409:
474:
334:
393:
354:
372:
580:
229:
805:
841:
769:
947:
877:
701:
913:
981:
33:
735:
1020:. In the book, women develop the ability to release electrical jolts from their fingers, powerful enough to stun or kill. The novel references the ability of fish such as the electric eel to give powerful shocks, the electricity being generated in a specially modified strip or skein of striated muscle across the girls' collarbones.
217:: "But if the electric organs had been inherited from one ancient progenitor thus provided, we might have expected that all electric fishes would have been specially related to each other…I am inclined to believe that in nearly the same way as two men have sometimes independently hit on the very same invention, so
327:, the electric organs are oriented along the dorso-ventral (up-down) axis. In the torpedo ray, the organ is near the pectoral muscles and gills. The stargazer's electric organs lie behind the eyes. In the electric catfish, the organs are located just below the skin and encase most of the body like a sheath.
548:
gene Scn4aa which produces electric discharges. Early research pointed to convergence between lineages, but more recent genomic research is more nuanced. Comparative transcriptomics of the
Mormyroidea, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes lineages conducted by Liu (2019) concluded that although there is
434:
that generate electricity. These are variously called electrocytes, electroplaques or electroplaxes. In some species they are cigar-shaped; in others, they are flat disk-like cells. Electric eels have stacks of several thousands of these cells, each cell producing 0.15 V. The cells function by
1023:
The poet and author Anna Keeler's short story "In the Arms of an
Electric Eel" imagines a girl who, unlike an electric eel, does feel the electric shocks she generates. Agitated and depressed, she unintentionally burns herself to death with her own electricity.
616:, the African knifefish. Many electric fishes also use EODs for communication, while strongly electric species use them for hunting or defence. Their electric signals are often simple and stereotyped, and the same on every occasion.
549:
no parallel evolution of entire transcriptomes of electric organs, there are a significant number of genes that exhibit parallel gene expression changes from muscle function to electric organ function at the level of pathways.
408:
2371:
353:
1267:(1877). "Beobachtungen und versuche am sĂĽdamerikanischen zitteraale (Gymnotus electricus)" [Observations and research on the South American electric eel (Gymnotus electricus)].
221:, working for the good of each being and taking advantage of analogous variations, has sometimes modified in very nearly the same manner two parts in two organic beings". In 1877,
455:, depolarising with an inflow of sodium ions, and repolarising afterwards with an outflow of potassium ions; but electrocytes are much larger and do not contract. They have
392:
333:
307:, the electric organs are oriented to fire along the length of the body, usually lying along the length of the tail and within the fish's musculature, as in the
371:
1558:
570:. The original function of the electric organ has not been fully established in most cases; the organ of the African freshwater catfish genus
1649:
Lavoué, S. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships of mormyrid electric fishes (Mormyridae; Teleostei) inferred from cytochrome b sequences".
477:
Electric eel anatomy: first detail shows electric organs, made of stacks of electrocytes. Second detail shows an individual cell with
1176:
Alexander, Mauro (1969). "The role of the voltaic pile in the
Galvani-Volta controversy concerning animal vs. metallic electricity".
540:
split into the
American and African continents, leading to the divergence of the two groups. A whole-genome duplication event in the
17:
1213:"A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250 th An- niversary of a Historic Expedition to ĂŽle de RĂ©"
2435:
1902:"Comparative Transcriptome Analyses Reveal the Role of Conserved Function in Electric Organ Convergence Across Electric Fishes"
1248:
536:
groups of electric fish. The two groups are distantly related, as they shared a common ancestor before the supercontinent
2458:
2177:
1054:
134:
1240:
On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life
1592:
1533:
1686:"Comparable ages for the independent origins of electrogenesis in African and South American weakly electric fishes"
2329:
1550:
456:
2246:
Traeger, Lindsay L.; Sabat, Grzegorz; Barrett-Wilt, Gregory A.; Wells, Gregg B.; Sussman, Michael R. (July 2017).
