504:, abundance and distribution are a basic feature of its normal function. The extent of damage can therefore be difficult to detect against this background variability. Nevertheless, the key to understanding damage and its importance is whether spill effects result in a downturn in breeding success, productivity, diversity and the overall functioning of the system. Spills are not the only pressure on marine habitats; chronic urban and industrial contamination or the exploitation of the resources they provide are also serious threats.
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oil and water into the sea. OILPOL 54 prohibited the dumping of oily wastes within a certain distance from land and in 'special areas' where the danger to the environment was especially acute. In 1962 the limits were extended by means of an amendment adopted at a conference organized by IMO. Meanwhile, IMO in 1965 set up a
Subcommittee on Oil Pollution, under the auspices of its Maritime Safety committee, to address oil pollution issues.
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environment and resilience in sustainable development. Folke et al state that the likelihood of sustaining development is raised by "Managing for resilience" whilst Perman et al. propose that safeguarding the environment to "deliver a set of services" should be a "necessary condition for an economy to be sustainable". The growing application of resilience to sustainable development has produced a diversity of approaches and scholarly debates.
27:
698:(NSW) – Pollution control is dependent upon keeping levels of pollutants emitted by industrial and other human activities below levels which would be harmful to the environment and its ecosystems. Environmental protection licenses are administered to maintain the environmental objectives of the POEO Act and breaches of license conditions can attract heavy penalties and in some cases criminal convictions.
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back towards a predetermined equilibrium, the absorbed change was harnessed to establish a new baseline to operate under. Rather than minimize imposed changes, ecosystems could integrate and manage those changes, and use them to fuel the evolution of novel characteristics. This new perspective of resilience as a concept that inherently works synergistically with elements of
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their prevailing conditions. In the event of unanticipated shocks; this dependency reduces the ability of the system to adapt to these changes. Correspondingly; Perman et al. note that; "Some economic activities appear to reduce resilience, so that the level of disturbance to which the ecosystem can be subjected to without parametric change taking place is reduced".
766:. There was significant work in these relatively non-traditional fields that helped facilitate the evolution of the resilience perspective as a whole. Part of the reason resilience began moving away from an equilibrium-centric view and towards a more flexible, malleable description of social-ecological systems was due to work such as that of Andrew Vayda and
517:, which are more colloquially referred to as "red tides" or "brown tides". Zooplankton eat the toxic algae and begin passing the toxins up the food chain, affecting edibles like clams, and ultimately working their way up to seabirds, marine mammals, and humans. The result can be illness and sometimes death.
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can have serious effects on marine life. The OILPOL Convention recognized that most oil pollution resulted from routine shipboard operations such as the cleaning of cargo tanks. In the 1950s, the normal practice was simply to wash the tanks out with water and then pump the resulting mixture of
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has a meaning that covers crossing the threshold of forest's resilience and losing its ability to return to its originally stable state. To recover itself, a forest ecosystem needs suitable interactions among climate conditions and bio-actions, and enough area. In addition, generally, the resilience
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As greater amounts of scientific research in ecological adaptation and natural resource management was conducted, it became clear that oftentimes, natural systems were subjected to dynamic, transient behaviors that changed how they reacted to significant changes in state variables: rather than work
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Ecological resilience and the thresholds by which resilience is defined are closely interrelated in the way that they influence environmental policy-making, legislation and subsequently environmental management. The ability of ecosystems to recover from certain levels of environmental impact is not
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Panarchy: the degree to which a certain hierarchical level of an ecosystem is influenced by other levels. For example, organisms living in communities that are in isolation from one another may be organized differently from the same type of organism living in a large continuous population, thus the
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model within which global markets operate. Inherent to the successful operation of a free market is specialisation which is required to achieve efficiency and increase productivity. This very act of specialisation weakens resilience by permitting systems to become accustomed to and dependent upon
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Ecosystem resilience impacts upon the way that development is permitted/environmental decision making is undertaken, similar to the way that existing ecosystem health impacts upon what development is permitted. For instance, remnant vegetation in the states of
Queensland and New South Wales are
424:. Different actions can increase climate resilience of communities and ecosystems to help them cope. They can help to keep systems working in the face of external forces. For example, building a seawall to protect a coastal community from flooding might help maintain existing ways of life there.
