 32221: 32216: 32209: 32202: 32195: 32187: 32185: 32179: 32178: 32176: 32175: 32174: 32173: 32168: 32156: 32150: 32148: 32142: 32141: 32139: 32138: 32131: 32124: 32117: 32110: 32103: 32100:Hurro-Urartian 32096: 32089: 32082: 32075: 32068: 32060: 32058: 32052: 32051: 32049: 32048: 32041: 32034: 32027: 32020: 32013: 32006: 31999: 31992: 31985: 31982:Paleo-Corsican 31978: 31971: 31964: 31959: 31952: 31945: 31937: 31935: 31929: 31928: 31917: 31916: 31909: 31902: 31894: 31885: 31884: 31882: 31881: 31876: 31871: 31866: 31861: 31859:Assyriologists 31856: 31850: 31848: 31844: 31843: 31841: 31840: 31835: 31830: 31825: 31820: 31815: 31810: 31804: 31802: 31798: 31797: 31795: 31794: 31789: 31784: 31778: 31776: 31772: 31771: 31769: 31768: 31766:List of rulers 31763: 31758: 31753: 31748: 31743: 31738: 31733: 31728: 31723: 31718: 31713: 31708: 31703: 31698: 31693: 31688: 31682: 31680: 31676: 31675: 31673: 31672: 31667: 31662: 31657: 31655:Proto-Armenian 31652: 31647: 31642: 31640:Middle Persian 31637: 31632: 31627: 31622: 31617: 31612: 31607: 31602: 31597: 31592: 31587: 31581: 31579: 31573: 31572: 31569: 31568: 31566: 31565: 31560: 31555: 31550: 31545: 31540: 31535: 31530: 31528:Neo-Babylonian 31525: 31520: 31515: 31510: 31508:Old Babylonian 31505: 31500: 31495: 31490: 31485: 31480: 31478:Early Dynastic 31474: 31472: 31466: 31465: 31463: 31462: 31457: 31452: 31447: 31442: 31437: 31428: 31423: 31418: 31413: 31408: 31403: 31398: 31393: 31388: 31382: 31380: 31371: 31367: 31366: 31359: 31357: 31354: 31353: 31351: 31350: 31345: 31340: 31335: 31330: 31325: 31320: 31315: 31310: 31305: 31300: 31295: 31290: 31285: 31280: 31275: 31270: 31265: 31260: 31255: 31250: 31244: 31242: 31238: 31237: 31235: 31234: 31229: 31224: 31219: 31218: 31217: 31212: 31202: 31197: 31192: 31187: 31182: 31177: 31171: 31169: 31162: 31156: 31155: 31148: 31147: 31140: 31133: 31125: 31116: 31115: 31112: 31111: 31104: 31097: 31093: 31092: 31089: 31088: 31086: 31085: 31080: 31075: 31070: 31065: 31060: 31054: 31052: 31048: 31047: 31044: 31043: 31041: 31040: 31031: 31029: 31025: 31024: 31022: 31021: 31015: 31010: 31005: 31000: 30998:Indo-Pakistani 30995: 30990: 30983: 30978: 30973: 30967: 30961: 30953: 30952: 30949: 30948: 30946: 30945: 30940: 30935: 30930: 30925: 30920: 30915: 30910: 30905: 30899: 30894: 30889: 30881: 30876: 30869: 30864: 30858: 30853: 30848: 30843: 30837: 30832: 30827: 30822: 30817: 30812: 30805: 30803: 30797: 30796: 30794: 30793: 30787: 30781: 30775: 30769: 30763: 30757: 30751: 30746: 30741: 30736: 30731: 30726: 30719: 30714: 30709: 30704: 30699: 30697:Piaroa–Saliban 30694: 30687: 30682: 30677: 30672: 30667: 30662: 30657: 30652: 30647: 30642: 30635: 30630: 30625: 30620: 30615: 30610: 30605: 30598: 30593: 30586: 30581: 30576: 30571: 30566: 30561: 30556: 30549: 30544: 30539: 30533: 30527: 30519: 30518: 30515: 30514: 30512: 30511: 30506: 30501: 30493: 30491: 30487: 30486: 30484: 30483: 30476: 30469: 30464: 30462:Tequistlatecan 30459: 30452: 30447: 30442: 30435: 30428: 30423: 30417: 30411: 30405: 30404: 30401: 30400: 30398: 30397: 30392: 30387: 30382: 30375: 30370: 30363: 30356: 30349: 30342: 30335: 30330: 30325: 30320: 30315: 30308: 30300: 30298: 30294: 30293: 30291: 30290: 30285: 30278: 30271: 30266: 30259: 30254: 30249: 30244: 30239: 30232: 30227: 30222: 30217: 30210: 30203: 30198: 30191: 30186: 30179: 30174: 30169: 30162: 30155: 30148: 30141: 30134: 30129: 30122: 30114: 30108: 30100: 30099: 30096: 30095: 30093: 30092: 30087: 30081: 30073: 30071: 30067: 30066: 30064: 30063: 30053: 30048: 30041: 30036: 30031: 30026: 30020: 30013: 30008: 30001: 29994: 29989: 29985:Marrku–Wurrugu 29981: 29976: 29971: 29966: 29959: 29952: 29944: 29939: 29932: 29926: 29920: 29919: 29916: 29915: 29913: 29912: 29907: 29899: 29893: 29887: 29882: 29877: 29872: 29867: 29862: 29857: 29851: 29845: 29840: 29834: 29832: 29828: 29827: 29825: 29824: 29818: 29812: 29807: 29802: 29797: 29792: 29787: 29782: 29775: 29770: 29763: 29758: 29753: 29748: 29741: 29736: 29731: 29724: 29719: 29714: 29709: 29702: 29697: 29692: 29687: 29682: 29677: 29672: 29667: 29662: 29657: 29652: 29647: 29642: 29637: 29632: 29627: 29622: 29617: 29612: 29607: 29602: 29595: 29589: 29583: 29572: 29571: 29568: 29567: 29565: 29564: 29556: 29549: 29543: 29538: 29530: 29525: 29517: 29510: 29503: 29498: 29492: 29490: 29486: 29485: 29483: 29482: 29476: 29470: 29464: 29458: 29452: 29446: 29441: 29436: 29429: 29422: 29415: 29410: 29403: 29398: 29393: 29386: 29381: 29376: 29369: 29364: 29359: 29354: 29347: 29344:Hurro-Urartian 29340: 29333: 29328: 29323: 29316: 29311: 29304: 29297: 29292: 29284: 29278: 29263: 29262: 29259: 29258: 29256: 29255: 29249: 29243: 29238: 29231: 29226: 29220: 29218: 29214: 29213: 29211: 29210: 29204: 29198: 29192: 29186: 29180: 29175: 29167: 29160: 29155: 29150: 29143: 29135: 29129: 29123: 29122: 29115: 29114: 29107: 29100: 29092: 29086: 29085: 29084: 29083: 29074: 29059: 29049: 29043: 29033: 29023: 29008: 29007: 29006: 29000: 28994: 28960: 28949: 28948: 28947: 28933: 28928: 28923: 28918: 28908: 28907: 28906: 28893:Chapter VI of 28890: 28885: 28871: 28870: 28869: 28853: 28852:External links 28850: 28848: 28847: 28842: 28838: 28824: 28803: 28792: 28790: 28787: 28785: 28784: 28771: 28764: 28757: 28750: 28737: 28730: 28723: 28710: 28700: 28690: 28680: 28677: 28662: 28641:10.1086/369755 28619: 28600: 28597: 28590: 28575: 28538: 28519: 28512: 28505: 28490: 28483: 28468: 28453: 28447: 28432: 28401: 28384: 28377: 28370: 28363: 28350: 28316: 28310: 28297: 28278: 28271: 28264: 28254: 28245: 28234: 28227: 28225: 28222: 28220: 28219: 28194: 28167: 28139: 28111: 28102: 28093: 28084: 28075: 28066: 28052: 28043: 28029: 28020: 28011: 28002: 27993: 27984: 27975: 27966: 27959: 27947:Rubio (2007). 27939: 27930: 27921: 27912: 27903: 27894: 27881: 27868: 27865:. p. 138. 27853: 27840:10.2307/592549 27811: 27802: 27783:10.2307/592740 27757: 27750: 27730: 27718: 27709: 27700: 27691: 27682: 27673: 27664: 27655: 27646: 27637: 27628: 27619: 27607: 27598: 27589: 27580: 27571: 27562: 27553: 27544: 27535: 27526: 27517: 27508: 27499: 27490: 27481: 27472: 27463: 27454: 27445: 27436: 27427: 27418: 27409: 27397: 27388: 27379: 27367: 27355: 27346: 27337: 27328: 27319: 27310: 27301: 27292: 27283: 27267: 27258: 27249: 27240: 27231: 27222: 27210: 27196: 27187: 27178: 27169: 27157: 27141: 27132: 27130:Keetman (2017) 27123: 27105: 27091: 27082: 27073: 27064: 27055: 27046: 27037: 27028: 27019: 27010: 27001: 26989: 26980: 26971: 26962: 26953: 26944: 26935: 26926: 26917: 26908: 26883: 26874: 26862: 26853: 26841: 26832: 26823: 26814: 26802: 26793: 26781: 26772: 26763: 26754: 26745: 26736: 26727: 26718: 26706: 26697: 26688: 26679: 26670: 26661: 26652: 26643: 26634: 26625: 26616: 26607: 26598: 26589: 26580: 26571: 26547: 26538: 26529: 26511: 26502: 26493: 26484: 26475: 26466: 26457: 26448: 26439: 26430: 26421: 26412: 26400: 26388: 26379: 26370: 26361: 26348: 26336: 26323: 26309: 26299: 26290: 26278: 26269: 26260: 26251: 26242: 26233: 26224: 26215: 26206: 26194: 26185: 26173: 26161: 26149: 26140: 26131: 26122: 26109: 26097: 26088: 26079: 26070: 26061: 26052: 26043: 26034: 25989: 25980: 25971: 25962: 25953: 25944: 25935: 25926: 25917: 25908: 25899: 25890: 25881: 25872: 25863: 25854: 25845: 25836: 25822: 25810: 25801: 25792: 25782: 25770: 25756: 25746: 25732: 25723: 25714: 25705: 25696: 25687: 25678: 25669: 25652: 25634: 25625: 25616: 25607: 25598: 25586: 25577: 25568: 25559: 25550: 25522: 25510: 25501: 25492: 25483: 25474: 25465: 25453: 25444: 25435: 25423: 25414: 25405: 25396: 25387: 25378: 25369: 25360: 25348: 25339: 25330: 25321: 25312: 25303: 25294: 25285: 25276: 25267: 25253: 25244: 25232: 25223: 25205: 25196: 25187: 25178: 25169: 25160: 25151: 25142: 25133: 25121: 25112: 25100: 25091: 25082: 25073: 25064: 25055: 25046: 25037: 25025: 25012: 25003: 24994: 24985: 24976: 24967: 24958: 24949: 24940: 24931: 24919: 24907: 24898: 24889: 24880: 24868: 24859: 24850: 24841: 24818: 24809: 24788: 24779: 24770: 24761: 24752: 24743: 24731: 24722: 24713: 24704: 24695: 24683: 24670: 24650: 24641: 24632: 24623: 24614: 24605: 24596: 24587: 24578: 24569: 24560: 24551: 24542: 24533: 24524: 24515: 24506: 24497: 24488: 24479: 24470: 24461: 24452: 24443: 24434: 24425: 24413: 24404: 24390: 24381: 24372: 24363: 24357:107: 173–186. 24343: 24334: 24325: 24316: 24307: 24298: 24289: 24280: 24268: 24256: 24247: 24238: 24229: 24220: 24211: 24202: 24193: 24179: 24165: 24145: 24136: 24127: 24118: 24106: 24097: 24088: 24079: 24070: 24061: 24052: 24043: 24034: 24022: 24013: 23997: 23988: 23974: 23965: 23956: 23947: 23938: 23928: 23919: 23910: 23901: 23880: 23871: 23862: 23850: 23838: 23826: 23817: 23805: 23791: 23779: 23767: 23751: 23742: 23730: 23721: 23712: 23703: 23691: 23682: 23673: 23664: 23655: 23643: 23634: 23609: 23587: 23558: 23543: 23534: 23525: 23516: 23507: 23498: 23489: 23480: 23466: 23455: 23446: 23437: 23428: 23419: 23410: 23401: 23388: 23386:53 (1959) 104. 23375: 23366: 23357: 23348: 23339: 23323: 23314: 23305: 23291: 23278: 23265: 23249: 23240: 23231: 23222: 23212: 23203: 23189: 23180: 23149: 23135: 23113: 23104: 23095: 23086: 23080: 23064: 23032: 23023: 23014: 23005: 22996: 22966: 22950: 22941: 22935: 22923: 22914: 22902: 22871: 22859: 22847: 22816: 22802: 22793: 22780: 22767: 22751: 22744: 22724: 22715: 22702: 22693: 22670: 22633: 22592: 22565:(1999): 1–16. 22549: 22540: 22535:Available in: 22517: 22502: 22495: 22477: 22470: 22452: 22435: 22427: 22409: 22379: 22357:10.1086/201193 22351:(2): 215–225. 22335: 22326: 22316: 22309: 22291: 22272: 22256: 22253:. p. 260. 22241: 22226: 22208: 22193: 22184: 22173: 22162: 22143: 22131: 22120: 22104: 22086: 22077: 22061: 22047: 22038: 22026: 22017: 22008: 21999: 21990: 21981: 21968: 21954: 21945: 21929: 21920: 21903: 21894: 21882: 21862: 21845: 21833: 21812: 21803: 21794: 21785: 21771: 21762: 21738: 21719:(3): 138–141. 21703: 21696: 21678: 21665: 21649: 21625: 21616: 21602: 21577: 21560: 21558: 21555: 21552: 21551: 21547: 21532: 21518: 21508: 21499: 21486: 21457: 21432: 21423: 21414: 21407: 21400: 21390: 21373: 21359: 21348: 21341: 21330: 21320: 21314: 21299: 21289: 21275: 21264: 21257: 21246: 21236: 21222: 21211: 21204: 21193: 21183: 21170: 21153: 21147: 21140: 21130: 21121: 21112: 21098: 21091: 21081: 21072: 21055: 21038: 21024: 21015: 21005: 20988: 20979: 20964: 20957: 20941: 20911: 20901: 20895:The allomorph 20888: 20879: 20876:preceding' -e- 20860: 20853: 20841: 20835:The allomorph 20823: 20813: 20803: 20794: 20757: 20740: 20731: 20722: 20708: 20695: 20678: 20672: 20665: 20655: 20646: 20636: 20630: 20616: 20607: 20598: 20589: 20582: 20571: 20560: 20549: 20536: 20527: 20518: 20505: 20496: 20487: 20477: 20460: 20451: 20445: 20435: 20422: 20413: 20392: 20377:"our", 𒍪𒉈𒉈 20353: 20334: 20324: 20314:"our", 𒍪𒉈𒉈 20275: 20266: 20233: 20224: 20218: 20214: 20206: 20196: 20189: 20185: 20174: 20158:transliterated 20145: 20135: 20125: 20119: 20111: 20104: 20093: 20086: 20079: 20061: 20051: 20044: 20029: 19977: 19958:"harbour", 𒆤 19950: 19939: 19932: 19925: 19899: 19889: 19878: 19867: 19844: 19818: 19812: 19805: 19798: 19791: 19784: 19777: 19738: 19727: 19720: 19670: 19649: 19635: 19634: 19632: 19629: 19627: 19624: 19623: 19622: 19617: 19612: 19607: 19600: 19597: 19580: 19576: 19563: 19555: 19547: 19542: 19536: 19530: 19524: 19521: 19520: 19504: 19500: 19496: 19492: 19488: 19484: 19474: 19468: 19463: 19457: 19449: 19443: 19437: 19429: 19424: 19418: 19413: 19409: 19403: 19400: 19399: 19391: 19387: 19383: 19379: 19375: 19371: 19367: 19363: 19359: 19349: 19345: 19339: 19331: 19323: 19317: 19313: 19307: 19302: 19298: 19292: 19284: 19279: 19273: 19265: 19259: 19255: 19249: 19241: 19238: 19237: 19228: 19224: 19220: 19216: 19212: 19199: 19191: 19183: 19177: 19171: 19163: 19158: 19154: 19150: 19144: 19136: 19130: 19124: 19121: 19120: 19107: 19103: 19099: 19095: 19084: 19078: 19073: 19067: 19059: 19053: 19047: 19041: 19035: 19032: 19031: 19018: 19014: 19010: 18997: 18992: 18991:dirig-dirig-še 18986: 18978: 18970: 18965: 18959: 18954: 18948: 18940: 18937: 18936: 18916: 18912: 18908: 18904: 18900: 18896: 18886: 18882: 18876: 18868: 18860: 18854: 18848: 18843: 18837: 18832: 18826: 18818: 18810: 18805: 18799: 18791: 18783: 18780: 18779: 18758: 18754: 18750: 18746: 18742: 18729: 18721: 18715: 18709: 18703: 18697: 18689: 18681: 18676: 18672: 18666: 18658: 18650: 18642: 18637: 18631: 18628: 18627: 18593: 18590: 18588: 18585: 18582: 18581: 18578: 18576: 18574: 18572: 18570: 18568: 18566: 18564: 18554: 18550: 18539: 18535: 18534: 18531: 18520: 18509: 18498: 18487: 18485: 18475: 18471: 18461: 18457: 18447: 18443: 18432: 18428: 18427: 18424: 18391: 18367: 18343: 18333: 18331: 18308: 18276: 18252: 18243: 18226: 18222: 18221: 18218: 18194: 18183: 18172: 18145: 18143: 18109: 18098: 18062: 18039: 18016: 18012: 18011: 18008: 17985: 17962: 17935: 17913: 17911: 17897: 17861: 17837: 17810: 17777: 17773: 17772: 17769: 17735: 17711: 17687: 17676: 17674: 17664: 17627: 17604: 17580: 17569: 17532: 17528: 17527: 17524: 17502: 17479: 17468: 17445: 17443: 17409: 17376: 17341: 17318: 17314: 17313: 17310: 17286: 17262: 17238: 17227: 17225: 17191: 17157: 17133: 17124: 17096: 17092: 17091: 17088: 17062: 17048: 17034: 17019: 16984: 16972: 16970: 16947: 16924: 16901: 16890: 16854: 16850: 16849: 16846: 16823: 16814: 16797: 16786: 16759: 16757: 16734: 16697: 16660: 16638: 16634: 16633: 16630: 16607: 16585: 16562: 16539: 16537: 16515: 16492: 16468: 16434: 16430: 16429: 16426: 16415: 16404: 16393: 16382: 16380: 16370: 16348: 16325: 16300: 16273: 16240: 16236: 16235: 16232: 16209: 16198: 16187: 16164: 16162: 16152: 16129: 16105: 16094: 16054: 16050: 16049: 16046: 16036: 16013: 15989: 15967: 15965: 15955: 15941: 15927: 15914: 15878: 15867: 15854: 15817: 15782: 15760: 15756: 15755: 15752: 15729: 15705: 15694: 15672: 15670: 15659: 15622: 15599: 15565: 15542: 15538: 15537: 15534: 15511: 15488: 15464: 15442: 15440: 15406: 15372: 15337: 15303: 15299: 15298: 15296: 15262: 15228: 15204: 15182: 15180: 15148: 15114: 15090: 15068: 15065: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15056: 15053: 15050: 15048: 15045: 15042: 15039: 15036: 15024: 2600 BC 15002: 14996: 14993: 14992: 14991: 14980: 14975: 14970: 14967: 14962: 14957: 14954: 14932: 14931: 14928: 14925: 14920: 14913: 14906: 14901: 14894: 14887: 14880: 14877: 14874: 14863: 14860: 14857: 14850: 14841: 14838: 14837: 14836: 14828: 14813: 14805: 14802: 14801: 14800: 14785: 14774: 14763: 14722: 14719: 14713: 14706: 14687: 14686: 14683: 14678: 14674: 14669: 14668: 14665: 14659: 14652: 14651: 14648: 14638: 14631: 14630: 14628: 14625: 14614: 14613: 14610: 14605: 14597: 14587: 14582: 14576: 14575: 14572: 14568: 14559: 14549: 14544: 14538: 14537: 14534: 14530: 14521: 14511: 14506: 14500: 14499: 14496: 14487: 14483: 14475: 14470: 14459: 14458: 14455: 14452: 14449: 14446: 14412: 14409: 14387: 14380: 14342: 14321: 14318: 14311: 14304: 14293: 14258: 14251: 14240: 14236: 14229: 14221: 14214: 14207: 14200: 14193: 14163: 14158: 14157: 14138: 14119: 14118: 14103: 14098: 14091: 14084: 14077: 14069: 14068: 14067:"living thing" 14063: 14059: 14052: 14041: 14036: 14030: 14019: 14014: 13999: 13990: 13979: 13960:Derivation by 13957: 13956:Word formation 13954: 13948: 13933: 13926: 13889: 13874: 13851: 13843: 13839: 13827: 13823: 13797: 13791: 13788: 13778: 13774: 13766: 13755: 13731: 13727: 13714: 13711: 13705:"if" and 𒂗𒈾 13686: 13674: 13647: 13643: 13628: 13620: 13593: 13575: 13571: 13564: 13556: 13552: 13492: 13484: 13476: 13470: 13465: 13464: 13460: 13459: 13450: 13446: 13439: 13433: 13424: 13415: 13411: 13390: 13386: 13371: 13367: 13360:"year" and 𒌗 13350: 13349: 13333: 13329: 13323: 13322: 13313: 13309: 13304: 13299: 13295: 13291: 13284: 13279: 13273: 13267: 13263: 13256: 13251: 13234: 13230: 13221: 13208: 13204: 13181: 13177: 13132: 13124: 13116: 13110: 13106: 13102: 13097: 13096: 13083: 13080: 13079: 13078: 13073: 13064: 13057: 13051: 13048:𒀀𒅗...