2392:
1489:
2350:
473:
636:
545:
287:
2428:
1851:"Old gene duplication facilitates origin and diversification of an innovative communication system-twice"
1804:(6191). L. L. Traeger, J. D. Volkening, H. Moffett, P. H. Chen, C. D. Novina, G. N. Phillips: 1522–1525.
2116:
Nagel, Rebecca; Kirschbaum, Frank; Hofmann, Volker; Engelmann, Jacob; Tiedemann, Ralph (December 2018).
2463:
2118:"Electric pulse characteristics can enable species recognition in African weakly electric fish species"
1016:
2614:
2573:
2330:"Naomi Alderman: 'I went into the novel religious and by the end I wasn't. I wrote myself out of it'"
1393:
1339:
628:
620:
436:
261:
245:
152:
130:
192:, who discovered what is now called Hunter's organ. These appear to have influenced the thinking of
2479:
1238:
607:
209:
125:
1953:"Convergent evolution of marine mammals is associated with distinct substitutions in common genes"
595:, not shown). Electric fish may have diphasic discharges (as shown), or discharges of other kinds.
2304:
2609:
2421:
2248:"A tail of two voltages: Proteomic comparison of the three electric organs of the electric eel"
1099:
624:
444:
277:
181:
108:
2604:
2487:
1487:
von der Emde, G. (15 May 1999). "Active electrolocation of objects in weakly electric fish".
1136:
467:
241:
189:
112:
44:) showing location of paired electric organs in the head, and electrocytes stacked within it
2259:
2207:"The energetics of electric organ discharge generation in gymnotiform weakly electric fish"
2129:
1964:
1805:
1697:
1351:
1342:(1951). "Continuous Electrical Signals from the Tail of a Fish, Gymnarchus niloticus Cuv".
891:
525:
253:
214:
120:
610:, whether with pulses, as in the Mormyridae, or with waves, as in the Torpediniformes and
8:
2376:
1212:
272:
2263:
2133:
1968:
1809:
1701:
1355:
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2247:
2191:
2150:
2117:
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2038:
2009:
1985:
1952:
1928:
1901:
1877:
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1826:
1793:
1774:
1720:
1685:
1375:
1316:
1283:
1081:
1001:
557:
416:
260:
Since the 20th century, electric organs have received extensive study, for example, in
207:
discussed the electric organs of the electric eel and the torpedo ray in his 1859 book
89:
2285:
2228:
2155:
2087:
2043:
1990:
1933:
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1506:
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1367:
1321:
1303:
1244:
1193:
1102:(1773). "On the Electric Property of the Torpedo: in a Letter to Benjamin Franklin".
1085:
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340:
308:
218:
85:
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249:
185:
57:
41:
804:
2141:
2010:"Sound production to electric discharge: sonic muscle evolution in progress in
1299:
1234:
1189:
1007:
926:
567:
431:
204:
116:
77:
65:
840:
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1918:
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193:
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61:
1867:
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1502:
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1994:
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1835:
1770:
1729:
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1662:
1635:
1510:
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1371:
1325:
1077:
876:
635:
to the electrocytes. The electrocytes fire an action potential using their
521:
463:
448:
377:
282:
233:
173:
169:
104:
100:
73:
37:
1197:
1551:"Stargazer fishes from the western north Atlantic (Family Uranoscopidae)"
1414:
1397:
855:
562:
478:
452:
382:
324:
316:
1578:
912:
700:
2538:
2532:
2223:
2206:
1761:
1744:
1626:
1609:
1456:
1439:
1264:
1068:
1049:
783:
748:
612:
572:
533:
529:
344:
312:
270:
and his review of their function and evolution in 1958. More recently,
266:
237:
222:
139:
2082:
2065:
1976:
2176:
Kawasaki, M. (2011). "Detection and generation of electric signals".
1363:
980:
93:
76:, called electrocytes, and have evolved at least six times among the
32:
2183:
819:
537:
361:
734:
714:
588:
541:
517:
498:
365:
species. The organ is not homologous with that of the
Mormyridae.