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The Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution calls nutrient pollution the most widespread, chronic environmental problem in the coastal ocean. The discharges of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients come from agriculture, waste disposal, coastal development, and fossil fuel use. Once nutrient
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predominantly come from deforestation, thereby increasing the long-term exposure of forest ecosystems to drought and other climate change-induced damages. Deforestation can also lead to species extinction, which can have a domino effect particularly when keystone species are removed or when a
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The purpose of ecological resilience that is proposed is ultimately about averting our extinction as Walker cites
Holling in his paper: " "resilience is concerned with the probabilities of extinctionâ (1973, p. 20)". Becoming more apparent in academic writing is the significance of the
291:, possibly permanently. Sustainable use of environmental goods and services requires understanding and consideration of the resilience of the ecosystem and its limits. However, the elements which influence ecosystem resilience are complicated. For example, various elements such as the
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defines resilience as, ânot just the ability to maintain essential function, identity and structure, but also the capacity for transformation.â The IPCC considers resilience both in terms of ecosystem recovery as well as the recovery and adaptation of human societies to natural disasters.
731:: the idea that the behavior of natural ecosystems is dictated by a homeostatic drive towards some stable set point. Under this school of thought (which maintained quite a dominant status during this time period), ecosystems were perceived to respond to disturbances largely through
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There are many areas where human activity impacts upon and is also dependent upon the resilience of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems. These include agriculture, deforestation, pollution, mining, recreation, overfishing, dumping of waste into the sea and climate change.
278:, which is the property of an ecosystem that describes change in stability landscapes and resilience. Adaptive capacity in socio-ecological systems refers to the ability of humans to deal with change in their environment by observation, learning and altering their interactions.
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are increasingly causing regime shifts in ecosystems, often to less desirable and degraded conditions. Interdisciplinary discourse on resilience now includes consideration of the interactions of humans and ecosystems via socio-ecological systems, and the need for shift from the
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More recently, it has been suggested by Andrea Ross that the concept of sustainable development is no longer adequate in assisting policy development fit for today's global challenges and objectives. This is because the concept of sustainable development is "based on
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Grasham, Catherine Fallon; Calow, Roger; Casey, Vincent; Charles, Katrina J.; de Wit, Sara; Dyer, Ellen; Fullwood-Thomas, Jess; Hirons, Mark; Hope, Robert; Hoque, Sonia
Ferdous; Jepson, Wendy; Korzenevica, Marina; Murphy, Rebecca; Plastow, John; Ross, Ian (2021).
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whose objective is "to assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being and the scientific basis for action needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those systems and their contribution to human well-being". Similarly, the
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of a forest system allows recovery from a relatively small scale of damage (such as lightning or landslide) of up to 10 percent of its area. The larger the scale of damage, the more difficult it is for the forest ecosystem to restore and maintain its balance.
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Observed resilience within specific ecosystems drives management practice. When resilience is observed to be low, or impact seems to be reaching the threshold, management response can be to alter human behavior to result in less adverse impact to the
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The interdependence of ecological and social systems has gained renewed recognition since the late 1990s by academics including Berkes and Folke and developed further in 2002 by Folke et al. As the concept of sustainable development has evolved
136:, which aim to build ecological resilience through "resilience analysis, adaptive resource management, and adaptive governance". Ecological resilience has inspired other fields and continues to challenge the way they interpret resilience, e.g.
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pollution reaches the coastal zone, it stimulates harmful overgrowths of algae, which can have direct toxic effects and ultimately result in low-oxygen conditions. Certain types of algae are toxic. Overgrowths of these algae result in harmful
539:; "A sustainable state is one which satisfies minimum conditions for ecosystem resilience through time". Resilience science has been evolving over the past decade, expanding beyond ecology to reflect systems of thinking in fields such as
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Stockholm
Resilience Centre â an international centre that advances trans disciplinary research for governance of social-ecological systems with a special emphasis on resilience â the ability to deal with change and continue to develop
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or steady-state following a perturbation (which is also defined as stability by some authors). This definition of resilience is used in other fields such as physics and engineering, and hence has been termed âengineering resilienceâ by
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Resilience refers to ecosystem's stability and capability of tolerating disturbance and restoring itself. If the disturbance is of sufficient magnitude or duration, a threshold may be reached where the ecosystem undergoes a
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of sustainable development to place greater political emphasis on economic development. This is a movement which causes wide concern in environmental and social forums and which Clive
Hamilton describes as "the growth fetish".