𒀀𒅗 X 13046: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13023: 13007: 12999: 12991: 12977: 12974: 12972: 12969: 12968: 12967: 12961: 12955: 12935: 12934: 12933: 12932: 12921: 12912: 12904: 12899: 12892: 12887: 12879: 12878: 12877: 12876: 12870: 12865: 12861: 12857: 12852: 12836: 12835: 12834: 12833: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12813: 12807: 12802: 12798: 12791: 12776: 12775: 12774: 12773: 12768: 12763: 12760:𒋳 g̃eš ...tag 12756: 12751: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12733: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12698: 12689:compound verbs 12680: 12677: 12669: 12668: 12657: 12638: 12618: 12615: 12538: 12537: 12534: 12527: 12494: 12491: 12477: 12469: 12465: 12458: 12450: 12440: 12433: 12411: 12407: 12399: 12379: 12371: 12359: 12338: 12331: 12324: 12317: 12316: 12310: 12304: 12296: 12291: 12287: 12286: 12281: 12276: 12270: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12255: 12249: 12245: 12244: 12241: 12238: 12223: 12220: 12219: 12218: 12212: 12194: 12185: 12174: 12170: 12162: 12122: 12115: 12111: 12095: 12082: 12073:"have" and 𒍪 12064: 12056: 12047: 12042: 12026: 12018: 12011: 12008: 12002: 11994: 11986: 11966: 11943: 11934: 11927:donnez-le-lui! 11917: 11916: 11869: 11843: 11829: 11803: 11789: 11781: 11775: 11771: 11767:𒌦𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀊𒍢𒂗 11766: 11765: 11763: 11734: 11726: 11700: 11686: 11660: 11647: 11641: 11637: 11632: 11631: 11628: 11627: 11592: 11578: 11552: 11538: 11530: 11524: 11519: 11518: 11516: 11481: 11473: 11447: 11433: 11407: 11394: 11388: 11383: 11382: 11379: 11378: 11375: 11350: 11347: 11240: 11239: 11209: 11186: 11183: 11173: 11169: 11161: 11141: 11137: 11121: 11117: 11073: 11069: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11047: 11044: 11041: 11040: 11039:learn, inform 11037: 11032: 11025: 11024: 11021: 11016: 11012: 11007: 11006: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10988: 10984: 10980: 10973: 10967: 10966: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10942: 10941: 10938: 10934: 10930: 10926: 10920: 10919: 10916: 10912: 10908: 10904: 10900: 10895: 10894: 10891: 10886: 10879: 10878: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10863: 10859: 10853: 10852: 10849: 10845: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10815: 10814: 10811: 10807: 10803: 10799: 10795: 10789: 10788: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10763: 10762: 10759: 10754: 10747: 10746: 10743: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10727: 10721: 10720: 10717: 10712: 10708: 10702: 10701: 10698: 10693: 10689: 10685: 10678: 10677: 10674: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10655: 10654: 10651: 10647: 10643: 10639: 10635: 10629: 10628: 10625: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10609: 10603: 10602: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10577: 10576: 10573: 10569: 10562: 10558: 10554: 10548: 10547: 10544: 10537:𒅆𒌨𒄷 ḫulu-ḫu 10534: 10527: 10526: 10523: 10518: 10511: 10510: 10507: 10503: 10496: 10491: 10484: 10483: 10480: 10476: 10469: 10465: 10461: 10455: 10454: 10451: 10447: 10443: 10439: 10435: 10430: 10429: 10426: 10422: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10401: 10400: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10378: 10377: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10353: 10352: 10349: 10344: 10338: 10337: 10334: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10316: 10315: 10312: 10308: 10304: 10300: 10296: 10291: 10290: 10287: 10282: 10265: 10264: 10261: 10257: 10250: 10245: 10241: 10235: 10234: 10231: 10225: 10221: 10216: 10209: 10208: 10205: 10202: 10198: 10193: 10189: 10183: 10182: 10179: 10175: 10170: 10166: 10157: 10151: 10144: 10143: 10140: 10125: 10121: 10115: 10114: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10093: 10092: 10089: 10084: 10067: 10066: 10063: 10059: 10054: 10050: 10044: 10043: 10040: 10036: 10031: 10027: 10021: 10020: 10017: 10013: 10006: 10001: 9992: 9986: 9985: 9982: 9978: 9973: 9966: 9965: 9962: 9959: 9947: 9946: 9937: 9926: 9895: 9886: 9881: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9837: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9821: 9812: 9808: 9801: 9784: 9771: 9763: 9729: 9722:stem (e.g. 𒁺 9714: 9710: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9665: 9662: 9655: 9652: 9649: 9646: 9643: 9640: 9623: 9622: 9619: 9616: 9615:-/ne/-, -/b/- 9613: 9612:-/n/-...-/eš/ 9610: 9607: 9604: 9600: 9599: 9596: 9593: 9590: 9587: 9584: 9581: 9577: 9576: 9573: 9570: 9567: 9564: 9561: 9558: 9554: 9553: 9550: 9547: 9544: 9541: 9538: 9535: 9534:3rd inanimate 9531: 9530: 9527: 9524: 9521: 9518: 9515: 9512: 9505: 9504: 9501: 9498: 9495: 9492: 9489: 9486: 9482: 9481: 9478: 9475: 9472: 9469: 9466: 9463: 9459: 9458: 9455: 9452: 9451:Direct object 9449: 9446: 9443: 9442:Direct object 9440: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9269: 9266: 9255: 9254: 9246: 9241: 9231: 9224: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9209: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9194: 9193: 9190: 9180: 9176: 9175: 9169: 9165: 9164: 9158: 9154: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9132: 9129: 9128: 9127: 9112: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9080: 9076: 9043: 9042: 9021: 9017: 8995: 8991: 8987: 8959: 8956: 8955: 8954: 8945: 8941: 8925: 8924: 8915: 8910: 8896: 8895: 8872: 8871: 8860: 8844: 8841: 8828: 8802: 8801: 8790: 8784: 8771: 8770: 8759: 8747:is seen in: 8741: 8740: 8731: 8725: 8711: 8710: 8705: 8694: 8669: 8668: 8663: 8652: 8614: 8611: 8594: 8591: 8540: 8539: 8525: 8511: 8508: 8505: 8502: 8498: 8497: 8483: 8469: 8466: 8463: 8460: 8458:"at" / causee 8451: 8450: 8436: 8422: 8419: 8416: 8413: 8404: 8403: 8400: 8386: 8383: 8380: 8377: 8368: 8367: 8364: 8358: 8357:verbal prefix 8355: 8349: 8343: 8331: 8330: 8326: 8321: 8310: 8303: 8288: 8277: 8270: 8263: 8256: 8251: 8231: 8228: 8191: 8165: 8151: 8137: 8123: 8097: 8084: 8079: 8076: 8071: 8070: 8041: 8040: 8034: 8031: 8025: 8017: 8007: 8001: 7993: 7989: 7988: 7985: 7982: 7979: 7976: 7973: 7961: 7958: 7947: 7919: 7903: 7902: 7895: 7888: 7887: 7874: 7870: 7869: 7857: 7852: 7848: 7847: 7844: 7841: 7837: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7825: 7824: 7796: 7768: 7760: 7756: 7755: 7748: 7740: 7723: 7716: 7705: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7694: 7683: 7678: 7648: 7645: 7630: 7600: 7599: 7569: 7561: 7551: 7538: 7528:E.g. 𒅎𒈪𒅔𒁺 7526: 7525: 7499: 7483: 7443: 7428: 7418: 7410: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7396: 7393: 7390: 7347: 7342: 7336: 7335: 7329: 7321: 7309: 7298: 7292:E.g. 𒈠𒊏𒀭𒁺 7290: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7268: 7262:E.g. 𒈪𒉌𒅔𒁺 7260: 7259: 7258: 7257: 7220: 7212: 7211: 7205: 7181: 7161: 7146: 7138: 7137: 7081: 7073: 7072: 7055: 7009: 7001: 7000: 6986:variant: 𒂊 e- 6979: 6944: 6941: 6919: 6911: 6910: 6900: 6879: 6864: 6860: 6845: 6844: 6824: 6813: 6805: 6804: 6767: 6756: 6748: 6747: 6689: 6680: 6679: 6670: 6659: 6643: 6632: 6624: 6623: 6616: 6610: 6595: 6577: 6570: 6551: 6542: 6532: 6527: 6521: 6520: 6514: 6502: 6494: 6486: 6478: 6445: 6430: 6423: 6412: 6411: 6398: 6386: 6374: 6358: 6331: 6326: 6325: 6309: 6308:Modal prefixes 6306: 6275: 6271: 6256: 6230: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6188: 6174: 6160: 6146: 6133: 6127: 6123: 6119:𒉡𒌒𒅆𒂊𒄄𒄄𒀀 6118: 6117: 6064: 6056: 6030: 6016: 5990: 5976: 5964: 5958: 5953: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5912: 5906: 5897: 5894: 5888: 5885: 5876: 5864: 5857: 5856: 5850: 5844: 5841: 5834: 5833: 5830: 5827: 5824: 5821: 5818: 5815: 5812: 5809: 5803: 5786:modal prefixes 5748: 5741: 5689: 5679: 5675: 5670: 5659: 5652: 5648: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5607: 5595: 5591: 5556: 5549: 5528: 5509: 5498: 5491: 5476: 5455: 5454: 5451: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5428: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5414: 5411: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5395: 5392: 5379: 5374: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5353: 5350: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5337: 5334: 5327: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5306: 5303: 5292: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5268: 5259: 5254: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5230: 5224: 5219: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5175: 5172: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5159: 5156: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5076: 5067: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5028: 5019: 5015: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4982: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4872: 4868: 4867: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4834: 4831: 4823: 4822: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4793: 4789: 4782: 4765: 4762: 4737: 4726: 4719: 4696: 4688: 4640: 4632: 4606: 4603: 4593: 4585: 4578: 4574: 4563: 4549: 4542: 4534: 4522: 4514: 4491: 4484: 4469: 4462: 4447: 4421: 4414: 4395: 4391: 4380: 4357:"that" and 𒊑 4322: 4314: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4262: 4257: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4237: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4219: 4206: 4202: 4201: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4146: 4143: 4128: 4125: 4117: 4116: 4109: 4097: 4092: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4062: 4053: 4044: 4043: 4042: 4041: 4020: 4015: 4006: 4001: 3992: 3987: 3977: 3964: 3957: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3940: 3929: 3914: 3909: 3898: 3885: 3826: 3813: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3786: 3785: 3756: 3743: 3737: 3732: 3731: 3710: 3707: 3643: 3635: 3627: 3621: 3617:𒉺𒇻𒇻𒋠𒅗𒆤𒉈 3616: 3615: 3579: 3571: 3563: 3557: 3552: 3551: 3517: 3513: 3495: 3494: 3491: 3485: 3482: 3475: 3474: 3471: 3464: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3423: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3407: 3401: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3366: 3359: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3343: 3336: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3316: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3207: 3203: 3166: 3158: 3150: 3144: 3140:𒀳𒉺𒇻𒋗𒄩𒂊𒉈 3139: 3138: 3097:ba-dab-a-(e)ne 3095: 3087: 3079: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061:𒇽𒂍𒀀𒁀𒆪𒁀𒉈 3060: 3059: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3000: 2996: 2985: 2982: 2965: 2938: 2935: 2867: 2859: 2853: 2848: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2755: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2725:split ergative 2705: 2702: 2691: 2684: 2681:determinatives 2667: 2656: 2648: 2610: 2602: 2591: 2584: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2538:morphophonemic 2533: 2530: 2483: 2480: 2435: 2431: 2421: 2397: 2390: 2379:rule based on 2320: 2317: 2305: 2297: 2236: 2218: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2205: 2188: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2136: 2115:= to Sumerian 2098: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2023: 2020:alveolar nasal 2005: 2002:bilabial nasal 1980: 1934: 1933: 1932: 1914: 1896: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1843: 1825: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1774: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1754: 1746: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1682: 1674: 1666: 1658: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1647: 1639: 1637: 1629: 1621: 1617: 1616: 1609: 1601: 1599: 1591: 1583: 1580: 1574: 1573: 1571: 1563: 1561: 1553: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1500: 1497: 1479: 1476: 1435: 1357:Charles Fossey 1216:archaeological 1209:, was able to 1174:came from the 1148:𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪 1126: 1125: 1116: 1115: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1053: 1051: 1044: 1038: 1037:Historiography 1035: 981: 978: 892: 889: 886: 885: 836: 834: 827: 815: 814:Writing system 812: 717: 716:Classification 714: 685:(cf. Japanese 678:Kassite rulers 533: 532: 522: 519: 518: 517: 510: 486: 483: 467: 451: 411: 408: 353:Assyriologists 278: 257: 256: 243:, you may see 229: 228: 221: 213: 212: 205: 200: 197: 196: 189: 181: 180: 171: 163: 162: 161:Language codes 158: 157: 152: 148:Writing system 145: 142: 141: 140: 139: 136: 133: 128: 124: 123: 118: 116: 109: 106: 105: 97:Attested from 95: 91: 90: 80: 76: 75: 66: 65:Native to 62: 61: 53: 52: 47: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 32821: 32810: 32807: 32805: 32802: 32800: 32797: 32795: 32792: 32790: 32787: 32785: 32782: 32780: 32777: 32775: 32772: 32771: 32769: 32752: 32748: 32745: 32741: 32740: 32736: 32730: 32727: 32725: 32722: 32720: 32717: 32715: 32712: 32710: 32707: 32705: 32702: 32700: 32697: 32695: 32692: 32690: 32687: 32685: 32682: 32681: 32679: 32677: 32673: 32663: 32660: 32658: 32655: 32653: 32650: 32648: 32645: 32643: 32640: 32638: 32635: 32634: 32632: 32630: 32626: 32620: 32617: 32615: 32612: 32610: 32607: 32605: 32602: 32598: 32595: 32593: 32590: 32589: 32588: 32585: 32584: 32582: 32580: 32576: 32570: 32567: 32565: 32564:Eskimo–Uralic 32562: 32560: 32557: 32555: 32552: 32550: 32547: 32545: 32542: 32540: 32537: 32535: 32532: 32530: 32527: 32525: 32522: 32520: 32517: 32515: 32512: 32510: 32507: 32505: 32502: 32500: 32497: 32495: 32492: 32488: 32485: 32483: 32480: 32478: 32475: 32474: 32473: 32470: 32468: 32465: 32463: 32460: 32459: 32456: 32453: 32449: 32439: 32436: 32433: 32432: 32428: 32426: 32425: 32421: 32419: 32418: 32414: 32413: 32411: 32409: 32404: 32398: 32395: 32393: 32390: 32388: 32385: 32383: 32380: 32378: 32375: 32374: 32372: 32369: 32368:Paleosiberian 32364: 32361: 32359: 32355: 32349: 32348: 32344: 32342: 32339: 32337: 32334: 32332: 32329: 32328: 32326: 32323: 32319: 32313: 32310: 32308: 32305: 32303: 32300: 32298: 32295: 32293: 32292: 32288: 32286: 32285: 32281: 32279: 32278: 32274: 32272: 32271: 32267: 32265: 32264: 32263:Austroasiatic 32260: 32258: 32257: 32253: 32252: 32250: 32248: 32244: 32237: 32236: 32232: 32230: 32227: 32225: 32222: 32220: 32217: 32215: 32214: 32213:Austroasiatic 32210: 32208: 32207: 32203: 32201: 32200: 32196: 32194: 32193: 32192:Indo-European 32189: 32188: 32186: 32184: 32180: 32172: 32169: 32167: 32164: 32163: 32162: 32161: 32157: 32155: 32152: 32151: 32149: 32147: 32143: 32137: 32136: 32132: 32130: 32129: 32125: 32123: 32122: 32118: 32116: 32115: 32111: 32109: 32108: 32104: 32102: 32101: 32097: 32095: 32094: 32090: 32088: 32087: 32083: 32081: 32080: 32076: 32074: 32073: 32069: 32067: 32066: 32065:Indo-European 32062: 32061: 32059: 32057: 32053: 32047: 32046: 32042: 32040: 32039: 32035: 32033: 32032: 32028: 32026: 32025: 32021: 32019: 32018: 32014: 32012: 32011: 32007: 32005: 32004: 32000: 31998: 31997: 31993: 31991: 31990: 31986: 31984: 31983: 31979: 31977: 31976: 31972: 31970: 31969: 31965: 31963: 31960: 31958: 31957: 31953: 31951: 31950: 31946: 31944: 31943: 31942:Indo-European 31939: 31938: 31936: 31934: 31930: 31926: 31922: 31915: 31910: 31908: 31903: 31901: 31896: 31895: 31892: 31880: 31877: 31875: 31872: 31870: 31867: 31865: 31862: 31860: 31857: 31855: 31852: 31851: 31849: 31845: 31839: 31836: 31834: 31831: 31829: 31826: 31824: 31821: 31819: 31816: 31814: 31811: 31809: 31806: 31805: 31803: 31799: 31793: 31790: 31788: 31785: 31783: 31780: 31779: 31777: 31773: 31767: 31764: 31762: 31759: 31757: 31754: 31752: 31749: 31747: 31744: 31742: 31739: 31737: 31734: 31732: 31729: 31727: 31724: 31722: 31719: 31717: 31714: 31712: 31709: 31707: 31704: 31702: 31699: 31697: 31694: 31692: 31689: 31687: 31684: 31683: 31681: 31677: 31671: 31668: 31666: 31663: 31661: 31658: 31656: 31653: 31651: 31648: 31646: 31643: 31641: 31638: 31636: 31633: 31631: 31628: 31626: 31623: 31621: 31618: 31616: 31613: 31611: 31608: 31606: 31603: 31601: 31598: 31596: 31593: 31591: 31588: 31586: 31583: 31582: 31580: 31578: 31574: 31564: 31561: 31559: 31556: 31554: 31551: 31549: 31546: 31544: 31541: 31539: 31536: 31534: 31531: 31529: 31526: 31524: 31521: 31519: 31516: 31514: 31511: 31509: 31506: 31504: 31501: 31499: 31496: 31494: 31491: 31489: 