81:
49:
2413:
2066:"Electroreception, electrogenesis and electric signal evolution"
2351:"The Power by Naomi Alderman review – if girls ruled the world"
2115:
2008:
Boyle, K. S.; Colleye, O.; Parmentier, E.; et al. (2014).
1794:"Genomic basis for the convergent evolution of electric organs"
1610:"Molecular evolution of communication signals in electric fish"
576:
is however known to have evolved from sound-producing muscles.
490:
225:
studied the fish, discovering what is now called Sachs' organ.
92:, and in strongly electric fish also for the incapacitation of
69:
1117:
Williamson, Hugh (1775). "Experiments and observations on the
2245:
1745:"Evolution of Time-Coding Systems in Weakly Electric Fishes"
1526:
Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The
Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes
606:
Electric organ discharges (EODs) need to vary with time for
1684:
Lavoué, S.; Miya, M.; Arnegard, M. E.; et al. (2012).
1608:
Zakon, H. H.; Zwickl, D. J.; Lu, Y.; Hillis, D. M. (2008).
1050:"Efficient high-voltage protection in the electric catfish"
516:
Electric organs have evolved at least six times in various
470:, since the analogy was already noted by Alessandro Volta.
1951:
Zhou, X.; Seim, I.; Gladyshev, V. N.; et al. (2015).
1683:
1398:"On the Function and Evolution of Electric Organs in Fish"
1284:"The third form electric organ discharge of electric eels"
643:
Electrolocation and discharge patterns of electric fishes
587:. Electrocytes are assembled into stacks to create larger
552:
The electric organs of all electric fish are derived from
497:
to trigger electrical activity. Final detail shows coiled
200:– the founders of electrophysiology and electrochemistry.
1160:
1141:
1123:
1104:
420:
have the electric organ in the head, arranged vertically.
402:'s electric organ forms a sheath around much of the body.
2111:
2109:
583:
Electrocytes evolved from an existing excitable tissue,
2018:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1657:(1). R. Bigorne, G. Lecointre, and J. F. Agnese: 1–10.
466:, and may even have inspired the 1800 invention of the
99:
The electric organs of two strongly electric fish, the
2007:
1178:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1043:
1041:
462:
The stack of electrocytes has long been compared to a
430:
Electric organs are composed of stacks of specialised
276:
electrocytes were used in the first sequencing of the
157:
Detailed descriptions of the powerful shocks that the
2106:
1861:(51). D. J. Zwickl, Y. Lu, H. H. Zakon: 22172–22177.
1282:
Xu, Jun; Cui, Xiang; Zhang, Huiyuan (18 March 2021).
1048:
Welzel, Georg; Schuster, Stefan (15 February 2021).
544:
lineage allowed for the neofunctionalization of the
1607:
1038:
286:electrocytes served in the first sequencing of the
2239:
1549:Berry, Frederick H.; Anderson, William W. (1961).
1139:(1773). "Anatomical Observations on the Torpedo".
566:(Latin America), where the cells are derived from
2204:
1950:
1480:
1275:
1006:The ability to produce electricity is central to
2596:
2205:Salazar, V. L.; Krahe, R.; Lewis, J. E. (2013).
2171:
2169:
2059:
2057:
1559:Proceedings of the United States National Museum
1171:
1169:
1900:Liu, A.; He, F.; Zhou, J.; et al. (2019).
1855:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1583:(2nd ed.). G. Routledge and Sons. p.
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
639:on one side, or in some species on both sides.
84:. These fish use their electric discharges for
1570:
1047:
619:Electric organ discharge is controlled by the
2429:
2166:
2054:
1842:
1736:
1548:
1386:
1332:
1166:
386:shown) have their electric organ in the tail.