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Dumping both depends upon ecosystem resilience whilst threatening it. Dumping of sewage and other contaminants into the ocean is often undertaken for the dispersive nature of the oceans and adaptive nature and ability for
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aim is "to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future
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explicitly noted in legislation, however, because of ecosystem resilience, some levels of environmental impact associated with development are made permissible by environmental policy-making and ensuing legislation.
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The challenge of applying the concept of ecological resilience to the context of sustainable development is that it sits at odds with conventional economic ideology and policy making. Resilience questions the
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in order to describe the persistence of natural systems in the face of changes in ecosystem variables due to natural or anthropogenic causes. Resilience has been defined in two ways in ecological literature:
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International level initiatives aim at improving socio-ecological resilience worldwide through the cooperation and contributions of scientific and other experts. An example of such an initiative is the
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classified in terms of ecosystem health and abundance. Any impact that development has upon threatened ecosystems must consider the health and resilience of these ecosystems. This is governed by the
547:. And, as more and more people move into densely populated cities, using massive amounts of water, energy, and other resources, the need to combine these disciplines to consider the resilience of
2007:
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Folke, C., Carpenter,S., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., Holling C.S., Walker, B. (2002). "Resilience and
Sustainable Development: Building Adaptive Capacity in a World of Transformations".
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and productivity. More sustainable agricultural practices would take into account and estimate the resilience of the land and monitor and balance the input and output of organic matter.
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in causing reductions of small local fishing fleets. Many local lowland rivers which are sources of fresh water have become degraded because of the inflows of pollutants and sediments.
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suggest that the resilience of vulnerable human populations and the ecosystem services upon which they depend are critical factors for sustainable development in a changing climate.
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is at particular risk of extinction. Depletion of fish stocks results in lowered biodiversity and consequently imbalance in the food chain, and increased vulnerability to disease.
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Latitude: the maximum amount a system can be changed before losing its ability to recover (before crossing a threshold which, if breached, makes recovery difficult or impossible).
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as "the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks".
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Folke, C.; Carpenter, S.; Walker, B.; Scheffer, M.; Elmqvist, T.; Gunderson, L.; Holling, C.S. (2004). "Regime Shifts, Resilience, and
Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management".
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The theoretical basis for many of the ideas central to climate resilience have actually existed since the 1960s. Originally an idea defined for strictly ecological systems,
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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Walker, J. (2007). âThe Strange Evolution of Hollingâs Resilience or The Resilience of Economics and the Eternal Return of Infinite Growthâ. Submission to TfC e-Journal. 8
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The threat of oil spills to marine life is recognised by those likely to be responsible for the pollution, such as the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation:
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resilience and this is mostly by rapid growth of fishing technology. One of the negative effects on marine ecosystems is that over the last half-century the stocks of
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Deforestation also decreases biodiversity of both plant and animal life and can lead to an alteration of the climatic conditions of an entire area. According to the
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Berkes, F. and Folke, C., (ed Colding, J.) (1998). âLinking Social and Ecological Systems: Management practices and social mechanisms for building resilienceâ.
690:(NSW) – A key goal of the Environmental Assessment procedure is to determine whether proposed development will have a significant impact upon ecosystems.
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on the global agenda as a fundamental factor in the "shift towards ecological sustainability" as an alternative approach to that of sustainable development.
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Scientific research associated with resilience is beginning to play a role in influencing policy-making and subsequent environmental decision making.
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in the field of social anthropology, where more modern versions of resilience were deployed to challenge traditional ideals of cultural dynamics.
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woodlands of Australia can exist in a grass-rich regime that supports sheep herding, or a shrub-dominated regime of no value for sheep grazing.
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systems â if there is a change, the ecosystem would act to mitigate that change as much as possible and attempt to return to its prior state.
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Maclean K, Cuthill M, Ross H. (2013). Six attributes of social resilience. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. (online first)
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Hulme, M. (2009). âWhy we Disagree about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, Inaction and Opportunity". Cambridge University Press.