31486: 31484: 31481: 31479: 31476: 31475: 31473: 31471: 31467: 31461: 31458: 31456: 31453: 31451: 31448: 31446: 31443: 31441: 31438: 31436: 31432: 31429: 31427: 31424: 31422: 31419: 31417: 31414: 31412: 31409: 31407: 31404: 31402: 31399: 31397: 31394: 31392: 31389: 31387: 31384: 31383: 31381: 31379: 31375: 31372: 31368: 31363: 31349: 31346: 31344: 31341: 31339: 31336: 31334: 31331: 31329: 31326: 31324: 31321: 31319: 31316: 31314: 31311: 31309: 31306: 31304: 31301: 31299: 31296: 31294: 31291: 31289: 31286: 31284: 31281: 31279: 31276: 31274: 31271: 31269: 31266: 31264: 31261: 31259: 31256: 31254: 31251: 31249: 31246: 31245: 31243: 31239: 31233: 31230: 31228: 31225: 31223: 31220: 31216: 31213: 31211: 31208: 31207: 31206: 31203: 31201: 31198: 31196: 31195:Syrian Desert 31193: 31191: 31188: 31186: 31183: 31181: 31178: 31176: 31173: 31172: 31170: 31166: 31163: 31161: 31157: 31153: 31146: 31141: 31139: 31134: 31132: 31127: 31126: 31123: 31109: 31105: 31102: 31098: 31095: 31094: 31090: 31084: 31081: 31079: 31076: 31074: 31071: 31069: 31066: 31064: 31061: 31059: 31056: 31055: 31053: 31049: 31039: 31038: 31033: 31032: 31030: 31026: 31019: 31016: 31014: 31011: 31009: 31008:Original Thai 31006: 31004: 31001: 30999: 30996: 30994: 30991: 30989: 30988: 30984: 30982: 30979: 30977: 30974: 30972: 30969: 30968: 30965: 30962: 30960: 30954: 30944: 30941: 30939: 30936: 30934: 30931: 30929: 30926: 30924: 30921: 30919: 30916: 30914: 30911: 30909: 30906: 30903: 30900: 30898: 30895: 30893: 30890: 30888: 30886: 30882: 30880: 30877: 30875: 30874: 30870: 30868: 30865: 30862: 30859: 30857: 30854: 30852: 30849: 30847: 30844: 30841: 30838: 30836: 30833: 30831: 30828: 30826: 30823: 30821: 30818: 30816: 30813: 30810: 30807: 30806: 30804: 30798: 30791: 30788: 30785: 30782: 30779: 30776: 30773: 30772:Hibito–Cholón 30770: 30767: 30764: 30761: 30758: 30755: 30752: 30750: 30747: 30745: 30742: 30740: 30737: 30735: 30732: 30730: 30727: 30725: 30724: 30720: 30718: 30715: 30713: 30710: 30708: 30705: 30703: 30700: 30698: 30695: 30693: 30692: 30688: 30686: 30683: 30681: 30678: 30676: 30673: 30671: 30668: 30666: 30663: 30661: 30658: 30656: 30653: 30651: 30648: 30646: 30643: 30641: 30640: 30636: 30634: 30631: 30629: 30626: 30624: 30621: 30619: 30616: 30614: 30611: 30609: 30606: 30604: 30603: 30599: 30597: 30594: 30592: 30591: 30587: 30585: 30582: 30580: 30577: 30575: 30572: 30570: 30567: 30565: 30562: 30560: 30557: 30555: 30554: 30550: 30548: 30545: 30543: 30540: 30538: 30535: 30534: 30531: 30528: 30526: 30520: 30510: 30507: 30505: 30502: 30500: 30499: 30495: 30494: 30492: 30488: 30482: 30481: 30477: 30475: 30474: 30470: 30468: 30465: 30463: 30460: 30458: 30457: 30453: 30451: 30448: 30446: 30443: 30441: 30440: 30436: 30434: 30433: 30429: 30427: 30424: 30422: 30419: 30418: 30415: 30412: 30410: 30406: 30396: 30393: 30391: 30388: 30386: 30383: 30381: 30380: 30376: 30374: 30371: 30369: 30368: 30364: 30362: 30361: 30357: 30355: 30354: 30350: 30348: 30347: 30343: 30341: 30340: 30336: 30334: 30331: 30329: 30326: 30324: 30321: 30319: 30316: 30314: 30313: 30309: 30307: 30306: 30302: 30301: 30299: 30295: 30289: 30288:Yuman–Cochimí 30286: 30284: 30283: 30279: 30277: 30276: 30272: 30270: 30267: 30265: 30264: 30260: 30258: 30255: 30253: 30250: 30248: 30245: 30243: 30240: 30238: 30237: 30233: 30231: 30228: 30226: 30223: 30221: 30218: 30216: 30215: 30211: 30209: 30208: 30204: 30202: 30199: 30197: 30196: 30192: 30190: 30187: 30185: 30184: 30180: 30178: 30175: 30173: 30170: 30168: 30167: 30163: 30161: 30160: 30156: 30154: 30153: 30149: 30147: 30146: 30142: 30140: 30139: 30135: 30133: 30130: 30128: 30127: 30123: 30121: 30120: 30116: 30115: 30112: 30109: 30107: 30101: 30091: 30088: 30085: 30082: 30080: 30079: 30075: 30074: 30072: 30068: 30061: 30057: 30054: 30052: 30049: 30047: 30046: 30042: 30040: 30037: 30035: 30032: 30030: 30027: 30024: 30023:Southern Daly 30021: 30019: 30018: 30014: 30012: 30009: 30007: 30006: 30002: 30000: 29999: 29995: 29993: 29990: 29987: 29986: 29982: 29980: 29977: 29975: 29972: 29970: 29967: 29965: 29964: 29960: 29958: 29957: 29953: 29950: 29949: 29948:Darwin Region 29945: 29943: 29940: 29937: 29934: 29933: 29930: 29927: 29925: 29921: 29911: 29908: 29906: 29904: 29900: 29897: 29894: 29891: 29888: 29886: 29883: 29881: 29878: 29876: 29873: 29871: 29868: 29866: 29863: 29861: 29858: 29855: 29852: 29849: 29846: 29844: 29841: 29839: 29836: 29835: 29833: 29829: 29822: 29819: 29816: 29813: 29811: 29808: 29806: 29803: 29801: 29798: 29796: 29793: 29791: 29788: 29786: 29783: 29781: 29780: 29776: 29774: 29771: 29769: 29768: 29764: 29762: 29759: 29757: 29754: 29752: 29749: 29747: 29746: 29742: 29740: 29737: 29735: 29732: 29730: 29729: 29725: 29723: 29720: 29718: 29715: 29713: 29710: 29708: 29707: 29703: 29701: 29698: 29696: 29693: 29691: 29688: 29686: 29683: 29681: 29678: 29676: 29673: 29671: 29668: 29666: 29663: 29661: 29658: 29656: 29653: 29651: 29648: 29646: 29643: 29641: 29638: 29636: 29633: 29631: 29630:Demta–Sentani 29628: 29626: 29623: 29621: 29618: 29616: 29613: 29611: 29608: 29606: 29603: 29601: 29600: 29596: 29594: 29591: 29590: 29587: 29584: 29582: 29577: 29573: 29563: 29561: 29557: 29555: 29554: 29550: 29547: 29544: 29542: 29539: 29537: 29535: 29531: 29529: 29526: 29524: 29522: 29518: 29516: 29515: 29511: 29509: 29508: 29504: 29502: 29499: 29497: 29494: 29493: 29491: 29487: 29480: 29477: 29474: 29471: 29468: 29465: 29462: 29459: 29456: 29453: 29450: 29447: 29445: 29442: 29440: 29437: 29435: 29434: 29430: 29428: 29427: 29423: 29421: 29420: 29416: 29414: 29411: 29409: 29408: 29404: 29402: 29399: 29397: 29394: 29392: 29391: 29387: 29385: 29382: 29380: 29377: 29375: 29374: 29370: 29368: 29365: 29363: 29360: 29358: 29355: 29353: 29352: 29351:Indo-European 29348: 29346: 29345: 29341: 29339: 29338: 29334: 29332: 29329: 29327: 29324: 29322: 29321: 29317: 29315: 29312: 29310: 29309: 29305: 29303: 29302: 29301:Austroasiatic 29298: 29296: 29293: 29291: 29290: 29286: 29285: 29282: 29279: 29276: 29271: 29264: 29253: 29250: 29247: 29244: 29242: 29239: 29237: 29236: 29232: 29230: 29227: 29225: 29222: 29221: 29219: 29215: 29208: 29205: 29202: 29199: 29196: 29193: 29190: 29187: 29184: 29181: 29179: 29176: 29173: 29172: 29168: 29166: 29165: 29161: 29159: 29156: 29154: 29151: 29149: 29148: 29144: 29142: 29141: 29137: 29136: 29133: 29130: 29128: 29124: 29120: 29113: 29108: 29106: 29101: 29099: 29094: 29093: 29090: 29082: 29078: 29075: 29072: 29068: 29064: 29060: 29057: 29053: 29050: 29047: 29044: 29041: 29037: 29034: 29031: 29027: 29024: 29021: 29017: 29014: 29013: 29012: 29009: 29004: 29001: 28998: 28995: 28992: 28988: 28984: 28980: 28976: 28972: 28968: 28964: 28961: 28958: 28955: 28954: 28953: 28950: 28945: 28944:documentation 28941: 28937: 28934: 28932: 28929: 28927: 28924: 28922: 28919: 28917: 28914: 28913: 28912: 28909: 28904: 28901: 28897: 28896: 28891: 28889: 28886: 28883: 28881: 28877: 28876: 28875: 28872: 28868: 28864: 28861: 28860: 28859: 28856: 28855: 28845: 28843: 28839: 28837: 28836:1-84553-229-5 28833: 28829: 28825: 28815: 28811: 28810: 28804: 28802: 28798: 28794: 28793: 28783: 28780: 28776: 28772: 28769: 28765: 28762: 28758: 28753: 28751:88-7653-610-8 28747: 28743: 28738: 28735: 28731: 28726: 28724:87-500-3654-8 28720: 28716: 28711: 28709: 28705: 28701: 28699: 28695: 28691: 28689: 28685: 28681: 28678: 28675: 28674:1-57506-109-0 28671: 28667: 28663: 28659: 28655: 28651: 28647: 28642: 28637: 28633: 28629: 28625: 28620: 28616: 28612: 28608: 28607: 28601: 28598: 28595: 28591: 28588: 28584: 28580: 28576: 28572: 28568: 28564: 28560: 28556: 28552: 28549:(2): 86–103. 28548: 28544: 28539: 28535: 28531: 28528:P. Geuthner. 28527: 28526: 28520: 28517: 28513: 28510: 28506: 28503: 28502:2-7053-1743-0 28499: 28495: 28491: 28488: 28484: 28481: 28480:3-929075-39-3 28477: 28473: 28469: 28466: 28462: 28458: 28454: 28450: 28444: 28440: 28439: 28433: 28418: 28414: 28407: 28402: 28400: 28396: 28393: 28389: 28385: 28382: 28378: 28375: 28371: 28366: 28364:90-04-12608-2 28360: 28356: 28351: 28337: 28333: 28329: 28322: 28317: 28313: 28311:0-8020-2690-7 28307: 28303: 28298: 28294: 28290: 28286: 28285: 28279: 28276: 28272: 28269: 28265: 28263: 28259: 28255: 28253: 28248: 28246:3-7278-0869-1 28242: 28238: 28229: 28228: 28208: 28204: 28198: 28184: 28183:cdli.ucla.edu 28180: 28174: 28172: 28159: 28152: 28151: 28143: 28131: 28124: 28123: 28115: 28106: 28097: 28088: 28079: 28070: 28064: 28059: 28057: 28047: 28038: 28036: 28034: 28024: 28015: 28006: 27997: 27988: 27979: 27970: 27962: 27956: 27952: 27951: 27943: 27934: 27925: 27916: 27907: 27898: 27891: 27885: 27878: 27872: 27864: 27857: 27849: 27845: 27841: 27837: 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23603: 23600: 23597: 23591: 23576: 23572: 23570: 23562: 23555: 23552: 23547: 23538: 23529: 23520: 23511: 23502: 23493: 23484: 23475: 23473: 23471: 23464: 23459: 23450: 23441: 23432: 23423: 23417:Op.cit.: 193. 23414: 23405: 23398: 23392: 23385: 23379: 23370: 23361: 23352: 23343: 23334: 23332: 23330: 23328: 23318: 23309: 23300: 23298: 23296: 23288: 23282: 23275: 23269: 23260: 23258: 23256: 23254: 23244: 23235: 23226: 23216: 23207: 23198: 23196: 23194: 23184: 23170:on 2018-09-16 23166: 23159: 23153: 23144: 23142: 23140: 23132: 23126: 23124: 23122: 23120: 23118: 23108: 23099: 23090: 23084: 23077: 23074: 23068: 23053: 23049: 23045: 23039: 23037: 23027: 23018: 23009: 23000: 22985: 22981: 22977: 22970: 22963: 22957: 22955: 22945: 22939: 22930: 22928: 22918: 22909: 22907: 22888: 22881: 22875: 22869: 22863: 22857: 22851: 22836: 22832: 22831: 22826: 22820: 22812: 22806: 22797: 22790: 22784: 22777: 22771: 22763: 22762: 22755: 22747: 22741: 22737: 22736: 22728: 22719: 22712: 22706: 22697: 22680: 22674: 22660: 22656: 22652: 22648: 22644: 22637: 22618: 22614: 22610: 22603: 22596: 22588: 22584: 22580: 22576: 22572: 22568: 22564: 22560: 22553: 22544: 22538: 22532: 22528: 22521: 22513: 22506: 22498: 22496:9789027235190 22492: 22488: 22481: 22473: 22471:9781521532362 22467: 22463: 22456: 22448: 22447: 22439: 22430: 22428:83-87111-32-5 22424: 22420: 22413: 22404: 22398: 22390: 22383: 22374: 22370: 22366: 22362: 22358: 22354: 22350: 22346: 22339: 22330: 22320: 22312: 22306: 22302: 22295: 22287: 22283: 22282:Mother Tongue 22276: 22269: 22263: 22261: 22252: 22245: 22237: 22230: 22222: 22218: 22212: 22204: 22197: 22188: 22181: 22177: 22170: 22166: 22160: 22156: 22151: 22147: 22141: 22135: 22129: 22124: 22117: 22111: 22109: 22099: 22097: 22095: 22093: 22091: 22081: 22074: 22068: 22066: 22059: 22054: 22052: 22042: 22035: 22030: 22021: 22012: 22003: 21994: 21985: 21978: 21975:Cf. also the 21972: 21963: 21961: 21959: 21949: 21940: 21938: 21936: 21934: 21924: 21917: 21912: 21910: 21908: 21898: 21889: 21887: 21877: 21875: 21873: 21871: 21869: 21867: 21859: 21855: 21849: 21840: 21838: 21831: 21827: 21821: 21819: 21817: 21807: 21798: 21789: 21780: 21778: 21776: 21766: 21757: 21755: 21753: 21751: 21749: 21747: 21745: 21743: 21734: 21730: 21726: 21722: 21718: 21714: 21707: 21699: 21693: 21689: 21682: 21675: 21669: 21662: 21658: 21653: 21646: 21642: 21636: 21634: 21632: 21630: 21620: 21611: 21609: 21607: 21591: 21587: 21581: 21574: 21568: 21566: 21561: 21546: 21542: 21536: 21529: 21525: 21521: 21512: 21503: 21496: 21490: 21483: 21479: 21475: 21471: 21467: 21461: 21454: 21450: 21446: 21442: 21436: 21427: 21418: 21411: 21403: 21394: 21387: 21383: 21377: 21370: 21366: 21362: 21355: 21351: 21344: 21337: 21333: 21324: 21317: 21310: 21306: 21302: 21293: 21286: 21282: 21278: 21271: 21267: 21260: 21253: 21249: 21240: 21233: 21229: 21225: 21218: 21214: 21207: 21200: 21196: 21187: 21180: 21174: 21167: 21163: 21157: 21150: 21143: 21134: 21125: 21116: 21109: 21106:"put" and 𒂊 21105: 21101: 21094: 21085: 21076: 21069: 21065: 21059: 21052: 21048: 21042: 21034: 21028: 21019: 21009: 21002: 20998: 20992: 20983: 20976: 20972: 20968: 20960: 20953: 20949: 20945: 20937: 20933: 20929: 20925: 20921: 20915: 20905: 20898: 20892: 20883: 20877: 20874: 20873: 20869: 20865: 20858: 20851: 20847: 20838: 20837: 20830: 20829: 20817: 20807: 20798: 20791: 20787: 20783: 20779: 20775: 20771: 20767: 20761: 20754: 20750: 20744: 20735: 20726: 20719: 20712: 20705: 20704:open syllable 20699: 20692: 20688: 20682: 20675: 20668: 20659: 20650: 20644:occasionally. 20640: 20633: 20626: 20620: 20611: 20602: 20593: 20586: 20575: 20568: 20564: 20559:za-e-me-en-ze 20553: 20546: 20540: 20531: 20522: 20515: 20509: 20500: 20491: 20481: 20474: 20470: 20464: 20455: 20448: 20439: 20432: 20426: 20417: 20410: 20406: 20402: 20396: 20388: 20384: 20380: 20376: 20372: 20368: 20364: 20360: 20356: 20349: 20345: 20341: 20337: 20328: 20321: 20317: 20313: 20309: 20305: 20301: 20300:content words 20297: 20293: 20289: 20285: 20279: 20270: 20263: 20259: 20255: 20251: 20247: 20243: 20237: 20228: 20221: 20210: 20200: 20193: 20178: 20171: 20167: 20163: 20159: 20149: 20139: 20129: 20122: 20115: 20108:"go out", 𒆟 20107: 20100: 20096: 20089: 20082: 20075: 20071: 20065: 20058: 20054: 20047: 20040: 20036: 20032: 20025: 20021: 20017: 20013: 20009: 20005: 20001: 19997: 19993: 19989: 19985: 19981: 19974:"head", 𒉪𒁕 19973: 19970:"prince", 𒊕 19969: 19965: 19961: 19957: 19953: 19946: 19942: 19935: 19928: 19921: 19917: 19913: 19909: 19903: 19896: 19892: 19885: 19881: 19871: 19864: 19862: 19854: 19848: 19841: 19837: 19833: 19829: 19828:Ancient Greek 19822: 19815: 19808: 19801: 19794: 19787: 19780: 19773: 19769: 19765: 19761: 19757: 19753: 19749: 19745: 19741: 19734: 19730: 19723: 19716: 19712: 19708: 19704: 19700: 19696: 19692: 19688: 19684: 19680: 19674: 19667: 19663: 19659: 19653: 19646: 19640: 19636: 19621: 19618: 19616: 19613: 19611: 19608: 19606: 19603: 19602: 19595: 19593: 19589: 19584: 19573: 19569: 19566: 19561: 19558: 19553: 19550: 19545: 19539: 19534: 19527: 19518: 19516: 19512: 19507: 19481: 19477: 19471: 19466: 19460: 19455: 19452: 19447: 19440: 19435: 19432: 19427: 19421: 19416: 19406: 19397: 19394: 19356: 19352: 19342: 19337: 19334: 19329: 19326: 19321: 19310: 19305: 19295: 19290: 19287: 19282: 19276: 19271: 19268: 19263: 19252: 19247: 19244: 19235: 19232: 19209: 19205: 19202: 19197: 19194: 19189: 19186: 19181: 19174: 19169: 19166: 19161: 19147: 19142: 19139: 19134: 19127: 19118: 19116: 19111: 19092: 19088: 19081: 19076: 19070: 19065: 19062: 19057: 19050: 19045: 19038: 19029: 19027: 19022: 19007: 19003: 19000: 18995: 18989: 18984: 18981: 18976: 18973: 18968: 18962: 18957: 18951: 18946: 18943: 18934: 18932: 18928: 18924: 18919: 18893: 18889: 18879: 18874: 18871: 18866: 18863: 18858: 18851: 18846: 18840: 18835: 18829: 18824: 18823:ištaran-na-ta 18821: 18816: 18813: 18808: 18802: 18797: 18794: 18789: 18786: 18777: 18775: 18771: 18767: 18762: 18739: 18735: 18732: 18727: 18724: 18719: 18712: 18707: 18700: 18695: 18692: 18687: 18684: 18679: 18669: 18664: 18661: 18656: 18653: 18648: 18645: 18640: 18634: 18623: 18618: 18614: 18603: 18599: 18579: 18577: 18575: 18573: 18571: 18569: 18567: 18565: 18562: 18557: 18551: 18548: 18543: 18540: 18537: 18536: 18532: 18529: 18524: 18521: 18518: 18513: 18510: 18507: 18502: 18499: 18496: 18491: 18488: 18486: 18483: 18478: 18472: 18469: 18464: 18458: 18455: 18450: 18444: 18441: 18436: 18433: 18430: 18429: 18425: 18423: 18421: 18417: 18411: 18406: 18400: 18395: 18392: 18390: 18388: 18383: 18376: 18371: 18368: 18366: 18364: 18359: 18352: 18347: 18344: 18341: 18337: 18334: 18332: 18330: 18328: 18323: 18316: 18312: 18309: 18307: 18305: 18301: 18295: 18291: 18284: 18280: 18277: 18275: 18273: 18268: 18261: 18256: 18253: 18251: 18249: 18241: 18234: 18230: 18227: 18224: 18223: 18219: 18217: 18215: 18210: 18203: 18198: 18195: 18192: 18187: 18184: 18181: 18176: 18173: 18171: 18169: 18165: 18161: 18154: 18149: 18146: 18144: 18142: 18140: 18135: 18129: 18124: 18117: 18113: 18110: 18108: 18106: 18101: 18092: 18087: 18081: 18077: 18070: 18066: 18063: 18061: 18059: 18054: 18047: 18043: 18040: 18038: 18036: 18031: 18024: 18020: 18017: 18014: 18013: 18009: 18007: 18005: 18000: 17993: 17989: 17986: 17984: 17982: 17977: 17970: 17966: 17963: 17961: 17959: 17954: 17947: 17943: 17939: 17936: 17934: 17932: 17928: 17921: 17917: 17914: 17912: 