2372:"'The Power' is our era's 'Handmaid's Tale'"
2363:
2305:"Malapterurus electricus (Electric catfish)"
2198:
1899:
1785:
1742:
1517:
1486:
1422:
68:. Electric organs are derived from modified
2384:
2342:
1677:
1642:
1204:
631:in the brain. Electromotor neurons release
601:
591:(and into multiple stacks to create larger
244:'s organ – occupy much of its body, as was
236:'s three electric organs – the main organ,
2436:
2422:
2327:
2321:
1601:
1281:
1227:
1116:
2279:
2222:
2149:
2081:
2037:
2001:
1984:
1944:
1927:
1917:
1876:
1866:
1825:
1760:
1719:
1709:
1625:
1576:
1455:
1413:
1315:
1257:
1175:
1067:
2175:
2063:
1893:
1848:
1440:"Electrocyte physiology: 50 years later"
1392:
1338:
1154:Hunter, John (1775). "An account of the
578:
472:
227:
168:In the 1770s the electric organs of the
31:
2369:
1791:
1523:
1437:
1210:
14:
2597:
2390:
2348:
2328:Armitstead, Claire (28 October 2016).
2064:Crampton, William G. R. (2019-02-05).
1648:
1233:
1153:
1135:
280:by Noda and colleagues in 1982, while
2417:
1651:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1263:
1098:
1792:Gallant, J. R.; et al. (2014).
347:with the electric organ in its tail.
2459:Electroreception and electrogenesis
2349:Jordan, Justine (2 November 2016).
1528:. Baltimore and London: JHU Press.
1055:The Journal of Experimental Biology
146:
135:electroreception and electrogenesis
107:were first studied in the 1770s by
24:
2192:10.1016/b978-0-12-374553-8.00136-2
1269:Archives of Anatomy and Physiology
1211:Edwards, Paul (10 November 2021).
443:via transport proteins, consuming
425:
25:
2626:
2443:
457:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
298:
2393:"In the Arms of an Electric Eel"
2370:Charles, Ron (10 October 2017).
979:
945:
911:
875:
839:
803:
767:
733:
699:
407:
391:
370:
359:Location of electric organ in a
352:
332:
290:by Noda and colleagues in 1984.
248:. They can discharge weakly for
2296:
2211:Journal of Experimental Biology
2179:Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology
1614:Journal of Experimental Biology
1542:
1490:Journal of Experimental Biology
1444:Journal of Experimental Biology
1402:Journal of Experimental Biology
493:terminal buttons are releasing
2302:
1147:
1129:
1110:
1092:
451:, electrocytes work much like
13:
1:
1032:
995:
637:voltage-gated sodium channels
2391:Keeler, Anna (7 June 2017).
2014:spp. catfishes (Mochokidae)"
1711:10.1371/journal.pone.0036287
1580:A Popular History of Science
1524:Hamlett, William C. (1999).
546:voltage-gated sodium channel
505:
437:pumping sodium and potassium
288:voltage-gated sodium channel
264:'s pioneering 1951 paper on
256:, and strongly to stun prey.
119:used them as an instance of
7:
1027:
161:could give were written in
10:
2631:
2519:(S. American knifefishes)
2464:Jamming avoidance response
2142:10.1038/s41598-018-29132-z
1577:Routledge, Robert (1881).
1300:10.1038/s41598-021-85715-3
999:
509:
293:
150:
129:. Modern study began with
2574:History of bioelectricity
2566:
2503:
2472:
2451:
1215:. HAL open-access archive
621:medullary command nucleus
524:fish. Notably, they have
501:chains of an ion channel.
153:History of bioelectricity
88:, communication, mating,
1919:10.3389/fgene.2019.00664
1849:Arnegard, M. E. (2010).
1190:10.1093/jhmas/xxiv.2.140
602:Electric organ discharge
210:On the Origin of Species
126:On the Origin of Species
18:Electric organ (biology)
2397:Cleaver Magazine: Flash
2070:Journal of Fish Biology
1868:10.1073/pnas.1011803107
1818:10.1126/science.1254432
1503:10.1242/jeb.202.10.1205
1438:Markham, M. R. (2013).
1243:. London: John Murray.
246:discovered in the 1770s
213:as a likely example of
111:, Hugh Williamson, and
2272:10.1126/sciadv.1700523
2030:10.1098/rspb.2014.1197
1663:10.1006/mpev.1999.0687
596:
558:electrically excitable
502:
447:(ATP) in the process.