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Schoon, M. (2005, 2 21). A short historical overview of the concepts of resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation . Retrieved from
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Berkes and Folke table a set of principles to assist with "building resilience and sustainability" which consolidate approaches of
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The second definition has been termed âecological resilienceâ, and it presumes the existence of multiple stable states or regimes.
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event or trend or disturbance". For example, climate resilience can be the ability to recover from climate-related shocks such as
324:(elements carbon and nitrogen) in soil, which is supposed to be recharged by multiple plants, is the main source of nutrients for
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There is increasing awareness that a greater understanding and emphasis of ecosystem resilience is required to reach the goal of
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Perman, R, Ma, Y, McGilvray, J and M.Common. (2003). âNatural Resource and Environmental Economicsâ. Longman. 26, 52, 86.
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can be used as a significant case study in which the resilience of terrestrial ecosystems should be considered. The
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In addition to overfishing, coastal communities are suffering the impacts of growing numbers of large commercial
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as the capacity for ecological systems and relationships within those systems to persist and absorb changes to "
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Hamilton, C. (2010). âRequiem for a Species: Why we Resist the Truth about Climate Changeâ. Earthscan. 32, 14.
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727:, driving variables, and parameters." This definition helped form the foundation for the notion of ecological
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events. The formal definition of the term is the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a
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Brand, F. (2009). "Critical natural capital revisited: Ecological resilience and sustainable development".
1385:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3â33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
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It has been estimated by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation that over 70% of the world's
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For example, some shallow temperate lakes can exist within either clear water regime, which provides many
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1205:"Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need of sustainable and efficient practices"
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1601:"Resilience Management in Social-ecological Systems: a Working Hypothesis for a Participatory Approach"
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Folke, C (2006). "Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses".
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and environmental resources, through work whose basis was built by Holling and colleagues yet again.
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535:. A similar conclusion is drawn by Perman et al. who use resilience to describe one of 6 concepts of
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Three levels of a panarchy, three adaptive cycles, and two cross-level linkages (remember and revolt)
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http://michaelschoon.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/historical_critique-of-resilience-working-paper.pdf
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Peterson, G.; Allen, C.R.; Holling, C.S. (1998). "Ecological Resilience, Biodiversity, and Scale".
603:" which doesn't take account of the reality of "limits to earth's resilience". Ross draws on the
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and contaminants. However, waste dumping threatens marine ecosystems by poisoning marine life and
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Resistance: the ease or difficulty of changing the system; how âresistantâ it is to being changed.
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of processes and structures predominates. When such thresholds are associated with a critical or
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by resisting damage and subsequently recovering. Such perturbations and disturbances can include
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The concept of resilience in ecological systems was first introduced by the Canadian ecologist
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TURaS â a European project mapping urban transitioning towards resilience and sustainability
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Gibbs, M.T. (2009). "Resilience: What is it and what does it mean for marine policymakers?".
1398:"Engaging with the politics of climate resilience towards clean water and sanitation for all"
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Lee, M. (2005) âEU Environmental Law: Challenges, Change and Decisions Makingâ. Hart. 26.
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Precariousness: how close the current state of the system is to a limit or âthreshold.â.
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Some examples of the consideration of ecosystem resilience within legislation include:
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Resilience Alliance â a research network that focuses on social-ecological resilience
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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In Press. p. 9. Archived from
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The first three can apply both to a whole system or the sub-systems that make it up.
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or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach a
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1700:"Understanding resilience in sustainable development: Rallying call or siren song?"
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211:, and variable rainfall. Either state can be resilient dependent upon management.
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have had a huge reduction as a result of overfishing for its economic benefits.
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significant number of species is removed and their ecological function is lost.
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Gunderson, L.H. (2000). "Ecological Resilience â In Theory and Application".
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PĂśrtner, Hans-O.; Roberts, Debra; Adams, Helen; Adler, Caroline; et al.
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1028:"Resilience, adaptability and transformability in socialâecological systems"
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to control weeds, fertilisers to accelerate and increase crop growth and
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community-level structure is influenced by population-level interactions.
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Pearce, D.W. (1993). âBlueprint 3: Measuring Sustainable Developmentâ.
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Human activities that adversely affect ecological resilience such as
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New South Wales Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
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The marine ecosystem is highly complex and natural fluctuations in
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By the mid 1970s, resilience began gaining momentum as an idea in
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2134:(1975). "New Directions in Ecology and Ecological Anthropology".