17910: 17908: 17904: 17900: 17891: 17886: 17880: 17876: 17869: 17865: 17862: 17860: 17858: 17853: 17846: 17841: 17838: 17836: 17834: 17830: 17825: 17818: 17814: 17811: 17809: 17807: 17803: 17797: 17792: 17785: 17781: 17778: 17775: 17774: 17770: 17768: 17766: 17762: 17756: 17751: 17744: 17739: 17736: 17734: 17732: 17727: 17720: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17708: 17703: 17696: 17691: 17688: 17685: 17680: 17677: 17675: 17673: 17671: 17667: 17658: 17653: 17647: 17642: 17635: 17631: 17628: 17626: 17624: 17619: 17612: 17608: 17605: 17603: 17601: 17596: 17589: 17584: 17581: 17579: 17577: 17572: 17563: 17558: 17552: 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16431: 16427: 16424: 16419: 16416: 16413: 16408: 16405: 16402: 16397: 16394: 16391: 16386: 16383: 16381: 16379: 16377: 16373: 16364: 16360: 16354: 16346: 16339: 16333: 16329: 16326: 16324: 16322: 16317: 16310: 16306: 16305: 16301: 16299: 16297: 16292: 16285: 16281: 16277: 16274: 16272: 16270: 16265: 16259: 16255: 16248: 16244: 16241: 16238: 16237: 16233: 16231: 16229: 16225: 16218: 16213: 16210: 16207: 16202: 16199: 16196: 16191: 16188: 16186: 16184: 16179: 16172: 16168: 16165: 16163: 16160: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16149: 16144: 16137: 16133: 16130: 16128: 16126: 16121: 16114: 16109: 16106: 16104: 16102: 16097: 16088: 16084: 16080: 16074: 16069: 16062: 16058: 16055: 16052: 16051: 16047: 16044: 16040: 16037: 16035: 16033: 16028: 16021: 16017: 16014: 16012: 16010: 16005: 15998: 15993: 15990: 15988: 15986: 15982: 15975: 15971: 15968: 15966: 15964: 15962: 15958: 15949: 15944: 15935: 15930: 15921: 15917: 15908: 15903: 15897: 15893: 15886: 15882: 15879: 15877: 15875: 15870: 15861: 15857: 15848: 15843: 15837: 15832: 15825: 15821: 15818: 15816: 15814: 15809: 15803: 15798: 15791: 15786: 15783: 15781: 15779: 15775: 15768: 15764: 15761: 15758: 15757: 15753: 15751: 15749: 15744: 15737: 15733: 15730: 15728: 15726: 15721: 15714: 15709: 15706: 15703: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15691: 15687: 15680: 15676: 15673: 15671: 15669: 15667: 15662: 15653: 15648: 15642: 15637: 15630: 15626: 15623: 15621: 15619: 15614: 15607: 15603: 15600: 15598: 15596: 15591: 15585: 15581: 15574: 15569: 15566: 15564: 15562: 15557: 15550: 15546: 15543: 15540: 15539: 15535: 15533: 15531: 15526: 15519: 15515: 15512: 15510: 15508: 15503: 15496: 15492: 15489: 15487: 15485: 15480: 15473: 15468: 15465: 15463: 15461: 15457: 15450: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15439: 15437: 15432: 15426: 15421: 15414: 15410: 15407: 15405: 15403: 15398: 15392: 15387: 15380: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15369: 15364: 15358: 15353: 15346: 15341: 15338: 15336: 15334: 15329: 15323: 15318: 15311: 15307: 15304: 15301: 15300: 15297: 15295: 15293: 15289: 15283: 15279: 15272: 15268: 15267: 15263: 15261: 15259: 15254: 15248: 15243: 15236: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15225: 15221: 15220: 15212: 15208: 15205: 15203: 15201: 15197: 15190: 15186: 15183: 15181: 15179: 15177: 15173: 15167: 15163: 15156: 15152: 15149: 15147: 15145: 15140: 15134: 15129: 15122: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15111: 15107: 15106: 15098: 15094: 15091: 15089: 15087: 15083: 15076: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15066: 15063: 15060: 15057: 15054: 15051: 15049: 15046: 15043: 15040: 15037: 15035: 15034: 15017: 15013: 15011: 15005: 15001: 14989: 14985: 14981: 14979: 14976: 14974: 14971: 14968: 14965: 14958: 14955: 14953: 14949: 14945: 14941: 14937: 14936: 14935: 14929: 14926: 14923: 14916: 14909: 14902: 14899: 14895: 14892: 14888: 14885: 14881: 14878: 14875: 14872: 14868: 14864: 14861: 14858: 14855: 14851: 14848: 14847: 14846: 14834: 14829: 14826: 14822: 14818: 14814: 14811: 14810: 14809: 14798: 14794: 14790: 14786: 14783: 14779: 14775: 14772: 14768: 14764: 14760: 14759: 14758: 14756: 14752: 14748: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14732: 14728: 14718: 14716: 14709: 14702: 14698: 14694: 14684: 14682: 14679: 14677: 14671: 14670: 14666: 14664: 14660: 14658: 14654: 14653: 14649: 14647: 14643: 14639: 14637: 14633: 14632: 14629: 14626: 14623: 14622: 14619: 14611: 14609: 14604: 14598: 14596: 14594: 14588: 14586: 14583: 14581: 14578: 14577: 14573: 14571: 14566: 14560: 14558: 14556: 14550: 14548: 14545: 14543: 14540: 14539: 14535: 14533: 14528: 14522: 14520: 14518: 14512: 14510: 14507: 14505: 14502: 14501: 14497: 14495: 14493: 14488: 14486: 14481: 14476: 14474: 14471: 14464: 14461: 14460: 14456: 14453: 14450: 14448:Emesal sound 14447: 14445:Emegir sound 14444: 14443: 14438: 14436: 14431: 14429: 14425: 14421: 14417: 14408: 14406: 14402: 14398: 14394: 14390: 14383: 14376: 14372: 14367: 14359: 14351: 14345: 14328: 14317: 14315: 14307: 14300: 14296: 14287: 14285: 14284: 14278: 14276: 14271: 14269: 14264: 14262: 14254: 14247: 14243: 14232: 14225: 14217: 14210: 14203: 14196: 14189: 14185: 14181: 14177: 14173: 14168: 14166: 14155: 14151: 14147: 14143: 14139: 14136: 14132: 14128: 14124: 14123: 14122: 14116: 14112: 14108: 14104: 14101: 14094: 14087: 14080: 14074: 14073: 14072: 14066: 14055: 14048: 14044: 14037: 14034: 14026: 14023:"thing" + 𒁀 14022: 14015: 14012: 14008: 14004: 14000: 13997: 13993: 13986: 13983:"house" + 𒈬 13982: 13975: 13974: 13973: 13971: 13967: 13963: 13953: 13951: 13944: 13940: 13936: 13931: 13922: 13918: 13916: 13910: 13906: 13902: 13900: 13896: 13892: 13885: 13881: 13878:"Who is like 13877: 13870: 13866: 13862: 13857: 13855: 13847: 13835: 13831: 13819: 13814: 13812: 13808: 13804: 13800: 13787: 13786: 13782: 13770: 13762: 13758: 13751: 13747: 13743: 13739: 13735: 13723: 13719: 13710: 13708: 13704: 13700: 13697:such as 𒌓𒁕 13696: 13692: 13690: 13682: 13678: 13670: 13668: 13662: 13658: 13654: 13653: 13639: 13635: 13634: 13626: 13616: 13612: 13608: 13604: 13603: 13599: 13589: 13585: 13580: 13579: 13567: 13560: 13546: 13544: 13540: 13534: 13532: 13527: 13524: 13520: 13518: 13512: 13506: 13500: 13495: 13494:ba-ur-a-ak-ta 13490: 13487: 13482: 13479: 13463: 13457: 13456: 13444: 13440: 13437: 13436: 13429: 13425: 13422: 13421: 13409: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13396: 13382: 13378: 13377: 13363: 13359: 13355: 13347: 13346: 13342: 13337: 13325: 13324: 13320: 13319: 13305: 13302: 13287: 13280: 13277: 13276: 13259: 13252: 13249: 13245: 13241: 13240: 13226: 13222: 13219: 13215: 13214: 13200: 13196: 13195: 13194: 13192: 13188: 13187: 13170: 13167: 13164: 13163:lu e i-n-řu-a 13160: 13158: 13152: 13146: 13140: 13135: 13130: 13127: 13122: 13119: 13095: 13093: 13089: 13088:subordination 13076: 13069: 13065: 13062: 13058: 13055: 13047: 13044: 13040: 13037: 13030: 13027: 13019: 13018: 13017: 13015: 13011: 13003: 12995: 12987: 12983: 12965: 12959:-še šu-e NOUN 12958: 12952: 12948: 12944: 12940: 12939: 12938: 12930: 12926: 12922: 12919: 12915: 12908: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12895: 12888: 12885: 12881: 12880: 12874: 12871: 12868: 12858: 12855: 12848: 12844: 12843: 12841: 12840: 12839: 12831: 12823: 12820: 12814: 12811: 12808: 12805: 12799: 12796: 12792: 12789: 12785: 12781: 12780: 12778: 12777: 12771: 12764: 12761: 12757: 12754: 12743: 12740: 12734: 12731: 12723: 12720: 12713: 12712: 12710: 12709: 12708: 12705: 12701: 12694: 12690: 12686: 12685:phrasal verbs 12679:Phrasal verbs 12676: 12674: 12666: 12662: 12658: 12655: 12651: 12647: 12643: 12639: 12636: 12632: 12628: 12627: 12626: 12624: 12614: 12612: 12607: 12603: 12599: 12595: 12591: 12588: 12584: 12580: 12576: 12572: 12568: 12564: 12558: 12556: 12551: 12547: 12541: 12535: 12532: 12528: 12525: 12521: 12517: 12513: 12509: 12505: 12504: 12503: 12500: 12499:passive voice 12493:Passive voice 12490: 12488: 12484: 12480: 12475: 12461: 12454: 12445: 12443: 12436: 12432:nu-(un)-ga-am 12429: 12425: 12421: 12416: 12414: 12403: 12395: 12391: 12387: 12383: 12375: 12367: 12363: 12354: 12352: 12348: 12347: 12341: 12334: 12327: 12315: 12311: 12309: 12307: 12299: 12292: 12289: 12288: 12285: 12277: 12275: 12271: 12268: 12267: 12264: 12256: 12254: 12250: 12247: 12246: 12242: 12239: 12237: 12236: 12231: 12229: 12216: 12208: 12206: 12199: 12195: 12192: 12188: 12181: 12177: 12166: 12158: 12154: 12150: 12146: 12142: 12138: 12134: 12130: 12126: 12118: 12107: 12105: 12099: 12091: 12087: 12083: 12080: 12076: 12072: 12068: 12060: 12052: 12048: 12045: 12038: 12034: 12033: 12032: 12030: 12022: 12007: 12005: 11998: 11990: 11982: 11978: 11974: 11972: 11962: 11960: 11955: 11954: 11948: 11946: 11938: 11929: 11928: 11924: 11914: 11911: 11908: 11904: 11902: 11896: 11890: 11884: 11878: 11872: 11867: 11864: 11858: 11852: 11846: 11841: 11838: 11832: 11827: 11824: 11818: 11812: 11806: 11801: 11798: 11792: 11787: 11784: 11764: 11761: 11758: 11755: 11751: 11749: 11743: 11737: 11732: 11729: 11724: 11721: 11715: 11709: 11703: 11698: 11695: 11689: 11684: 11681: 11675: 11669: 11663: 11658: 11655: 11650: 11630: 11629: 11625: 11622: 11619: 11615: 11613: 11607: 11601: 11595: 11590: 11587: 11581: 11576: 11573: 11567: 11561: 11555: 11550: 11547: 11541: 11536: 11533: 11517: 11514: 11511: 11508: 11504: 11502: 11496: 11490: 11484: 11479: 11476: 11471: 11468: 11462: 11456: 11450: 11445: 11442: 11436: 11431: 11428: 11422: 11416: 11410: 11405: 11402: 11397: 11381: 11380: 11376: 11373: 11372: 11367: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11346: 11344: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11328: 11324: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11300: 11296: 11292: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11267: 11265: 11261: 11257: 11253: 11249: 11245: 11237: 11233: 11232:Verba dicendi 11229: 11225: 11221: 11217: 11213: 11210: 11207: 11203: 11199: 11195: 11192: 11191: 11190: 11182: 11180: 11176: 11165: 11155: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11095: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11065: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11027: 11026: 11022: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11009: 11008: 11004: 11002: 10991: 10985: 10983: 10976: 10969: 10968: 10964: 10962: 10952: 10950: 10944: 10943: 10939: 10937: 10927: 10925: 10922: 10921: 10917: 10915: 10905: 10903: 10897: 10896: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10881: 10880: 10877:leave behind 10876: 10874: 10864: 10862: 10855: 10854: 10850: 10848: 10830: 10828: 10821: 10817: 10816: 10812: 10810: 10800: 10798: 10791: 10790: 10786: 10784: 10774: 10772: 10765: 10764: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10753: 10749: 10748: 10744: 10742: 10732: 10730: 10723: 10722: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10704: 10703: 10699: 10697: 10686: 10684: 10680: 10679: 10675: 10673: 10663: 10661: 10657: 10656: 10652: 10650: 10640: 10638: 10631: 10630: 10626: 10624: 10614: 10612: 10605: 10604: 10600: 10598: 10588: 10586: 10579: 10578: 10574: 10572: 10565: 10559: 10557: 10550: 10549: 10545: 10542: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10529: 10528: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10513: 10512: 10508: 10506: 10499: 10492: 10490: 10486: 10485: 10481: 10479: 10472: 10466: 10464: 10457: 10456: 10452: 10450: 10440: 10438: 10432: 10431: 10427: 10425: 10418: 10412: 10410: 10403: 10402: 10398: 10396: 10386: 10384: 10380: 10379: 10375: 10373: 10363: 10361: 10355: 10354: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10339: 10335: 10333: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10317: 10313: 10311: 10301: 10299: 10293: 10292: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10277: 10273: 10262: 10260: 10253: 10244: 10237: 10236: 10232: 10230: 10224: 10217: 10215: 10211: 10210: 10206: 10201: 10194: 10192: 10185: 10184: 10180: 10178: 10171: 10169: 10162: 10158: 10156: 10152: 10150: 10146: 10145: 10141: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10124: 10117: 10116: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10094: 10088: 10083: 10079: 10075: 10064: 10062: 10055: 10053: 10046: 10045: 10041: 10039: 10032: 10030: 10023: 10022: 10018: 10016: 10009: 10002: 10000:for animals) 9999: 9995: 9988: 9987: 9983: 9981: 9974: 9972: 9968: 9967: 9963: 9960: 9957: 9956: 9950: 9944: 9940: 9933: 9929: 9922: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9906: 9902: 9898: 9891: 9887: 9884: 9880: 9874: 9870: 9866: 9862: 9819: 9815: 9804: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9767: 9759: 9755: 9751: 9750: 9749: 9747: 9743: 9738: 9736: 9732: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9706: 9702: 9698: 9693: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9679: 9666: 9663: 9660: 9656: 9653: 9650: 9647: 9644: 9641: 9638: 9637: 9636: 9634: 9630: 9620: 9617: 9614: 9611: 9608: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9597: 9594: 9591: 9588: 9585: 9582: 9579: 9578: 9574: 9571: 9568: 9565: 9562: 9559: 9556: 9555: 9551: 9548: 9545: 9542: 9539: 9536: 9533: 9532: 9528: 9525: 9522: 9519: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9507: 9506: 9502: 9499: 9496: 9493: 9490: 9487: 9484: 9483: 9479: 9476: 9473: 9470: 9467: 9464: 9461: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9450: 9447: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9438: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9424: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9401: 9399: 9395: 9391: 9386: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9372: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9356: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9310: 9306: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9279: 9275: 9265: 9263: 9253: 9249: 9242: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9230: 9226: 9225: 9222: 9211: 9210: 9207: 9196: 9195: 9191: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9178: 9177: 9174: 9167: 9166: 9163: 9156: 9155: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9141: 9136: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9113: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9087: 9083: 9074: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9058: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9024: 9015: 9011: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8985: 8981: 8976: 8972: 8969: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8952: 8948: 8940: 8934: 8930: 8929: 8928: 8922: 8918: 8913: 8905: 8901: 8900: 8899: 8893: 8889: 8887: 8881: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8869: 8865: 8863: 8855: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8840: 8838: 8834: 8832: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8813: 8811: 8805: 8799: 8795: 8793: 8780: 8776: 8775: 8774: 8768: 8764: 8762: 8754: 8750: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8738: 8734: 8729: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8708: 8703: 8697: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8677: 8676: 8675:realization: 8674: 8666: 8661: 8655: 8650: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8610: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8590: 8588: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8568: 8564: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8546: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8526: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8509: 8506: 8503: 8500: 8499: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8467: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8420: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8406: 8405: 8401: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8384: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8363: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8350: 8348: 8344: 8341: 8340: 8335: 8327: 8324: 8317: 8314:"put" and 𒆪 8313: 8306: 8299: 8295: 8291: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8266: 8259: 8252: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8236: 8235: 8227: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8207: 8204: 8201: 8197: 8194: 8189: 8186: 8180: 8174: 8168: 8163: 8160: 8154: 8149: 8146: 8140: 8135: 8132: 8126: 8121: 8118: 