445:adenosine triphosphate
278:acetylcholine receptor
257:
45:
27:Organ in electric fish
2488:Ampullae of Lorenzini
1906:Frontiers in Genetics
1743:Kawasaki, M. (2009).
1000:Further information:
582:
510:Further information:
476:
417:Astroscopus y-graecum
231:
203:In the 19th century,
151:Further information:
35:
2547:(electric catfishes)
2309:Animal Diversity Web
2186:. pp. 398–408.
1415:10.1242/jeb.35.1.156
1121:, or electric eel".
526:convergently evolved
215:convergent evolution
176:were the subject of
140:Gymnarchus niloticus
121:convergent evolution
2513:(African knifefish)
2377:The Washington Post
2264:2017SciA....3E0523T
2134:2018NatSR...810799N
1969:2015NatSR...516550Z
1810:2014Sci...344.1522G
1702:2012PLoSO...736287L
1356:1951Natur.167..201L
1271:(in German): 66–95.
1156:Gymnotus electricus
1119:Gymnotus electricus
644:
532:and South American
273:Torpedo californica
2224:10.1242/jeb.082735
2122:Scientific Reports
2024:(1791): 20141197.
1957:Scientific Reports
1762:10.2108/zsj.26.587
1749:Zoological Science
1627:10.1242/jeb.015982
1457:10.1242/jeb.082628
1288:Scientific Reports
1069:10.1242/jeb.239855
1002:Biology in fiction
930:Electric catfishes
642:
597:
560:tissue, except in
503:
439:ions across their
315:. However, in two
258:
64:uses to create an
46:
2592:
2591:
2484:Electroreceptors
2217:(13): 2459–2468.
2083:10.1111/jfb.13922
1977:10.1038/srep16550
1620:(11): 1814–1818.
1497:(10): 1205–1215.
1450:(13): 2451–2458.
1394:Lissmann, Hans W.
1350:(4240): 201–202.
1340:Lissmann, Hans W.
1250:978-1-4353-9386-8
993:
992:
788:African knifefish
629:pacemaker neurons
495:neurotransmitters
341:elephantnose fish
309:elephantnose fish
219:natural selection
133:'s 1951 study of
72:or in some cases
16:(Redirected from
2622:
2615:Organs (anatomy)
2584:Magnetoreception
2535:(elephantfishes)
2438:
2431:
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2252:Science Advances
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1364:10.1038/167201a0
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843:
824:Banded knifefish
807:
771:
737:
703:
645:
641:
449:Postsynaptically
414:Stargazers like
411:
400:electric catfish
395:
374:
356:
336:
198:Alessandro Volta
159:electric catfish
147:Research history
21:
2630:
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2623:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2595:
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2553:(electric rays)
2551:Torpediniformes
2527:(electric eels)
2499:
2468:
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2442:
2412:
2402:
2400:
2389:
2385:
2368:
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2311:
2301:
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2258:(7): e1700523.
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2006:
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1606:
1602:
1595:
1575:
1571:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1522:
1518:
1485:
1481:
1436:
1423:
1391:
1387:
1337:
1333:
1280:
1276:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1235:Darwin, Charles
1232:
1228:
1218:
1216:
1209:
1205:
1174:
1167:
1152:
1148:
1134:
1130:
1115:
1111:
1097:
1093:
1046:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1012:science fiction
1004:
998:
963:
929:
895:
860:Glass knifefish
859:
823:
787:
751:
717:
683:
681:Torpediniformes
671:
656:
608:electrolocation
604:
585:skeletal muscle
554:skeletal muscle
528:in the African
514:
508:
428:
426:Organ structure
421:
412:
403:
396:
387:
375:
366:
357:
348:
337:
301:
296:
250:electrolocation
186:Hugh Williamson
155:
149:
42:Torpediniformes
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2628:
2618:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2545:Malapteruridae
2542:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2514:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2482:
2480:Electric organ
2476:
2474:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2448:
2441:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2411:
2410:
2383:
2362:
2341:
2320:
2303:Ng, Heok Hee.