8112: 8106: 8100: 8095: 8092: 8087: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8047: 8039: 8035: 8032: 8029: 8021: 8018: 8015: 8011: 8008: 8005: 7997: 7994: 7991: 7990: 7986: 7983: 7980: 7977: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7915: 7911: 7901: 7896: 7894: 7890: 7889: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7868: 7864: 7863: 7856: 7853: 7850: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7839: 7838: 7833: 7830: 7827: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7819: 7813: 7811: 7805: 7801: 7799: 7790: 7788: 7780: 7778: 7773: 7769: 7764: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7753: 7751: 7743: 7736: 7734: 7728: 7726: 7717: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7703: 7702: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7675: 7671: 7665: 7663: 7659: 7654: 7644: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7624: 7622: 7620: 7614: 7612: 7608: 7597: 7593: 7590:) instead of 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7565: 7558: 7557: 7556: 7554: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7532: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7479: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7405: 7401: 7400:passive voice 7397: 7394: 7391: 7388: 7385: 7381: 7380: 7378: 7376: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7350: 7345: 7333: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7305: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7296: 7285: 7281: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7271: 7266: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7229:The vowel of 7228: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7218: 7209: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7144: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7118:foregrounding 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7097: 7092: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7060:, the prefix 7059: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7007: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6990:finite prefix 6987: 6983: 6976: 6975: 6974: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6955: 6951: 6940: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6924: 6922: 6917: 6913:E.g.: 𒅆𒅔𒅥 6908: 6904: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6883: 6876:, earlier 𒂠 6875: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6856: 6855: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6830: 6829: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6811: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6754: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6686: 6677: 6673: 6666: 6662: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6630: 6626:E.g.: 𒂵𒀊𒅥 6621: 6620: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6573: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6554: 6549: 6540: 6536: 6530: 6518: 6510: 6506: 6498: 6490: 6482: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6441: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6433: 6426: 6419: 6418: 6414:E.g.: 𒉡𒌦𒅥 6409: 6405: 6401: 6394: 6390: 6382: 6378: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6323: 6319: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6305: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6285: 6282: 6279: 6267: 6265: 6259: 6254: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6233: 6228: 6225: 6219: 6206: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6186: 6183: 6177: 6172: 6169: 6163: 6158: 6155: 6149: 6144: 6141: 6136: 6122:nu-ub-ši-e-gi 6115: 6112: 6109: 6105: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6073: 6067: 6062: 6059: 6054: 6051: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6028: 6025: 6019: 6014: 6011: 6005: 5999: 5993: 5988: 5985: 5979: 5974: 5972: 5967: 5951: 5943: 5941: 5939:-/ene/, -/eš/ 5927: 5924: 5922: 5913: 5911: 5907: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5865: 5863: 5859: 5858: 5854: 5851: 5848: 5845: 5842: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5807: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5761:in Sumerian. 5760: 5759:constructions 5756: 5751: 5744: 5737: 5733: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5697: 5695: 5693: 5683: 5674: 5665: 5663: 5655: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5628:The Sumerian 5616: 5614: 5610: 5603: 5599: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5552: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5525:"two" and 𒐈 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5359: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5228: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5100: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5063: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5003: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4955: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4865: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4830: 4828: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4785: 4778: 4777: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4746: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4715: 4712:"big" and 𒌉 4711: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4636: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4602: 4601: 4598:"themselves") 4597: 4589: 4581: 4570: 4566: 4559: 4554: 4552: 4546:"man" and 𒃻 4545: 4538: 4530: 4526: 4518: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4494: 4487: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4426: 4424: 4417: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4318: 4310: 4306: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4178: 4172: 4170: 4162: 4158: 4155: 4152: 4151: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4134: 4131:The attested 4124: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4013: 4009: 4002: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3937: 3936:Phrasal verbs 3932: 3925: 3921: 3918:"to be equal 3917: 3910: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3816: 3811: 3809: 3803: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3752: 3746: 3730: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3706: 3704: 3700: 3699:udu siki-(a)k 3696: 3693:"wool" to 𒇻 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3676: 3672: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3641: 3638: 3633: 3630: 3614: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3596: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3566: 3550: 3547: 3546: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3492: 3490: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3433: 3431: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3412: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3393: 3390:"as", "like" 3389: 3387: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3273: 3272: 3267: 3254: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3200:"gods", 𒌈𒌈 3199: 3198:dig̃ir-dig̃ir 3193: 3190: 3187: 3183: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3164: 3161: 3156: 3153: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3123: 3121: 3115: 3109: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3090: 3085: 3082: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3048: 3026: 3025: 3010:𒇽𒁀𒀄𒀄𒌍 lu 3007: 3003: 2992: 2981: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2958: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2934: 2932: 2931:postpositions 2928: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2908: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2865: 2862: 2846: 2839: 2836: 2834: 2833:plural marker 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2747: 2744:The Sumerian 2732: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2717:agglutinative 2714: 2713:Typologically 2710: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2694: 2682: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2663: 2662: 2652: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2632: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2614: 2606: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2553:mu-un-g̃ar-re 2550: 2543: 2539: 2529: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2513: 2511: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2467:, */ue/ > 2466: 2462: 2459:, */ie/ > 2458: 2455:, */ae/ > 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434:-mu-ra-ab-šum 2430: 2424: 2419: 2412: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2377:vowel harmony 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2288:genitive case 2284: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2152: 2145: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2106: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2089: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2043: 2039: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2014: 2009: 2006: 2003: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1975: 1970: 1968: 1963: 1959: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1905: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1887: 1882: 1879: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1859: 1852: 1847: 1844: 1841: 1834: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1816: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1755: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1683: 1675: 1667: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1648: 1640: 1638: 1630: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1610: 1602: 1600: 1592: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1564: 1562: 1554: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1505: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1475: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1331:Joseph Halévy 1328: 1324: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1265: 1264:agglutinative 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1242:Julius Oppert 1239: 1235: 1231: 1230:Edward Hincks 1226: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1196:Rosetta stone 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1145: 1134: 1130: 1120: 1111: 1091: 1088: 1080: 1077:December 2023 1070: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1054:This section 1052: 1048: 1043: 1042: 1034: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 990:determinative 987: 977: 974: 969: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 946: 933: 929: 924: 917: 906: 902: 897: 882: 879: 871: 861: 857: 853: 847: 846: 842: 837:This section 835: 831: 826: 825: 821: 811: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 782: 777: 775: 771: 770:macrofamilies 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730:nationalistic 727: 723: 713: 710: 708: 707: 702: 701: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 675: 669: 666: 665:lexical lists 660: 658: 654: 649: 645: 641: 637: 632: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 586: 584: 583: 578: 577: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 544: 540: 539: 523: 520: 515: 511: 508: 504: 503: 487: 484: 468: 452: 449: 448: 447: 441: 440:Louvre Museum 437: 432: 425: 421: 416: 407: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 335: 331: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 306: 302: 293: 281: 269: 263: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 236: 230: 226: 222: 220: 219: 214: 210: 206: 203: 202:Linguist List 198: 194: 190: 187: 182: 177: 172: 169: 164: 159: 156: 153: 149: 143: 137: 134: 131: 130: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 107: 96: 92: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 59: 54: 50: 36: 31: 19: 32750: 32743: 32742:Families in 32699:Pre-Goidelic 32694:Pre-Germanic 32524:Indo-Semitic 32519:Indo-Pacific 32514:Indo-Hittite 32429: 32422: 32415: 32345: 32322:Indian Ocean 32289: 32284:Austronesian 32282: 32275: 32268: 32261: 32256:Sino-Tibetan 32254: 32233: 32211: 32206:Sino-Tibetan 32204: 32197: 32190: 32158: 32133: 32127: 32126: 32119: 32112: 32105: 32098: 32091: 32084: 32077: 32070: 32063: 32043: 32036: 32029: 32022: 32015: 32010:North Picene 32008: 32001: 31994: 31987: 31980: 31973: 31966: 31954: 31947: 31940: 31761:Royal titles 31686:Architecture 31664: 31523:Neo-Assyrian 31370:(Pre)history 31190:Persian Gulf 31107: 31100: 31099:Families in 31034: 30985: 30883: 30871: 30721: 30689: 30680:Pano-Tacanan 30637: 30600: 30588: 30559:Arutani–Sape 30551: 30496: 30478: 30471: 30456:Oto-Manguean 30454: 30437: 30430: 30377: 30365: 30358: 30351: 30344: 30337: 30310: 30303: 30280: 30273: 30261: 30234: 30212: 30205: 30193: 30181: 30164: 30157: 30150: 30143: 30136: 30124: 30117: 30076: 30043: 30039:Western Daly 30017:Pama–Nyungan 30015: 30003: 29996: 29983: 29961: 29956:Eastern Daly 29954: 29946: 29901: 29777: 29765: 29743: 29726: 29704: 29675:Kaure–Kosare 29635:Doso–Turumsa 29625:Chimbu–Wahgi 29615:Bulaka River 29599:Austronesian 29597: 29558: 29552: 29551: 29532: 29519: 29512: 29505: 29431: 29424: 29417: 29407:Sino-Tibetan 29405: 29388: 29371: 29349: 29342: 29335: 29318: 29308:Austronesian 29306: 29299: 29287: 29233: 29171:Nilo-Saharan 29169: 29162: 29147:Austronesian 29145: 29138: 29010: 28951: 28910: 28894: 28879: 28873: 28857: 28827: 28817:. Retrieved 28808: 28774: 28767: 28760: 28741: 28733: 28714: 28703: 28693: 28683: 28665: 28631: 28627: 28605: 28593: 28578: 28546: 28542: 28524: 28515: 28508: 28493: 28486: 28471: 28456: 28437: 28424:. Retrieved 28412: 28387: 28380: 28373: 28354: 28343:. Retrieved 28331: 28327: 28301: 28283: 28274: 28267: 28257: 28232: 28224:Bibliography 28211:. Retrieved 28197: 28186:. Retrieved 28182: 28149: 28142: 28121: 28114: 28105: 28096: 28087: 28078: 28069: 28046: 28023: 28014: 28005: 27996: 27987: 27978: 27969: 27949: 27942: 27933: 27924: 27915: 27906: 27897: 27889: 27884: 27876: 27871: 27862: 27856: 27831: 27827: 27814: 27805: 27794:. Retrieved 27774: 27770: 27760: 27740: 27733: 27721: 27712: 27703: 27694: 27685: 27676: 27667: 27658: 27649: 27640: 27631: 27622: 27601: 27592: 27583: 27574: 27565: 27556: 27547: 27538: 27529: 27520: 27511: 27502: 27493: 27484: 27475: 27466: 27457: 27448: 27439: 27430: 27421: 27412: 27391: 27382: 27365:Zólyomi 1993 27349: 27340: 27331: 27322: 27313: 27304: 27295: 27286: 27261: 27252: 27243: 27234: 27225: 27190: 27181: 27172: 27160: 27149: 27144: 27135: 27126: 27085: 27076: 27067: 27058: 27049: 27040: 27031: 27022: 27013: 27004: 26983: 26974: 26965: 26956: 26947: 26938: 26929: 26920: 26911: 26900:. 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Warszawa. 