2295:
2238:
2197:
2165:
2105:
2053:
2000:
1943:
1892:
1841:
1784:
1755:(9): 587–599.
1735:
1676:
1641:
1600:
1593:
1569:
1541:
1534:
1516:
1479:
1421:
1385:
1331:
1274:
1256:
1249:
1226:
1203:
1184:(2): 140–150.
1165:
1162:(65): 395–407.
1146:
1143:(63): 481–489.
1128:
1109:
1106:(64): 461–480.
1091:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1008:Naomi Alderman
997:
994:
991:
990:
987:
984:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
957:
956:
953:
950:
943:
940:
937:
934:
931:
927:Malapteruridae
923:
922:
919:
916:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
887:
886:
883:
880:
873:
870:
867:
864:
861:
851:
850:
847:
844:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
815:
814:
811:
808:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
779:
778:
775:
772:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
752:Elephantfishes
745:
744:
741:
738:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
711:
710:
707:
704:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
677:
676:
673:
668:
665:
662:
659:
652:
649:
603:
600:
507:
504:
441:cell membranes
427:
424:
423:
422:
413:
406:
404:
397:
390:
388:
376:
369:
367:
358:
351:
349:
338:
331:
300:
299:Organ location
297:
295:
292:
252:, as in other
240:'s organ, and
205:Charles Darwin
148:
145:
117:Charles Darwin
66:electric field
54:electric organ
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2627:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2610:Electric fish
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2557:Uranoscopidae
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2526:
2525:
2524:Electrophorus
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:Gymnotiformes
2515:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2445:Electric fish
2439:
2434:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2416:
2398:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2345:
2337:
2336:
2331:
2324:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2172:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2110:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2076:(1): 92–134.
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2058:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2013:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1696:(5): e36287.
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1596:
1594:0-415-38381-1
1590:
1586:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1552:
1545:
1537:
1535:0-8018-6048-2
1531:
1527:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1252:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1214:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1170:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1125:(65): 94–101.
1124:
1120:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1037:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1003:
988:
985:
982:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:
962:
961:Uranoscopidae
959:
958:
954:
951:
948:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
928:
925:
924:
920:
917:
914:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
896:Electric eels
894:
893:
892:Electrophorus
889:
888:
884:
881:
878:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
858:
857:
853:
852:
848:
845:
842:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
822:
821:
817:
816:
812:
809:
806:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
786:
785:
781:
780:
776:
773:
770:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
750:
747:
746:
742:
739:
736:
732:
729:
726:
723:
720:
716:
713:
712:
708:
705:
702:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
684:Electric rays
682:
679:
678:
674:
669:
666:
663:
660:
658:
653:
650:
647:
646:
640:
638:
634:
633:acetylcholine
630:
626:
622:
617:
615:
614:
609:
599:
594:
590:
586:
581:
577:
575:
574:
569:
568:neural tissue
565:
564:
559:
555:
550:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
513:
512:Electric fish
500:
496:
492:
488:
487:cell membrane
484:
480:
475:
471:
469:
465:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
419:
418:
410:
405:
401:
394:
389:
385:
384:
383:Raja montagui
379:
373:
368:
364:
363:
355:
350:
346:
342:
335:
330:
329:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
305:electric fish
291:
289:
285:
284:
283:Electrophorus
279:
275:
274:
269:
268:
263:
262:Hans Lissmann
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
230:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
211:
206:
201:
199:
195:
194:Luigi Galvani
191:
187:
183:
179:
178:Royal Society
175:
171:
166:
164:
163:ancient Egypt
160:
154:
144:
142:
141:
136:
132:
131:Hans Lissmann
128:
127:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
78:elasmobranchs
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:electric fish
59:
55:
51:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2605:Fish anatomy
2579:Lateral line
2559:(stargazers)
2523:
2511:Gymnarchidae
2493:Knollenorgan
2403:26 September
2401:. Retrieved
2396:
2386:
2375:
2365:
2356:The Guardian
2354:
2344:
2335:The Guardian
2333:
2323:
2312:. Retrieved
2308:
2298:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2178:
2128:(1): 10799.
2125:
2121:
2073:
2069:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2003:
1960:
1956:
1946:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1858:
1854:
1844:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1752:
1748:
1738:
1693:
1689:
1679:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1579:
1572:
1563:
1557:
1544:
1525:
1519:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1447:
1443:
1405:
1401:
1388:
1347:
1343:
1334:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1268:
1259:
1239:
1229:
1217:. Retrieved
1206:
1181:
1177:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1140:
1137:Hunter, John
1131:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1103:
1094:
1059:
1053:
1022:
1015:
1005:
890:
854:
818:
782:
693:Weak, Strong
618:
611:
605:
598:
571:
561:
551:
522:elasmobranch
515:
491:nerve cell's
485:through the
479:ion channels
464:voltaic pile
461:
453:muscle cells
429:
415:
381:
360:
325:torpedo rays
319:groups, the
302:
281:
271:
265:
259:
234:electric eel
208:
202:
174:electric eel
167:
156:
138:
124:
123:in his 1859
105:electric eel
98:
74:nerve tissue
53:
47:
38:electric ray
29:
1294:(1): 6193.
1265:Sachs, Carl
1100:Walsh, John
856:Eigenmannia
563:Apteronotus
190:John Hunter
170:torpedo ray
113:John Hunter
101:torpedo ray
2599:Categories
2539:Rajiformes
2533:Mormyridae
2452:Physiology
2314:2022-06-13
2012:Synodontis
1033:References
996:In fiction
964:Stargazers
933:Freshwater
899:Freshwater
863:Freshwater
827:Freshwater
791:Freshwater
784:Gymnarchus
755:Freshwater
749:Mormyridae
670:Spike/wave
613:Gymnarchus
573:Synodontis
534:Gymnotidae
530:Mormyridae
321:stargazers
313:Mormyridae
311:and other
267:Gymnarchus
223:Carl Sachs
182:John Walsh
180:papers by
109:John Walsh
86:navigation
1963:: 16550.
1466:0022-0949
1408:: 156ff.
1308:2045-2322
1086:231639937
1017:The Power
967:Saltwater
849:< 5 V
813:< 5 V
721:Saltwater
687:Saltwater
661:Discharge
506:Evolution
254:gymnotids
2541:(skates)
2290:28695212
2233:23761471
2184:Elsevier
2160:30018286
2100:73442571
2092:30729523
2048:25080341
1995:26549748
1938:31379927
1887:21127261
1836:24970089
1779:21823048
1771:19799509
1730:22606250
1690:PLOS ONE
1671:10631038
1636:18490397
1511:10210662
1474:23761470
1396:(1958).
1372:14806425
1326:33737620
1237:(1859).
1078:33462134
1028:See also
1010:'s 2016
820:Gymnotus
675:Voltage
672:duration
667:Waveform
657:location
655:Electro-
593:currents
589:voltages
538:Gondwana
362:Gymnotus
345:mormyrid
323:and the
303:In most
103:and the
82:teleosts
60:that an
2567:Related
2473:Anatomy
2281:5498108
2260:Bibcode
2151:6050243
2130:Bibcode
2039:4132682
1986:4637874
1965:Bibcode
1929:6657706
1912:: 664.
1878:3009798
1827:5541775
1806:Bibcode
1798:Science
1721:3351409
1698:Bibcode
1380:4291029
1352:Bibcode
1317:7973543
1198:4895861
885:100 mV
715:Rajidae
651:Habitat
625:nucleus
542:teleost
518:teleost
499:protein
468:battery
294:Anatomy
90:defence
50:biology
2504:Groups
2288:
2278:
2231:
2158:
2148:
2098:
2090:
2046:
2036:
1993:
1983:
1936:
1926:
1885:
1875:
1834:
1824:
1777:
1769:
1728:
1718:
1669:
1634:
1591:
1532:
1509:
1472:
1464:
1378:
1370:
1344:Nature
1324:
1314:
1306:
1247:
1196:
1084:
1076:
1014:novel
973:Strong
955:350 V
939:Strong
936:Active
921:600 V
905:Strong
902:Active
866:Active
830:Active
794:Active
777:0.5 V
758:Active
743:0.5 V
740:200 ms
724:Active
718:Skates
690:Active
378:Skates
317:marine
242:Hunter
188:, and
70:muscle
56:is an
52:, the
2096:S2CID
1775:S2CID
1554:(PDF)
1376:S2CID
1219:6 May
1082:S2CID
1062:(4).