22418: 22412: 22388: 22382: 22348: 22344: 22338: 22329: 22319: 22300: 22294: 22285: 22281: 22275: 22267: 22250: 22244: 22235: 22229: 22220: 22211: 22203:Ancient Iraq 22202: 22196: 22187: 22176: 22165: 22146: 22139: 22138:Viano 2016: 22134: 22123: 22115: 22080: 22072: 22041: 22029: 22020: 22011: 22002: 21993: 21984: 21971: 21948: 21923: 21897: 21857: 21848: 21825: 21806: 21797: 21788: 21765: 21716: 21712: 21706: 21687: 21681: 21673: 21668: 21660: 21652: 21644: 21619: 21594:. Retrieved 21590:the original 21580: 21572: 21544: 21540: 21535: 21527: 21523: 21516: 21511: 21502: 21494: 21489: 21481: 21477: 21473: 21469: 21465: 21460: 21452: 21448: 21444: 21440: 21435: 21426: 21417: 21405: 21398: 21393: 21385: 21381: 21376: 21368: 21364: 21357: 21353: 21346: 21339: 21335: 21328: 21323: 21312: 21308: 21304: 21297: 21296:The stem 𒉐 21292: 21284: 21280: 21273: 21269: 21262: 21255: 21251: 21244: 21239: 21231: 21227: 21220: 21216: 21209: 21202: 21198: 21191: 21186: 21178: 21173: 21161: 21156: 21145: 21138: 21133: 21124: 21115: 21107: 21103: 21102:"build", 𒃻 21096: 21089: 21084: 21075: 21067: 21063: 21058: 21050: 21046: 21041: 21032: 21027: 21018: 21008: 21000: 20996: 20991: 20982: 20974: 20970: 20962: 20955: 20951: 20947: 20939: 20935: 20927: 20923: 20919: 20914: 20904: 20896: 20891: 20882: 20875: 20871: 20867: 20863: 20856: 20849: 20845: 20839: 20833: 20832: 20828: 20827: 20816: 20806: 20797: 20789: 20785: 20781: 20777: 20773: 20769: 20765: 20760: 20752: 20748: 20743: 20734: 20725: 20717: 20711: 20698: 20690: 20686: 20681: 20670: 20663: 20658: 20649: 20639: 20628: 20624: 20619: 20610: 20601: 20592: 20580: 20574: 20566: 20558: 20552: 20544: 20539: 20530: 20521: 20513: 20508: 20499: 20490: 20480: 20463: 20454: 20443: 20438: 20425: 20416: 20408: 20404: 20400: 20395: 20386: 20382: 20378: 20374: 20370: 20366: 20362: 20358: 20351: 20347: 20343: 20339: 20332: 20327: 20319: 20315: 20311: 20307: 20303: 20295: 20292:lugal-la-kam 20291: 20287: 20283: 20278: 20269: 20249: 20241: 20236: 20227: 20212: 20204: 20199: 20183: 20177: 20161: 20148: 20138: 20128: 20117: 20109: 20102: 20098: 20091: 20084: 20077: 20073: 20069: 20064: 20056: 20049: 20042: 20038: 20027: 20023: 20019: 20015: 20011: 20007: 20003: 19999: 19995: 19991: 19987: 19983: 19975: 19971: 19967: 19963: 19959: 19955: 19948: 19944: 19943:"levee", 𒂗 19937: 19930: 19923: 19919: 19915: 19914:"sky", 𒄑𒍎 19911: 19910:"marsh", 𒀭 19907: 19902: 19894: 19887: 19883: 19876: 19870: 19860: 19859: 19847: 19821: 19810: 19803: 19796: 19789: 19782: 19775: 19771: 19767: 19763: 19759: 19755: 19751: 19747: 19743: 19736: 19732: 19725: 19718: 19714: 19710: 19706: 19702: 19698: 19694: 19690: 19686: 19682: 19678: 19673: 19662:Tell Khaiber 19652: 19644: 19639: 19585: 19579:-kal-le ensi 19574: 19571: 19508: 19495:lagaš pa-bil 19482: 19479: 19470:𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠𒅗𒆤 19395: 19357: 19354: 19233: 19210: 19207: 19112: 19093: 19090: 19023: 19008: 19005: 18920: 18894: 18891: 18763: 18740: 18737: 18605: 18552: 18541: 18522: 18511: 18500: 18489: 18473: 18459: 18445: 18434: 18415: 18404: 18403: 18393: 18381: 18380: 18369: 18357: 18356: 18345: 18335: 18321: 18320: 18310: 18299: 18289: 18288: 18278: 18266: 18265: 18254: 18239: 18238: 18228: 18208: 18207: 18196: 18185: 18174: 18163: 18159: 18158: 18147: 18133: 18122: 18121: 18111: 18096: 18085: 18075: 18074: 18064: 18052: 18051: 18041: 18029: 18028: 18018: 17998: 17997: 17987: 17975: 17974: 17964: 17952: 17951: 17937: 17926: 17925: 17915: 17895: 17884: 17874: 17873: 17863: 17851: 17850: 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16574: 16564: 16552: 16551: 16541: 16528: 16527: 16517: 16505: 16504: 16494: 16482: 16481: 16470: 16458: 16447: 16446: 16436: 16417: 16406: 16395: 16384: 16368: 16358: 16344: 16343: 16327: 16315: 16314: 16302: 16290: 16289: 16275: 16263: 16253: 16252: 16242: 16223: 16222: 16211: 16200: 16189: 16177: 16176: 16166: 16154: 16142: 16141: 16131: 16119: 16118: 16107: 16092: 16078: 16067: 16066: 16056: 16038: 16026: 16025: 16015: 16003: 16002: 15991: 15980: 15979: 15969: 15953: 15939: 15925: 15912: 15901: 15891: 15890: 15880: 15865: 15852: 15841: 15830: 15829: 15819: 15807: 15796: 15795: 15784: 15773: 15772: 15762: 15742: 15741: 15731: 15719: 15718: 15707: 15696: 15685: 15684: 15674: 15657: 15646: 15635: 15634: 15624: 15612: 15611: 15601: 15589: 15579: 15578: 15567: 15555: 15554: 15544: 15524: 15523: 15513: 15501: 15500: 15490: 15478: 15477: 15466: 15455: 15454: 15444: 15430: 15419: 15418: 15408: 15396: 15385: 15384: 15374: 15362: 15351: 15350: 15339: 15327: 15316: 15315: 15305: 15287: 15277: 15276: 15264: 15252: 15241: 15240: 15230: 15217: 15216: 15206: 15195: 15194: 15184: 15171: 15161: 15160: 15150: 15138: 15127: 15126: 15116: 15103: 15102: 15092: 15081: 15080: 15070: 15009: 15007: 15003: 14998: 14987: 14983: 14978: 14973: 14960: 14951: 14947: 14943: 14939: 14933: 14918: 14912:ki ...ki-ag̃ 14911: 14904: 14898:intransitive 14897: 14890: 14883: 14853: 14843: 14832: 14824: 14820: 14816: 14807: 14796: 14792: 14791:merged with 14788: 14781: 14777: 14770: 14766: 14724: 14711: 14704: 14700: 14696: 14692: 14690: 14680: 14672: 14662: 14656: 14645: 14641: 14635: 14617: 14602: 14600: 14592: 14590: 14584: 14579: 14564: 14562: 14554: 14552: 14546: 14541: 14526: 14524: 14516: 14514: 14508: 14503: 14491: 14490: 14479: 14478: 14472: 14462: 14434: 14432: 14415: 14414: 14404: 14400: 14396: 14392: 14385: 14378: 14374: 14323: 14309: 14302: 14298: 14291: 14288: 14281: 14279: 14274: 14272: 14267: 14265: 14263:"gardener". 14256: 14249: 14245: 14234: 14227: 14219: 14212: 14205: 14198: 14197:"thing": 𒅥 14191: 14187: 14183: 14179: 14175: 14171: 14169: 14161: 14159: 14153: 14149: 14145: 14144:"hand" + 𒋳 14141: 14134: 14130: 14126: 14120: 14114: 14110: 14106: 14096: 14089: 14082: 14075: 14070: 14057: 14050: 14046: 14039: 14028: 14024: 14017: 14010: 14006: 14002: 13995: 13988: 13984: 13977: 13969: 13965: 13959: 13946: 13943:phrasal verb 13938: 13929: 13924: 13920: 13914: 13912: 13904: 13903: 13898: 13894: 13887: 13873:a-ba utu-gen 13872: 13868: 13864: 13858: 13849: 13837: 13833: 13821: 13815: 13811:g̃eš(-še)-en 13810: 13806: 13802: 13795: 13793: 13790:Other issues 13784: 13772: 13764: 13760: 13753: 13749: 13745: 13725: 13721: 13716: 13713:Coordination 13706: 13702: 13698: 13693: 13684: 13680: 13672: 13666: 13664: 13660: 13656: 13651: 13641: 13637: 13632: 13624: 13618: 13614: 13610: 13606: 13601: 13597: 13591: 13587: 13583: 13581: 13569: 13562: 13550: 13547: 13542: 13538: 13536: 13528: 13525: 13522: 13502:-sweep.over- 13496: 13493: 13488: 13485: 13480: 13477: 13461: 13454: 13442: 13441: 13431: 13427: 13426: 13419: 13407: 13406: 13401: 13394: 13384: 13380: 13375: 13365: 13361: 13357: 13353: 13351: 13344: 13340: 13339: 13327: 13317: 13307: 13289: 13282: 13271: 13261: 13254: 13247: 13243: 13238: 13228: 13224: 13217: 13212: 13202: 13198: 13190: 13185: 13175: 13172: 13168: 13165: 13162: 13136: 13133: 13128: 13125: 13120: 13117: 13085: 13071: 13067: 13060: 13049: 13042: 13032: 13031:𒅆 ... 𒀀𒂠 13021: 13005: 12997: 12989: 12979: 12960: 12954: 12950: 12946: 12945:({šu-e NOUN 12942: 12936: 12928: 12924: 12910: 12897: 12890: 12883: 12872: 12859: 12850: 12846: 12837: 12825: 12815: 12809: 12800: 12794: 12787: 12783: 12766: 12759: 12745: 12735: 12725: 12715: 12696: 12682: 12670: 12664: 12660: 12653: 12649: 12645: 12641: 12634: 12630: 12620: 12601: 12597: 12593: 12590: 12586: 12582: 12578: 12574: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12559: 12554: 12549: 12545: 12542: 12539: 12530: 12523: 12519: 12515: 12511: 12507: 12496: 12486: 12482: 12473: 12463: 12456: 12448: 12446: 12438: 12431: 12427: 12423: 12419: 12417: 12405: 12397: 12393: 12389: 12385: 12377: 12369: 12365: 12357: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12343: 12336: 12329: 12322: 12320: 12313: 12302: 12300: 12294: 12279: 12273: 12258: 12252: 12225: 12210: 12204: 12197: 12190: 12183: 12179: 12168: 12160: 12156: 12152: 12148: 12144: 12140: 12136: 12132: 12128: 12120: 12109: 12103: 12093: 12092:, e.g. 𒁶𒈨 12085: 12078: 12074: 12070: 12062: 12054: 12050: 12040: 12036: 12024: 12016: 12013: 12000: 11992: 11984: 11980: 11976: 11970: 11964: 11958: 11957: 11952: 11950: 11941: 11940: 11932: 11930: 11926: 11922: 11920: 11912: 11909: 11906: 11873: 11870: 11847: 11844: 11833: 11830: 11807: 11804: 11793: 11790: 11785: 11782: 11759: 11756: 11753: 11738: 11735: 11730: 11727: 11704: 11701: 11690: 11687: 11664: 11661: 11651: 11648: 11623: 11620: 11617: 11596: 11593: 11582: 11579: 11556: 11553: 11542: 11539: 11534: 11531: 11527:-mu-un-na-ab 11512: 11509: 11506: 11485: 11482: 11477: 11474: 11451: 11448: 11437: 11434: 11411: 11408: 11398: 11395: 11384:𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀊𒋧𒈬 11362: 11358: 11352: 11342: 11338: 11334: 11326: 11323:future tense 11315: 11307: 11298: 11286: 11274: 11268: 11255: 11251: 11247: 11243: 11241: 11235: 11227: 11216:imperfective 11211: 11205: 11201: 11193: 11188: 11178: 11167: 11159: 11156: 11151: 11147: 11146:can be both 11135: 11131: 11127: 11115: 11111: 11107: 11103: 11099: 11096: 11091: 11090:itself is a 11087: 11083: 11079: 11067: 11051: 11049: 11034: 11029: 11018: 11010: 10993: 10986: 10978: 10971: 10953: 10945: 10928: 10923: 10906: 10898: 10888: 10883: 10865: 10857: 10831: 10823: 10819: 10813:anoint, cry 10801: 10793: 10775: 10767: 10756: 10751: 10733: 10725: 10714: 10706: 10696:, 𒉈𒉈 ne-ne 10687: 10682: 10664: 10659: 10641: 10633: 10615: 10607: 10589: 10581: 10567: 10560: 10552: 10540: 10536: 10531: 10520: 10515: 10501: 10494: 10488: 10474: 10467: 10459: 10441: 10433: 10420: 10413: 10405: 10387: 10382: 10364: 10356: 10346: 10341: 10324: 10319: 10302: 10294: 10284: 10279: 10271: 10255: 10248: 10239: 10228: 10219: 10213: 10196: 10187: 10173: 10164: 10160: 10154: 10148: 10142:"do", "say" 10136: 10132: 10128: 10119: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10086: 10081: 10073: 10057: 10048: 10034: 10025: 10011: 10004: 9997: 9990: 9976: 9970: 9948: 9942: 9935: 9931: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9908: 9904: 9900: 9893: 9889: 9878: 9876: 9872: 9868: 9864: 9817: 9806: 9799: 9795: 9791: 9787: 9776: 9769: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9745: 9741: 9739: 9727: 9723: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9694: 9682:tense-aspect 9681: 9677: 9675: 9658: 9632: 9628: 9626: 9598:...-/enzen/ 9595:...-/enzen/ 9586:...-/enzen/ 9583:...-/enzen/ 9575:...-/enden/ 9572:...-/enden/ 9563:...-/enden/ 9560:...-/enden/ 9509: 9433: 9428: 9417: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9402: 9397: 9393: 9389: 9387: 9378: 9374: 9370: 9366: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9344: 9340: 9336: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9320: 9316: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9277: 9271: 9261: 9258: 9251: 9244: 9238: 9234: 9228: 9216: 9201: 9187: 9183: 9172: 9161: 9150: 9145: 9134: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9108: 9104: 9089: 9085: 9072: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9056: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9041:are located. 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9013: 9009: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8983: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8963: 8961: 8950: 8938: 8936: 8932: 8926: 8920: 8908: 8907: 8903: 8897: 8891: 8885: 8883: 8879: 8873: 8867: 8858: 8857: 8853: 8846: 8836: 8833:-g̃en 𒉌𒅎𒁺 8826: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8815: 8809: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8797: 8788: 8782: 8778: 8772: 8766: 8757: 8756: 8755:-n-si} > 8752: 8744: 8742: 8736: 8723: 8722: 8718: 8712: 8701: 8699: 8692: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8670: 8659: 8657: 8648: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8629:is seen in: 8626: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8596: 8586: 8582: 8578: 8574: 8571:in your hand 8570: 8566: 8562: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8547: 8543: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8494: 8490: 8486: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8457: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8410: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8374: 8362:(inanimate) 8361: 8352: 8347:(inanimate) 8346: 8332: 8319: 8315: 8308: 8307:"enter", 𒋛 8301: 8300:"stand", 𒆭 8297: 8293: 8286: 8285:"cross", 𒅅 8282: 8275: 8268: 8261: 8254: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8233: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8202: 8199: 8195: 8192: 8169: 8166: 8155: 8152: 8141: 8138: 8127: 8124: 8101: 8098: 8088: 8085: 8067: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8048: 8044: 8037: 8023: 8019: 8013: 8009: 7999: 7995: 7981:terminative 7963: 7953: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7906: 7899: 7892: 7883: 7878: 7866: 7861: 7854: 7817: 7815: 7809: 7807: 7803: 7794: 7792: 7786: 7784: 7782: 7776: 7775: 7771: 7762: 7746: 7745: 7738: 7732: 7730: 7721: 7719: 7712: 7708: 7685: 7680: 7666: 7657: 7652: 7650: 7640: 7636: 7628: 7625: 7618: 7616: 7610: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7567: 7559: 7549: 7544: 7543: 7534: 7530: 7529: 7527: 7521: 7514:middle voice 7509: 7505: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7441: 7437: 7424: 7423: 7414: 7413: 7412:E.g. 𒁀𒀭𒁺 7411: 7403: 7375:middle voice 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7356: 7340: 7339: 7338:E.g. 𒉈𒅔𒁺 7337: 7327: 7319: 7315: 7307: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7283: 7279: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7216: 7215: 7214:E.g. 𒅎𒁺𒈬 7213: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7167: 7159: 7155: 7142: 7141: 7140:E.g. 𒈬𒌦𒁺 7139: 7126:transitivity 7109: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7090: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7053: 7052:forms. Like 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7025: 7021: 7014: 7005: 7004: 7002: 6998: 6989: 6985: 6977: 6970: 6963:verb valency 6953: 6946: 6931: 6927: 6925: 6915: 6914: 6912: 6906: 6898: 6894: 6889: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6858: 6853: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6820: 6819: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6776: 6763: 6762: 6752: 6751: 6749: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6699: 6690: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6675: 6668: 6664: 6657: 6653: 6641: 6628: 6627: 6625: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6603:"let me put 6600: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6575: 6568: 6560: 6547: 6546: 6538: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6512: 6508: 6500: 6492: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6443: 6435: 6428: 6421: 6416: 6415: 6413: 6407: 6403: 6396: 6392: 6384: 6380: 6372: 6368: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6336: 6329: 6327: 6311: 6300: 6296: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6269: 6260: 6257: 6234: 6231: 6220: 6209: 6192: 6189: 6178: 6175: 6164: 6161: 6150: 6147: 6137: 6134: 6113: 6110: 6107: 6068: 6065: 6060: 6057: 6034: 6031: 6020: 6017: 5994: 5991: 5980: 5977: 5968: 5965: 5949: 5934: 5909: 5891: 5882: 5878: 5874:/nu/-~/la/- 5873: 5861: 5832:nominalizer 5793: 5789: 5785: 5780:, while the 5763: 5758: 5754: 5746: 5739: 5736:intransitive 5729: 5725:middle voice 5716: 5715:"quick" and 5712: 5704: 5698: 5687: 5685: 5668: 5667: 5657: 5646: 5645: 5641: 5627: 5612: 5605: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5565: 5561: 5554: 5547: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5503: 5496: 5489: 5481: 5474: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5441: 5421: 5402: 5388: 5384: 5377: 5371: 5367: 5360: 5344: 5330: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5264: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5222: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5189: 5182: 5166: 5155:"less two " 5150: 5132: 5117: 5101: 5086: 5072: 5065: 5058: 5053: 5038: 5024: 5017: 5012: 5005: 5001: 4987: 4980: 4975: 4957: 4950: 4935: 4917: 4902: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4836: 4824: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4798: 4787: 4780: 4774: 4769: 4767: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4747: 4745:) "black". 4742: 4735: 4731: 4724: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4707: 4702: 4694: 4686: 4685:, e.g. 𒂍𒉋 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4608: 4599: 4591: 4583: 4572: 4568: 4561: 4555: 4547: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4520: 4512: 4503: 4497: 4489: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4419: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4389: 4385: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4302: 4295: 4290: 4280: 4270: 4259: 4253: 4245: 4234: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4173: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4145:independent 4130: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4102: 4096: 4085: 4078: 4072: 4065: 4058: 4051: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4018: 4011: 4004: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3979: 3973: 3969: 3962: 3955: 3943: 3934: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3860: 3857: 3830: 3827: 3817: 3814: 3804: 3801: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3760: 3757: 3747: 3744: 3726: 3722: 3712: 3705:"shepherd". 