986:10 ms
976:Pulse
942:Pulse
908:Pulse
836:Pulse
764:Pulse
730:Pulse
709:25 V
706:10 ms
648:Group
556:, an
483:pumps
432:cells
343:is a
238:Sachs
58:organ
2405:2022
2399:(18)
2286:PMID
2229:PMID
2156:PMID
2088:PMID
2044:PMID
1991:PMID
1934:PMID
1883:PMID
1832:PMID
1767:PMID
1726:PMID
1667:PMID
1632:PMID
1589:ISBN
1564:1961
1530:ISBN
1507:PMID
1470:PMID
1462:ISSN
1368:PMID
1322:PMID
1304:ISSN
1245:ISBN
1221:2022
1194:PMID
1182:XXIV
1074:PMID
989:5 V
970:None
952:2 ms
918:2 ms
882:5 ms
872:Wave
869:Weak
846:2 ms
833:Weak
810:3 ms
800:Wave
797:Weak
774:1 ms
761:Weak
727:Weak
696:Wave
664:Type
623:, a
520:and
489:; A
481:and
339:The
232:The
196:and
172:and
94:prey
80:and
2276:PMC
2268:doi
2219:doi
2215:216
2188:doi
2146:PMC
2138:doi
2078:doi
2034:PMC
2026:doi
2022:281
1981:PMC
1973:doi
1924:PMC
1914:doi
1873:PMC
1863:doi
1859:107
1822:PMC
1814:doi
1802:344
1757:doi
1716:PMC
1706:doi
1659:doi
1622:doi
1618:211
1585:553
1499:doi
1495:202
1452:doi
1448:216
1410:doi
1360:doi
1348:167
1312:PMC
1296:doi
1186:doi
1158:".
1064:doi
1060:224
627:of
398:An
137:in
48:In
36:An
2601::
2395:.
2374:.
2353:.
2332:.
2307:.
2284:.
2274:.
2266:.
2254:.
2250:.
2227:.
2213:.
2209:.
2182:.
2168:^
2154:.
2144:.
2136:.
2124:.
2120:.
2108:^
2094:.
2086:.
2074:95
2072:.
2068:.
2056:^
2042:.
2032:.
2020:.
2016:.
1989:.
1979:.
1971:.
1959:.
1955:.
1932:.
1922:.
1910:10
1908:.
1904:.
1881:.
1871:.
1857:.
1853:.
1830:.
1820:.
1812:.
1800:.
1796:.
1773:.
1765:.
1753:26
1751:.
1747:.
1724:.
1714:.
1704:.
1692:.
1688:.
1665:.
1655:14
1653:.
1630:.
1616:.
1612:.
1587:.
1562:.
1556:.
1505:.
1493:.
1468:.
1460:.
1446:.
1442:.
1424:^
1406:35
1404:.
1400:.
1374:.
1366:.
1358:.
1346:.
1320:.
1310:.
1302:.
1292:11
1290:.
1286:.
1192:.
1180:.
1168:^
1080:.
1072:.
1058:.
1052:.
1040:^
459:.
184:,
165:.
143:.
115:.
96:.
2437:e
2430:t
2423:v
2407:.
2380:.
2359:.
2338:.
2317:.
2292:.
2270::
2262::
2256:3
2235:.
2221::
2194:.
2190::
2162:.
2140::
2132::
2126:8
2102:.
2080::
2050:.
2028::
1997:.
1975::
1967::
1961:5
1940:.
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