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3674: 3647: 3644: 3639: 3636: 3631: 3628: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3583: 3580: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3564: 3548: 3541: 3525: 3523: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3488: 3467: 3448: 3426: 3404: 3382: 3362: 3339: 3319: 3299:intransitive 3265: 3262:Case markers 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3217: 3212: 3201: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3159: 3154: 3151: 3135: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3099: 3096: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3028: 3015: 3009: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2975: 2970: 2963: 2961: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2940: 2920: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2871: 2868: 2863: 2860: 2849:𒀭𒃲𒃲𒈬𒉈𒊏 2844: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2787: 2777: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2740:Noun phrases 2711: 2707: 2698:cryptography 2688: 2678: 2671: 2665: 2660: 2654: 2646: 2644: 2639: 2638:/ < {ama- 2635: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2617: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2589: 2582: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2552: 2545: 2535: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2485: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2428: 2426: 2417: 2415: 2411:assimilation 2408: 2403: 2395: 2388: 2381:vowel height 2358: 2352: 2322: 2308:lugal-la-kam 2303: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2265:glottal stop 2245: 2241: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2207: 2197: 2168: 2159: 2158: 2138: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2100: 2082: 2063:nasal or a 2055: 2053: 2041: 2037: 2025: 2007: 1989: 1969:alveolar tap 1966: 1961: 1945: 1941: 1916: 1898: 1880: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1845: 1827: 1809: 1526:Postalveolar 1502: 1485: 1481: 1468: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1445: 1433: 1425: 1413: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1394: 1388: 1379: 1373: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1352: 1347: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1301: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1261: 1246: 1227: 1200: 1169:logosyllabic 1166: 1158: 1151: 1083: 1074: 1063:Please help 1058:verification 1055: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 983: 970: 949: 943: 874: 865: 850:Please help 838: 804:unclassified 778: 719: 711: 704: 698: 670: 661: 635: 633: 612: 610: 598:Old Akkadian 597: 589: 587: 581: 574: 571:incantations 563:Abu Salabikh 550: 548: 536: 534: 445: 365: 328: 261: 260: 232: 216: 85:(modern-day 32549:Ural-Altaic 32529:Indo-Uralic 32341:Sentinelese 32072:Afroasiatic 32038:Eteocypriot 31864:Hittitology 31854:Assyriology 31775:Archaeology 31645:Old Persian 31455:Jemdet Nasr 30993:Germanosign 30897:Mura-Pirahã 30778:Lule–Vilela 30754:Bora-Witoto 30729:Uru–Chipaya 30702:Ticuna–Yuri 30685:Peba–Yaguan 30670:Nambikwaran 30473:Uto-Aztecan 30409:Mesoamerica 30263:Uto-Aztecan 30252:Tsimshianic 30214:Palaihnihan 30084:Malak-Malak 29821:Papuan Gulf 29795:West Papuan 29700:Lower Sepik 29690:Lakes Plain 29593:Arai–Samaia 29581:the Pacific 29289:Afroasiatic 29164:Niger–Congo 29140:Afroasiatic 28426:20 February 27777:: 265–279. 26120:allomorphs. 25754:allomorphs. 24558:(2010: 269) 23554:Open Access 23133:, volume 57 22626:11 December 21095:"pour", 𒆕 20473:superessive 20097:"pour", 𒂊 20006:and 𒀀𒉈𒉈 19590:, ruler of 19503:lagaš-ka-ke 19473:lagaš-ka-ke 19358:inim en-lil 18694:gi-na-ni-ta 18587:Sample text 18396:=ŠE&HU 14917:instead of 14612:"shepherd" 14297:"do" or 𒀝 14283:Participles 14156:"decorate") 14109:"big" + 𒈜 14090:> 𒂍𒊮 e 13909:wh-movement 13869:ne-en mu-zu 13861:zero-copula 13640:: 𒍣𒂵𒈬𒉈 13559:-a lugal-la 13529:"after the 13043:egir X-a-ka 13010:-a lugal-bi 12860:𒅗 ...𒌣 gu 12711:Directive: 12652:ninda i-nn- 12623:Causativity 12290:3rd person 12269:2nd person 12248:1st person 12228:copula verb 12222:Copula verb 12215:(-me)-da-ni 12108:: 𒁶(𒈨)𒉈 12053:stem: 𒋧𒈠 12010:Participles 11973:-an-na(-ab) 11520:𒋧𒈬𒌦𒈾𒀊 11377:Imperative 11374:Indicative 10521:𒄬𒄩 ḫal-ḫa 10453:slip, dive 10135:participle 9934:plur.), 𒁻 9911:sing.), 𒁺 9735:iterativity 9315:} can be a 9067:im-ši-g̃en. 8721:-kur} > 8687:" > /muː 8408:superessive 8320:ba-ra-an-sa 8276:inim ... gi 7975:comitative 7452:) and 𒅎𒈠 7075:E.g.: 𒀠𒁺 7003:E.g.: 𒅔𒁺 6950:finite verb 6746:" does not. 6704:prohibitive 6682:E.g.: 𒌦𒅥 6650:prospective 6565:cohortative 6450:has either 6444:ḫa- / 𒃶 ḫe 6328:E.g.: 𒅔𒅥 6297:im-, im-ma- 5770:finite verb 5630:finite verb 5410:"totality" 5171:"less ten" 4942:𒇹, 𒐉, 𒐼 4843:sexagesimal 4508:attributive 4353:"this", 𒊺 3972:"fill", 𒋳 3556:bar udu ḫad 3508:(-a)-ka-nam 3422:/-(e)š(e)/ 3418:terminative 3301:subject or 3251:lugal-me-eš 3235:Sumerograms 2838:case marker 2792:noun phrase 2542:allomorphic 2532:Orthography 2103:, likely a 2093:, likely a 2050:velar nasal 1742:Approximant 1438:/e/di 'dire 1410:Arno Poebel 1380:Babyloniaca 1335:secret code 1327:orientalist 1180:Old Persian 914:, found in 891:Development 781:prehistoric 683:Sumerograms 357:deciphering 320:Mesopotamia 265:(Sumerian: 247:instead of 83:Mesopotamia 32768:Categories 32689:Pre-Celtic 32657:East Asian 32647:Austro-Tai 32637:Andamanese 32487:Eurasiatic 32408:North Asia 32358:North Asia 32270:Hmong–Mien 32224:Burushaski 32183:South Asia 32154:Kartvelian 32121:Philistine 32031:Eteocretan 31975:Tartessian 31828:Divination 31538:Achaemenid 31503:Isin-Larsa 31396:Trialetian 31391:Mousterian 31378:Prehistory 30987:Francosign 30835:Chiquitano 30815:Alacalufan 30623:Guaicuruan 30596:Chapacuran 30579:Cahuapanan 30547:Araucanian 30450:Mixe–Zoque 30445:Misumalpan 30159:Comecrudan 30011:Nyulnyulan 29790:Upper Yuat 29767:Torricelli 29739:Senu River 29670:Foja Range 29576:New Guinea 29501:Burushaski 29362:Kartvelian 29337:Hmong–Mien 29153:Khoe–Kwadi 28940:conjugator 28898:(1874) by 28819:2011-07-05 28345:2018-09-23 28213:2020-02-27 28188:2018-03-12 27796:2023-05-09 27726:Rubio 2007 26902:2021-02-21 26183:Rubio 2007 26028:2008-07-20 24677:2021-02-25 23895:the great 23581:2006-02-06 23174:2018-09-16 23058:2011-07-30 22990:2015-11-23 22896:2018-09-23 22841:2005-09-23 22687:2024-05-31 22664:2024-05-31 22647:Paléorient 22217:Joan Oates 21657:Joan Oates 21596:2024-04-07 21586:"Sumerian" 20938:> 𒈬𒅇 20687:marû-ḫamṭu 20581:za-e-me-ze 20485:geminated. 20471:("in") or 20383:-a/e-ne-ne 20320:-a/e-ne-ne 20284:Consonants 20211:> 𒇽𒅇 19626:References 19487:-an-na-tum 19454:en-mete-na 19412:-an-na-tum 19251:𒀭𒂗𒆤𒇲𒋫 19227:inim si-sa 19146:𒀭𒂗𒆤𒇲𒆤 19126:𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄈𒋢 19069:𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠𒂠 18988:𒋛𒀀𒋛𒀀𒂠 18925:, king of 18820:𒀭𒅗𒁲𒈾𒋫 18699:𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄈𒋢 18668:𒀭𒀭𒌷𒉈𒆤 18655:kur-kur-ra 18596:See also: 17573:("ḪU.NÁ") 16894:("NI.UD") 15010:a, e, i, u 14959:use of 𒆤 14942:(/g/) and 14924:"to love"; 14393:emesukudda 14135:𒊬 dub-sar 14035:"present", 14005:"dog" + 𒈤 13962:affixation 13947:a-na-aš-am 13865:a-na mu-zu 13777:-em maš ḫe 13574:lugal-e řu 13098:𒇽𒂍𒅔𒆕𒀀 13072:nam X-a-še 13061:bar X-a-ka 13059:𒁇...𒀀𒅗 13041:𒂕...𒀀𒅗 13033:igi X-a-še 13020:𒊮...𒀀𒅗 13014:topicality 12884:igi ...bar 12611:impersonal 12404:or 𒃶𒀀𒀭 11961:-na-ab-be2 11289:expresses 11285:, whereas 11277:expresses 11198:perfective 10700:go around 9907:("to go", 9867:expresses 9790:expresses 9720:suppletive 9686:suppletion 9621:...-/ene/ 9592:-/e-ne/-? 9357:person in 8781:-si} > 8673:syncopated 8353:(animate) 8296:"put", 𒁺 8022:(early 𒂠 7984:directive 7791:> 𒈬𒅇 7520:nuance of 7210:"he came". 7200:im-ši-g̃en 7114:topicality 6937:proclitics 6322:indicative 5932:-/Ø/, -/e/ 5916:-/e/~/r/-, 5901:-/e/~/r/-, 5881:/i/~/e/-, 5862:morphemes 5732:transitive 5588:or 𒇲𒌋𒂆 5488:(𒌉𒐈𒀀𒀭 4741:(actually 4649:"big", 𒌉 4615:nin al-maḫ 4605:Adjectives 4560:is 𒅎(𒋼) 4399:or 𒀀𒁕𒀠 4341:As far as 4334:e.g. 𒍝𒊏 4269:(𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 4244:(𒈨𒂗𒉈𒂗 4223:𒉌 -(a)-ni 4088:something" 4061:something" 4034:about this 4030:concerning 4000:something" 3986:something" 3968:"hit", 𒋛 3944:mu-da X-ta 3908:somebody"; 3787:𒈗𒂊𒂍𒅔𒆕 3723:absolutive 3709:Case usage 3568:outer.side 3440:comitative 3303:transitive 3289:absolutive 3171:fisherman- 2782:and other 2780:adjectives 2752:"eye", 𒂍 2731:language. 2664:or 𒁀𒄄𒅖 2621:additional 2546:mu-g̃ar-re 2068:labiovelar 2061:labiovelar 2048:(likely a 1804:aspiration 1719:aspirated 1620:aspirated 1499:Consonants 1339:cryptolect 1280:Paul Haupt 930:, king of 818:See also: 800:substratum 695:Common Era 640:liturgical 32784:Cuneiform 32714:Pre-Vedic 32704:Pre-Greek 32676:Substrata 32579:Arunachal 32477:Nostratic 32462:Alarodian 32397:Yeniseian 32247:East Asia 32199:Dravidian 32056:West Asia 32024:Tyrsenian 31701:Cuneiform 31577:Languages 31386:Acheulean 31273:Babylonia 31210:Euphrates 31160:Geography 31018:Tanzanian 30959:languages 30856:Hodï/Joti 30800:Isolates 30739:Yanomaman 30675:Otomákoan 30639:Jirajaran 30628:Guajiboan 30590:Catacaoan 30569:Barbacoan 30498:Cuitlatec 30467:Totonacan 30426:Jicaquean 30305:Chimariko 30201:Muskogean 30183:Kalapuyan 30177:Iroquoian 30152:Chumashan 30145:Chinookan 30138:Chimakuan 30056:Yangmanic 30051:Worrorran 30034:Wagaydyic 29924:Australia 29773:Trans-Fly 29439:Yeniseian 29426:Tyrsenian 29320:Dravidian 29067:Parts 1–4 28658:170226826 28650:1062-0516 28615:474982763 28571:164022054 28534:251014503 28293:923551546 27834:: 49–67. 27152:2006/93. 23075:. p. 212 22827:(1961) . 22653:: 93–98. 22587:163985956 22397:cite book 22373:143879460 21918:P. 10-14. 21725:0373-6032 21557:Citations 21404:, 𒂉𒊒𒌦 21313:ba-an-tum 20790:mu-un-ni- 20431:directive 20379:-zu-ne-ne 20338:"my", 𒍪 20316:-zu-ne-ne 20296:lugal-kam 20264:meaning). 20248:, but it 20166:morphemes 20143:presence. 20004:-zu-nē-nē 20002:, 𒍪𒉈𒉈 19366:-ta sa šu 19196:dam-ḫa-ra 15722:=A.ENGUR 14995:Syllabary 14919:ki ...ag̃ 14871:sublative 14755:Shuruppak 14710:- and 𒂅 14386:eme-te-na 14379:eme-si-sa 14375:eme-galam 14371:registers 14255:"garden" 14051:+ 𒅅 g̃al 14049:"breath" 13998:"kitchen" 13901:instead. 13805:or 𒀪𒊺 - 12986:Modifiers 12923:𒋗... 𒁄 12918:extispicy 12911:šu ...gid 12909:𒋗... 𒁍 12795:šu ...bar 12716:igi ...du 12697:igi ...du 12693:idiomatic 12573:-řu} or { 12476:ma-an-šum 12280:-me-en-ze 12278:𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 12259:-me-en-de 12257:𒈨𒂗𒉈𒂗 12240:singular 12035:The bare 11999:, 𒁺𒀀𒀭 11640:-mu-un-ze 10970:𒅇 ...𒆪 10918:bathe in 10893:cool off 10840:, 𒋙𒋙 šu 10137:𒁲 di(-d) 9958:singular 9618:...-/eš/ 9609:...-/eš/ 9606:...-/eš/ 9543:-/b/-... 9523:-/n/-... 9520:-/n/-... 9508:3rd sing 9503:...-/en/ 9500:...-/en/ 9497:-/e/-... 9494:-/e/-... 9491:...-/en/ 9488:...-/en/ 9485:2nd sing 9480:...-/en/ 9477:...-/en/ 9474:-/V/-... 9471:-/V/-... 9468:...-/en/ 9465:...-/en/ 9462:1st sing 9287:, but an 8835:"he came 8554:possessor 8446:-n-g̃ar} 8432:-n-g̃ar} 8411:"on(to)" 8396:-n-g̃ar} 8375:"in(to)" 7987:locative 7978:ablative 7932:and 𒅔𒀝 7916:and 𒉌𒀝 7831:‑/n(n)/- 7568:𒀀𒀭𒈠 am 7560:𒀀𒀭𒈪 am 7384:reflexive 7297:-ra-an-ře 7267:-ni-in-ře 7252:and 𒈪𒊑 7250:𒉌 mi-ni- 7172:allomorph 7106:mu- + -a- 6888:and with 6840:and with 6574:- and 𒄘 6452:precative 5925:-/e(d)/- 5918:-/n(n)/-, 5903:-/n(n)/-, 5772:has both 5586:gig̃usila 5540:Fractions 5468:-kam(-ma) 5023:"five" + 4986:"five" + 4596:-te-ne-ne 4457:me-(e)-na 4432:are 𒀀𒁀 4209:𒀀𒉈 a-ne 4194:𒍝𒂊 za-e 4057:"hold on 4010:"be next 3897:somebody; 3790:lugal-e e 3553:𒁇𒇻𒌓𒅗 3331:directive 3228:a gal-gal 3168:šukuř-ene 3072:-a ba-dab 2927:enclitics 2808:adjective 2788:lugal maḫ 2784:modifiers 2502:enclitics 2489:apheresis 2343:and even 2222:Diakonoff 2077:sibilants 2065:nasalized 1967:voiceless 1798:in three 1694:Affricate 1654:Fricative 1478:Phonology 1374:In 1908, 1312:in 1888. 1238:syllabary 1172:cuneiform 1152:Na-ra-am 1133:Naram-Sin 994:Cuneiform 986:logograms 962:Sargonian 950:cuneiform 905:Urukagina 839:does not 820:Cuneiform 796:loanwords 746:Hungarian 691:cuneiform 559:Shuruppak 424:Baltimore 361:cuneiform 349:Babylonia 218:Glottolog 186:ISO 639-3 168:ISO 639-2 32709:Vasconic 32684:Atlantic 32438:Eskaleut 32392:Yukaghir 32307:Koreanic 32302:Tungusic 32297:Mongolic 32235:Harappan 32146:Caucasus 32128:Sumerian 32003:Ligurian 31847:Academia 31801:Religion 31670:Urartian 31665:Sumerian 31650:Parthian 31585:Akkadian 31558:Sasanian 31548:Parthian 31543:Seleucid 31493:Simurrum 31483:Akkadian 31416:Khiamian 31406:Natufian 31318:Simurrum 31303:Kassites 31298:Hittites 31253:Adiabene 31051:See also 31028:Isolates 31003:Japanese 30943:Yuracaré 30825:Candoshi 30784:Macro-Jê 30749:Zaparoan 30744:Zamucoan 30734:Witotoan 30717:Tucanoan 30712:Tiniguan 30707:Timotean 30691:Quechuan 30660:Matacoan 30655:Mascoian 30645:Jivaroan 30608:Chibchan 30602:Charruan 30553:Arawakan 30490:Isolates 30421:Chibchan 30297:Isolates 30269:Wakashan 30230:Salishan 30172:Eskaleut 30078:Giimbiyu 30070:Isolates 29979:Jarrakan 29974:Iwaidjan 29831:Isolates 29685:Kutubuan 29553:Sumerian 29489:Isolates 29444:Yukaghir 29413:Tungusic 29379:Mongolic 29367:Koreanic 29326:Eskaleut 29217:Isolates 29201:Ubangian 29063:RERO DOC 29011:Research 28472:Sumerian 28417:Archived 28395:Archived 28336:Archived 28207:Archived 28205:. 2020. 28158:Archived 28130:Archived 26896:Archived 26019:Archived 24834:Archived 23627:Archived 23602:Archived 23575:Archived 23052:Archived 22984:Archived 22887:Archived 22835:Archived 22761:Mémoires 22617:Archived 22288:: 54–63. 22219:(1986). 21733:23284567 21659:(1979). 21545:e-ne-eg̃ 21013:object". 20954:> 𒉈 20909:periods. 20857:/ 𒉈 𒋼 20821:periods. 20469:inessive 20288:lugal-la 20262:illative 20258:inessive 20254:allative 20246:adessive 20008:-a-nē-nē 19994:or 𒂊𒉈 19599:See also 19568:e-da-sur 19549:𒄑𒆵𒆠𒁕 19526:𒂗𒀉𒆗𒇷 19515:Entemena 19511:Eannatum 19451:𒂗𒋼𒈨𒈾 19439:𒉺𒄑𒉋𒂵 19431:𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠 19405:𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺 19378:SAḪAR.DU 19344:ba-ni-us 19341:𒁀𒉌𒍑𒍑 19312:SAḪAR.DU 19309:𒅖𒇯𒋺𒁉 19211:nin-g̃ir 19185:𒄑𒆵𒆠𒁕 19173:𒋛𒁲𒉌𒋫 19129:nin-g̃ir 19072:lagaš-še 19037:𒈾𒆕𒀀𒁉 18961:𒄑𒆵𒆠𒆤 18788:me-silim 18770:Ningirsu 18757:-su šara 18734:e-ne-sur 18702:nin-g̃ir 18691:𒄀𒈾𒉌𒋫 18622:Enmetena 18620:Cone of 18598:Entemena 17978:=KASKAL 15422:=KASKAL 14900:subject; 14867:illative 14685:"bring" 14646:𒃽 gašan 14642:ga-ša-an 14536:"sheep" 14457:Meaning 14428:Garifuna 14426:and the 14424:Chukchis 14320:Dialects 14303:a ...dug 14180:nam-dumu 14154:šu...tag 14137:"scribe" 14088:"heart" 14083:+ 𒊮 šag 14081:"house" 14062:-zi-g̃al 14045:"thing" 13996:muḫaldim 13985:muḫaldim 13917:mu-un-ak 13913:lugal-e 13822:lugal-am 13703:tukum-bi 13685:dili-g̃u 13134:i-n-řu-a 13002:lugal-la 12943:šu ...ti 12941:𒋗...𒋾 12845:𒆠...𒉘 12793:𒋗...𒁇 12782:𒅗...𒃻 12767:si ...sa 12765:𒋛...𒁲 12744:𒊓...𒅗 12724:𒆥...𒀝 12714:𒅆...𒂃 12472:-ra-ni-i 12464:kug nig̃ 12390:ba-ra-me 12125:(-me)-da 12114:(-me)-de 11320:present- 10889:te-en-te 10381:𒅍𒂷/𒅍 10303:𒉋𒉋 BIL 10289:meaning 10159:(𒂊)𒁻 ( 10091:meaning 10082:singular 9984:"stand" 9964:meaning 9890:4th type 9865:3rd type 9805:vs 𒆭𒆭 9788:2nd type 9754:1st type 9701:complete 9569:-/me/-? 9552:...-/e/ 9549:...-/Ø/ 9540:...-/Ø/ 9537:...-/Ø/ 9529:...-/e/ 9526:...-/Ø/ 9517:...-/Ø/ 9514:...-/Ø/ 9510:animate 9239:𒉈 -e-ne 9059:-ši-g̃en 8587:in there 8535:-n-šum} 8521:-n-šum} 8493:-n-tag} 8479:-n-tag} 8455:adessive 8372:inessive 8360:example 8342:meaning 8329:illicit. 8222:ninda b- 7930:mu-un-ak 7208:-im-g̃en 7134:telicity 6997:-/r-i/-. 6781:vetitive 6615:re-en-de 6609:ga-ni-ib 6483:into 𒃶 6456:optative 6365:negative 6314:modality 6278:- -e- -a 6221:-return. 5937:-/enzen/ 5935:-/enden/ 5887:-/nga/- 5778:suffixes 5774:prefixes 5734:or only 5709:Akkadian 5613:𒌋𒁹𒁹𒂆 5566:šu-ri-a. 5345:li-mu-um 4894:𒁹 (𒀸) 4833:Numerals 4827:Pronouns 4815:gibil-bi 4799:numun-eš 4754:dirig-ga 4699:gibil-la 4627:kalag-ga 4529:ki na-me 4502:is 𒈾𒈨 4490:a-na-gen 4468:me-na-še 4461:me-na-am 4363:Japanese 4271:me-en-ze 4246:me-en-de 4127:Pronouns 4084:"be fit 3873:governed 3758:i-m-g̃en 3740:-im-g̃en 3733:𒈗𒉌𒅎𒁺 3727:ergative 3632:shepherd 3611:embedded 3581:ḫad-ak-a 3538:"on(to)" 3534:"in(to)" 3504:na-an-na 3479:ablative 3459:locative 3444:/-d(a)/ 3374:equative 3354:genitive 3311:ergative 3243:udu ḫi-a 3163:shepherd 3092:house-in 2923:suffixes 2721:ergative 2634:for /ama 2579:Auslauts 2498:suffixes 2300:lugal-la 2256:, and a 2244:in 𒆷𒀝 2157:, as in 2052:, as in 1521:Alveolar 1516:Bilabial 1488:Akkadian 1450:'s 2003 1211:decipher 1201:In 1838 1188:Akkadian 1144:Akkadian 973:Akkadian 928:Entemena 926:Vase of 868:May 2022 744:such as 606:Akkadian 396:Urartian 372:Akkadian 330:Akkadian 301:language 299:was the 262:Sumerian 253:Help:IPA 225:sume1241 127:Dialects 33:Sumerian 32744:italics 32642:Austric 32619:Kho-Bwa 32614:Hrusish 32592:Siangic 32534:Karasuk 32434: ? 32347:Kenaboi 32312:Japonic 32277:Kra–Dai 32238: ? 32229:Kusunda 32135:Elamite 32107:Kassite 32093:Kaskian 31996:Camunic 31968:Iberian 31925:Eurasia 31833:Prayers 31818:Deities 31782:Looting 31625:Kassite 31620:Hurrian 31615:Hittite 31605:Elamite 31600:Eblaite 31595:Aramaic 31590:Amorite 31513:Kassite 31488:Gutians 31470:History 31435:Samarra 31431:Hassuna 31401:Zarzian 31323:Subartu 31313:Mitanni 31278:Chaldea 31268:Assyria 31241:Ancient 31101:italics 31078:Pidgins 31063:Creoles 31013:Swedish 30981:Chinese 30928:Urarina 30913:Puinave 30867:Itonama 30861:Irantxe 30830:Chimane 30760:Chimuan 30665:Nadahup 30584:Cariban 30564:Aymaran 30525:America 30367:Waikuri 30360:Tonkawa 30353:Timucua 30346:Takelma 30339:Siuslaw 30328:Kutenai 30312:Esselen 30275:Wintuan 30236:Shastan 30207:Na-Dene 30195:Maiduan 30132:Caddoan 30106:America 30060:Wagiman 30058:(incl. 30029:Tangkic 29969:Garawan 29942:Bunuban 29903:Tambora 29870:Maybrat 29838:Abinomn 29761:Teberan 29722:Pauwasi 29712:Mairasi 29680:Kiwaian 29560:Tambora 29546:Shompen 29528:Kusunda 29521:Kenaboi 29507:Elamite 29479:Siangic 29461:Kho-Bwa 29455:Hrusish 29373:Kra–Dai 29357:Japonic 29266:Eurasia 29241:Sandawe 29224:Bangime 29189:Songhay 29079:at the 28952:Corpora 28867:Archive 28858:General 28563:1359671 25790:former. 25648:i+m+ba- 25548:beings. 24172:21 July 22579:1359726 22365:2740574 22221:Babylon 21661:Babylon 21530:"this". 21363:(plur. 21352:(sing. 21334:(sing. 21279:(plur. 21268:(sing. 21250:(sing. 21226:(plur. 21215:(sing. 21197:(sing. 21003:-ni-/). 20950:: 𒁕𒂊 20934:: 𒈬𒂊 20676:"long". 20475:("on"). 20387:content 20365:and 𒁀 20162:italics 20048:and 𒍢 20018:and 𒉈 20014:, 𒂊𒉈 19924:dam-gār 19588:Enakale 19552:umma-da 19533:-kal-le 19328:eden-na 19204:e-da-ak 19188:umma-da 19098:-a-bi i 19013:umma-ke 19009:uš ensi 18983:inim-ma 18964:umma-ke 18931:Ištaran 18923:Mesilim 17495:=A.IGI 17402:=LAGAB 17369:=LAGAB 14986:and 𒎏 14667:"what" 14650:"lady" 14640:𒂵𒊭𒀭 14627:Emesal 14624:Emegir 14401:emesidi 14397:emesuha 14366:eme-sal 14341:eme-gir 14248:: 𒄑𒊬 14228:si...sa 14188:nam-tar 14115:gal-nar 14047:+ 𒍣 zi 13895:nu-um " 13834:a-na-aš 13730:nin-lil 13646:-ga-g̃u 13631:-ra-ni- 13154:-build- 12663:: {gud 12631:engar-e 12508:engar-e 12487:nu-me-a 12439:𒅅 g̃al 12428:urud nu 12312:𒀭𒈨𒌍 12243:plural 12207:section 12203:in the 12098:-me(-d) 12001:g̃en-am 11206:tukumbi 11164:-mu(-d) 11060:(-e)-de 10946:𒋳 tuku 10924:𒌇 tuku 10899:𒋗𒉀 tu 10832:𒌋𒌋 šu 10745:barter 10688:𒆸𒆸 ni 10525:divide 10347:DUN-DUN 10336:gather 10325:𒊑𒊑 de 10320:𒊑 degₓ 10019:"live" 9961:plural 9945:plur.). 9796:partial 9580:2nd pl 9557:1st pl 9243:𒂠/𒌍 - 9215:𒂗𒍢𒂗 9200:𒂗𒉈𒂗 9094:-im-g̃a 8906:-n-us} 8856:-n-ak} 8662:-in-kur 8501:dative 8240:since X 8196:-go.out 8020:𒅆 -ši- 8010:𒋫 -ta- 7996:𒁕 -da- 7972:dative 7954:mu-e-ak 7855:𒈨 -me- 7774:and 𒊑 7737:, 𒉈𒉌 7729:, 𒁀𒀀 7707:-/ʔ/-? 7696:prefix 7518:passive 7239:𒉌 -ni- 7130:animacy 7096:ventive 7034:passive 7030:stative 6740:𒉆 nam- 6591:ga-ni-i 6371:and 𒉈 6347:and 𒆷 5908:-/a/-, 5896:-/ba/- 5890:/mu/-, 5872:/ga/-, 5860:common 5855:prefix 5849:prefix 5847:ventive 5840:prefix 5808:prefix 5792:", and 5766:affixes 5721:passive 5624:General 5602:shekels 5578:šuššana 5562:šu-ru-a 5508:dumu eš 5490:dumu eš 5475:dumu eš 5464:-kam-ma 5438:216000 5352:𒇷𒈬𒌝 5331:g̃eš(d) 5294:"seven 5197:𒐕, 𒐑 5142:𒌋𒌋𒌋 4927:𒐈, 𒌍 4857:number 4839:decimal 4475:a-na-aš 4401:a-da-al 4330:and 𒍝 4328:𒂷 g̃a- 4174:𒈬 -g̃u 3976:"touch" 3802:lugal-e 3745:lugal-∅ 3736:lugal i 3512:(-a)-ke 3378:/-gin/ 3305:object 3277:ending 3213:kur-kur 3105:-catch- 2993:𒁹𒁹𒁹 2813:numeral 2765:šakanka 2704:Grammar 2312:liaison 2290:ending 1938:phoneme 1578:Plosive 1536:Glottal 1325:-based 1220:Semitic 1184:Elamite 1008:and 𒀀 903:(maybe 860:removed 845:sources 762:Turkish 750:Finnish 700:Lugal-e 634:By the 388:Hurrian 384:Hittite 380:Eblaite 376:Elamite 345:Assyria 305:ancient 288: 277:eme-gir 249:Unicode 46:eme-gir 32604:Mijiic 32597:Digaro 32544:Pontic 32472:Borean 32467:Altaic 32431:Rouran 32424:Turkic 32417:Uralic 32406:Other 32291:Turkic 32219:Nihali 32114:Gutian 32086:Hattic 32079:Turkic 32045:Minoan 32017:Sicani 31962:Basque 31956:Turkic 31949:Uralic 31933:Europe 31660:Sutean 31635:Median 31630:Luwian 31610:Gutian 31498:Ur III 31411:Nemrik 31348:Cities 31343:Urartu 31293:Hamazi 31288:Gutium 31263:Armani 31215:Tigris 31168:Modern 30976:BANZSL 30938:Yamana 30923:Trumai 30892:Movima 30846:Fulniô 30809:Aikanã 30723:Tupian 30618:Chonan 30542:Arauan 30480:Xincan 30432:Lencan 30385:Yokuts 30282:Yukian 30247:Tanoan 30242:Siouan 30225:Pomoan 30166:Coosan 29992:Mirndi 29885:Porome 29880:Pawaia 29734:Senagi 29706:Madang 29655:Eleman 29610:Border 29541:Nihali 29534:Minoan 29514:Hattic 29496:Basque 29467:Mijiic 29449:Digaro 29433:Uralic 29419:Turkic 29270:Europe 29127:Africa 29071:Part 5 28834: 28799: 28782:Link 2 28779:Link 1 28748: 28721: 28708:Online 28698:Online 28688:Online 28672: 28656: 28648: 28613: 28585: 28569: 28561: 28532: 28500: 28478: 28463: 28445: 28392:Online 28361: 28308: 28291: 28252:Online 28243: 27957: 27848:592549 27846: 27791:592740 27789: 27748: 27166:Online 27154:Online 25661:im-ma- 25021:na(n)- 24668: 24359:Online 24163: 23936:stems. 23571:. p.9" 22868:Online 22856:Online 22742: 22585: 22577: 22493: 22468: 22425: 22371: 22363: 22307: 22157: 22140:passim 22073:passim 21830:Online 21731: 21723: 21694: 21573:emegir 21522:. The 21410:-ru-un 21036:2007). 20997:dative 20952:-da-e- 20848:/-ni-/ 20786:mu-ni- 20782:mi-ni- 20194:"men". 20016:-e-nē- 19916:banšūr 19882:by 𒉈 19858:as in 19802:, and 19764:nig̃en 19760:nig̃in 19691:bansur 19687:banšur 19645:eme-gi 19565:𒂊𒁕𒋩 19538:𒉺𒋼𒋛 19459:𒉺𒋼𒋛 19442:pa-bil 19420:𒉺𒋼𒋛 19370:gal bi 19254:en-lil 19201:𒂊𒁕𒀝 19193:𒁮𒄩𒊏 19180:-ni-ta 19149:en-lil 19141:ur-sag 18950:𒉺𒋼𒋛 18804:kiš-ke 18801:𒆧𒆠𒆤 18749:-ne-ke 18741:en-lil 18731:𒂊𒉈𒋩 18711:𒀭𒇋𒁉 18675:-ne-ke 18652:𒆳𒆳𒊏 18636:en-lil 18633:𒀭𒂗𒆤 18602:Lagash 18372:= GIŠ 16555:=ALAM 16070:=ḪI.A 14905:ki-ag̃ 14743:Nippur 14727:Lagash 14673:𒁺 tum 14574:"eye" 14435:Emesal 14416:Emesal 14411:Emesal 14350:Emesal 14327:Emegir 14310:ga-rig 14275:dag̃al 14239:-si-sa 14150:šu-tag 14131:𒊬 sar 14013:"lion" 14011:ur-maḫ 13966:sar-ru 13930:a-ba-a 13905:Yes/no 13801:, 𒅆 - 13773:udu ḫe 13742:Ninlil 13736:"both 13726:en-lil 13665:zi-zi- 13473:-ra-ta 13318:ka-nam 13298:-a-gen 13054:X-a-ka 13026:X-a-ka 12971:Syntax 12830:...tar 12633:gud i- 12424:*nu-um 12382:-me-en 12362:-me-en 12314:-me-eš 12274:-me-en 12253:-me-en 12205:Syntax 12191:di(-d) 12102:Latin 11951:g̃en-n 11925:, but 11736:-enzen 11731:-give- 11478:-give- 11314:, and 11271:aspect 11230:'if'. 11011:𒍣 zig 11005:sleep 10965:weave 10851:cover 10787:repay 10683:nig̃in 10676:drink 10653:dress 10601:enter 10434:𒁽 gir 10399:carry 10376:swing 10357:𒁔 dun 10342:𒂄 dun 10295:𒉋 bil 10274:forms 10263:"die" 10087:plural 10076:forms 9899:vs 𒂊 9768:vs 𒁶 9697:number 9678:number 9546:-/b/- 9409:-e-ne- 9285:aspect 9264:form. 9217:-en-ze 9202:-en-de 9109:im-ma- 9105:im-mi- 8986:-ši-ib 8914:-in-us 8864:-in-ak 8763:-in-si 8693:mu-kur 8583:to you 8567:at you 7992:/-a-/ 7924:(𒂊𒀝 7879:‑e‑ne- 7843:‑/b/‑ 7808:𒂊 mu- 7767:‑/r/‑ 7763:𒂊 -e- 7699:Notes 7621:-mu-zu 7613:-an-zu 7594:(from 7586:(from 7580:im-ma- 7576:im-mi- 7537:-in-ře 7510:im-ma- 7474:im-ma- 7470:im-mi- 7462:im-mi- 7454:im-ma- 7442:𒉌𒈪 i 7438:im-mi- 7417:-an-ře 7377:marker 7346:-in-ře 7284:ma-ra- 7254:mi-ri- 7160:𒀀𒀭am 7145:-un-ře 7098:prefix 7026:𒀠 al- 6994:finite 6918:-in-gu 6874:𒅆 ši- 6834:nu-uš- 6823:-an-gu 6812:-ab-gu 6777:ba-ra- 6766:-an-gu 6755:-ab-gu 6736:na-an- 6663:- and 6631:-ab-gu 6613:-g̃ar- 6550:-an-gu 6541:-ib-gu 6531:-eb-gu 6429:-un-gu 6301:im-mi- 6061:-give- 5961:-mu-ne 5920:-/b/- 5914:-/Ø/-, 5905:-/b/- 5899:-/Ø/-, 5892:-/m/- 5868:/ḫa/-, 5853:middle 5838:finite 5701:aspect 5694:-du-un 5682:-du-un 5664:-du-un 5638:agrees 5582:šanabi 5576:): 𒑚 5572:(𒈠𒈾 5486:copula 5482:3 dumu 5418:36000 5372:-u-min 5256:"four 5252:-limmu 5071:(5) + 5054:ilimmu 5027:"two" 4990:"one" 4788:zid-de 4743:giggig 4732:babbar 4703:tur-ra 4679:zid-da 4663:zid-da 4588:-te-ni 4394:-ne-eš 4386:-ne(n) 4347:𒁉 -bi 4260:𒈨 -me 4235:𒁉 -bi 4199:𒍪 -zu 4079:𒁺 tum 3980:𒈭 daḫ 3854:-build 3828:i-n-du 3818:house- 3584:white- 3484:/-ta/ 3411:causee 3396:dative 3347:causee 3247:-me-eš 3155:farmer 3076:-ba-ne 2984:Number 2976:3. In 2937:Gender 2872:great- 2861:dig̃ir 2856:-ne-ra 2690:en-lil 2588:or as 2571:sar-ra 2521:always 2482:Stress 2449:hiatus 2361:Lagash 2335:, and 2319:Vowels 2279:, and 2229:in 𒍠 1964:was a 1698:plain 1582:plain 1310:Nippur 1298:Lagash 1255:, and 1249:Nippur 1131:ruler 966:Lagash 932:Lagash 916:Telloh 901:Lagash 706:An-gim 687:kanbun 648:Nippur 629:Nippur 594:Lagash 514:Ur III 507:Lagash 436:Rimush 410:Stages 392:Luwian 355:began 294:'' 290:'' 132:Emesal 79:Region 18:Emesal 32789:Sumer 32382:Nivkh 32336:Ongan 31746:Music 31696:Akitu 31553:Roman 31445:Ubaid 31440:Halaf 31338:Tukri 31333:Sumer 31328:Suhum 31308:Media 31258:Akkad 30933:Warao 30902:Nukak 30873:Kunza 30851:Guató 30840:Cofán 30820:Camsá 30613:Choco 30574:Boran 30523:South 30504:Huave 30439:Mayan 30390:Yuchi 30373:Washo 30323:Karuk 30318:Haida 30257:Utian 30189:Keres 30126:Alsea 30119:Algic 30104:North 29896:Taiap 29890:Sulka 29745:Sepik 29660:Engan 29401:Ongan 29384:Nivkh 29252:Shabo 29235:Jalaa 29229:Hadza 29183:Mande 28654:S2CID 28567:S2CID 28559:JSTOR 28420:(PDF) 28409:(PDF) 28339:(PDF) 28324:(PDF) 28237:/e/di 28161:(PDF) 28154:(PDF) 28133:(PDF) 28126:(PDF) 27844:JSTOR 27824:(PDF) 27787:JSTOR 26022:(PDF) 26007:(PDF) 25646:< 25644:imma- 24801:Ḫamṭu 23168:(PDF) 23161:(PDF) 22890:(PDF) 22883:(PDF) 22682:(PDF) 22620:(PDF) 22605:(PDF) 22583:S2CID 22575:JSTOR 22369:S2CID 22361:JSTOR 21729:JSTOR 21474:ḫamṭu 21466:ḫamṭu 21449:ḫamṭu 21441:ḫamṭu 21399:durun 21365:ḫamṭu 21336:ḫamṭu 21305:ḫamṭu 21281:ḫamṭu 21252:ḫamṭu 21228:ḫamṭu 21199:ḫamṭu 20936:mu-e- 20747:Also 20691:ḫamṭu 20664:lugud 20371:-e-ne 20361:, 𒈾 20357:, 𒍝 20308:-e-ne 20170:gloss 20154:small 20020:-nnē- 19918:, 𒁓 19908:ambār 19809:> 19795:> 19781:> 19770:> 19768:ninda 19762:> 19756:lagas 19754:> 19752:lagaš 19746:> 19735:> 19724:> 19713:> 19705:> 19697:> 19689:> 19683:abbar 19681:> 19679:ambar 19631:Notes 19522:39–42 19434:lagaš 19401:32–38 19382:.TAKA 19316:.TAKA 19239:28–31 19176:si-sa 19122:22–27 19115:Lagaš 19110:-g̃en 19094:na-ru 19087:-g̃en 19044:-a-bi 19040:na-ru 19033:18–21 18938:13–17 18865:ki-ba 18796:lugal 18766:Enlil 18663:ab-ba 18647:lugal 18629:I.1–7 18348:=GIŠ 18162:=GÍR 18088:=DIM 18001:=BAD 17842:=IGI 17793:=NÍG 17716:=GIŠ 17692:=GIŠ 17654:=SUD 17425:=GAG 17392:=URU 17358:=URU 17279:=TUM 17255:=TUM 17208:=TÚL 17184:=BAD 16750:=SAR 16715:MUNUS 16450:=LAL 16180:=ŠEŠ 16145:=GAN 16122:=GAN 15945:=NAG 15844:=DIŠ 15833:=KID 15810:=DIŠ 15799:=KID 15663:=TUM 15649:=GAG 15504:=TUM 15481:=TUM 15342:=BAD 14817:mu-e- 14762:well. 14681:𒅕 ir 14655:𒀀𒈾 14599:𒁻𒁀 14589:𒉺𒇻 14561:𒄿𒉈 14523:𒂊𒍢 14405:emeku 14314:...ak 14268:an-ki 14162:ba-uš 13932:in-řu 13888:nu-am 13884:above 13854:-g̃en 13846:-g̃en 13830:-g̃en 13738:Enlil 13707:en-na 13699:ud-da 13657:ḫamṭu 13627:, kur 13623:-ra-n 13531:Flood 13489:flood 13486:amaru 13449:in-řu 13414:in-řu 13389:in-řu 13370:in-řu 13332:in-řu 13312:in-řu 13294:in-řu 13266:nu-řu 13233:in-řu 13207:in-řu 13191:in-zu 13180:in-řu 13129:house 13109:in-řu 12994:gibil 12864:...de 12826:𒋻 en 12824:𒇷... 12758:𒄑... 12730:...ak 12583:ḫamṭu 12516:ḫamṭu 12453:-me-a 12374:-me-a 12366:*i-me 12293:𒀀𒀭 12272:𒈨𒂗 12251:𒈨𒂗 12051:ḫamṭu 12037:ḫamṭu 11947:-g̃en 11786:give- 11728:-šum- 11535:give- 11475:-šum- 11359:ḫamṭu 11335:ḫamṭu 11308:ḫamṭu 11304:tense 11275:ḫamṭu 11264:below 11260:above 11254:or a 11252:ḫamṭu 11246:or a 11244:ḫamṭu 11228:ud-da 11208:'if'. 11194:ḫamṭu 11148:ḫamṭu 11128:ḫamṭu 11112:ḫamṭu 11110:from 11035:zu-zu 11023:rise 11019:zi-zi 10958:-TUKU 10940:have 10884:te-en 10882:𒋼𒂗 10822:, 𒋙 10761:fill 10757:si-si 10715:ra-ra 10681:𒆸𒆸 10627:grow 10575:seek 10541:ḫulḫu 10530:𒅆𒌨 10516:ḫa-la 10514:𒄩𒆷 10493:𒂷𒂷 10482:reap 10428:turn 10314:burn 10280:ḫamṭu 10229:durun 10181:"go" 10107:ḫamṭu 10097:ḫamṭu 10033:𒁺𒁺 9932:ḫamṭu 9909:ḫamṭu 9781:below 9746:ḫamṭu 9705:ḫamṭu 9629:ḫamṭu 9429:ḫamṭu 9396:-dab- 9390:ḫamṭu 9367:ḫamṭu 9355:third 9337:ḫamṭu 9333:ḫamṭu 9317:ḫamṭu 9311:-dab- 9301:ḫamṭu 9281:tense 9192:/-Ø/ 9151:ḫamṭu 8951:to it 8935:-us} 8921:to it 8892:to it 8882:-ak} 8868:to it 8812:un-ak 8798:on it 8767:on it 8730:n-kur 8531:i-nn- 8489:i-nn- 8442:i-nn- 8402:---- 8382:---- 8014:/ra/- 8012:(𒊏 - 7938:mu-ak 7934:in-ak 7914:mu-ak 7900:‑nne- 7674:below 7670:below 7662:below 7545:im-ma 7466:-i~e- 7458:e-ma- 7450:e-me- 7436:𒅎𒈪 7188:𒀀 a- 7122:focus 7038:ḫamṭu 7022:𒀀 a- 6967:voice 6959:focus 6954:Which 6897:/ 𒁺 6890:marû. 6886:ḫamṭu 6842:marû. 6838:ḫamṭu 6832:𒉡𒍑 6821:ba-ra 6810:ba-ra 6797:ḫamṭu 6775:𒁀𒊏 6712:ḫamṭu 6654:ḫamṭu 6583:ḫamṭu 6513:𒃶 ḫe 6469:ḫamṭu 6465:ḫamṭu 6351:, 𒇷 6330:in-gu 6058:-šum- 5944:-/a/ 5930:-/en/ 5928:-/en/ 5883:/a/- 5870:/u/-, 5866:/Ø/-, 5823:stem 5806:modal 5802:slot 5755:verbs 5723:or a 5713:ḫamṭu 5634:moods 5574:ma-na 5453:𒊹𒃲 5399:3600 5394:𒐞𒈫 5376:"two 5357:1200 5341:1000 5329:"ten 5305:𒐕𒅓 5290:-imin 5270:𒐕𒐏 5232:𒐕𒈫 5221:"two 5167:ninnu 5151:nimin 5124:𒌋𒌋 5109:𒌋𒁹 5102:u-diš 5073:limmu 4936:limmu 4860:name 4770:ud-ba 4758:dirig 4750:dirig 4691:gibil 4623:gu-ul 4573:𒈬 ni 4537:na-me 4525:na-me 4517:na-me 4504:na-me 4409:ki-ba 4405:ud-ba 4367:Latin 4336:za-ra 4321:𒂊 ze 4254:𒈨 me 4187:𒍢 ze 4135:are: 4095:𒉚 sa 4064:𒄷𒈿 4026:about 3805:king- 3794:in-du 3772:-come 3748:king- 3703:sipad 3687:-a(k) 3648:wool- 3640:sheep 3629:sipad 3576:sheep 3368:"of" 3293:/-Ø/ 3274:case 3160:sipad 3152:engar 3147:-e-ne 3052:engar 2978:fable 2875:REDUP 2773:below 2666:ba-gi 2655:ba-gi 2575:above 2389:e-kaš 2353:plene 2263:or a 2233:> 2109:/t͡s/ 1543:Nasal 1531:Velar 1440:' 1428:, by 1422:Gudea 1323:Paris 1294:Tello 1273:Sumer 1269:Akkad 1253:Larsa 1014:dirig 792:areal 621:Gudea 308:Sumer 73:Akkad 69:Sumer 32751:bold 32609:Miju 32377:Ainu 31792:Tell 31450:Uruk 31283:Elam 31108:bold 31035:See 30971:Arab 30957:Sign 30908:Páez 30885:Maku 30879:Leco 30395:Zuni 30379:Yana 30333:Seri 30090:Tiwi 29910:Wiru 29875:Mpur 29865:Kuot 29848:Anêm 29843:Abun 29810:Yuat 29805:Yawa 29751:Skou 29728:Ramu 29579:and 29473:Miju 29295:Ainu 29275:Asia 29273:and 29246:Laal 29207:Kadu 29195:Ijaw 29158:Kx'a 28989:and 28938:and 28841:2024 28832:ISBN 28797:ISBN 28746:ISBN 28719:ISBN 28670:ISBN 28646:ISSN 28611:OCLC 28583:ISBN 28530:OCLC 28511:107. 28498:ISBN 28476:ISBN 28461:ISBN 28443:ISBN 28428:2021 28359:ISBN 28306:ISBN 28289:OCLC 28241:ISBN 27955:ISBN 27746:ISBN 27150:NABU 26564:2019 26556:sun 24799:and 24797:Marû 24666:ISBN 24174:2016 24161:ISBN 23897:ensi 23891:as " 23220:18). 22740:ISBN 22628:2012 22491:ISBN 22466:ISBN 22423:ISBN 22403:link 22305:ISBN 22155:ISBN 21721:ISSN 21692:ISBN 21541:inim 21478:marû 21470:marû 21453:marû 21445:marû 21443:and 21369:marû 21367:and 21354:marû 21309:marû 21285:marû 21283:and 21270:marû 21232:marû 21230:and 21217:marû 21162:marû 21104:g̃ar 21064:marû 21047:marû 20975:-b-i 20940:mu-u 20897:-ra- 20866:-da- 20774:-ni- 20770:-na- 20766:-nn- 20514:with 20352:-g̃a 20333:-g̃u 20304:dumu 20057:-me- 20012:-mē- 19996:e-nē 19992:a-nē 19988:-enē 19972:sāg̃ 19838:and 19772:inda 19748:enim 19744:inim 19737:umun 19733:imin 19715:edin 19711:eden 19592:Umma 19575:en-a 19541:ensi 19529:en-a 19491:ensi 19462:ensi 19423:ensi 19325:𒂔𒈾 19294:𒉈𒌋 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