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Walker, B.; Holling, C. S.; Carpenter, S. R.; Kinzig, A. (2004).
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United Nations Environment Programme. Viewed September 12, 2010
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Queensland Department of the Environment and Resource Management
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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from
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Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
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1345:. Buzzle.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2010
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10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0437:rasdba]2.0.co;2
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Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
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Microdocs:Resilience â a short documentary on resilience
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and others describe four critical aspects of resilience:
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Because climate change is a major and growing driver of
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Lake and Mulga ecosystems with alternative stable states
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Capacity of ecosystems to resist and recover from change
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Forest Resources Assessment Programme, Working Paper 33
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1388:
165:
as the time required for an ecosystem to return to an
1970:"Protection of the Environment (Operations) Act 1997"
1533:. International Maritime Organization. Archived from
1371:
971:
969:
489:
According to the International Maritime Organisation
1552:. International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation.
1068:
923:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
76:
plant or animal species. Disturbances of sufficient
1800:"Modern Interpretations of Sustainable Development"
1759:
1757:
1261:
695:
Protection of the Environment (Operations) Act 1997
437:are either fully exploited or depleted which means
966:
747:first began to facilitate changes in the field of
507:
1847:. New South Wales Department of the Environment.
3807:
2049:"Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems"
1941:"Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979"
1754:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1114:"Resilience and stability of ecological systems"
463:
348:while the supply of organic matter to replenish
1871:"Vegetation Management: Legislation and Policy"
1679:
1677:
1675:
1599:Walker, B.; Carpenter, S.; et al. (2002).
1172:
1107:
1105:
687:Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979
572:
328:growth. In response to global food demand and
188:. The regime or state is dependent upon lake
3004:
2257:
1962:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1198:
1196:
1161:
1111:
2018:
1991:
1933:
1832:
1672:
1448:YPTE 2010 Overfishing: Environmental Facts
1264:"On Definitions of Forest and Forest Change"
895:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
404:is a concept to describe how well people or
356:is diminished. This leads to a reduction in
1501:
1312:. Contribution of Working Group III to the
1274:of the United Nation, Forestry Department.
1102:
3225:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3011:
2997:
2264:
2250:
2129:
1635:
1541:
1490:
1202:
1193:
950:Critical transitions in nature and society
625:
520:
1914:
1862:
1815:
1715:
1641:
1626:
1616:
1442:
1421:
1334:
1262:Davis R.; Holmgren P. (2 November 2000).
1238:
1228:
1053:
1043:
989:
408:are prepared to bounce back from certain
3123:Predatorâprey (LotkaâVolterra) equations
2762:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
2057:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2025:Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
1885:
1522:
1340:
1175:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1121:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
947:
935:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
703:Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
644:Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
554:
484:
218:
25:
3155:Random generalized LotkaâVolterra model
2046:
2040:
1793:
1791:
1450:Young Peoples Trust for the Environment
673:Environmental management in legislation
551:and cities is of paramount importance.
380:, carbon emissions due to land use and
336:practices including the application of
3808:
2963:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
2182:Andrew Zolli; Ann Marie Healy (2013).
2111:
1797:
2992:
2245:
2123:
2090:
1742:from the original on 12 December 2011
1693:
1691:
1689:
719:in ecology was initially outlined by
587:Moving beyond sustainable development
2978:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2084:
1922:United Nations Environment Programme
1788:
1697:
664:United Nations Environment Programme
3428:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
2150:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.001453
2070:10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245
2029:Threatened Species Conservation Act
1133:10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245
13:
3181:Ecological effects of biodiversity
2184:Resilience: Why Things Bounce Back
2159:
1686:
14:
3837:
2517:Generalist and specialist species
2201:
2000:"Environment protection licences"
1893:"Millennium Ecosystem Assessment"
1732:"Ecological and Urban Resilience"
1272:Food and Agriculture Organization
948:Scheffer, Marten (26 July 2009).
633:This occurs in a number of ways:
388:
203:are driven by the interaction of
130:environmental resource management
109:exploitation of natural resources
3240:Occupancyâabundance relationship
1817:10.1111/j.1467-6478.2009.00455.x
1454:Overfishing: Environmental Facts
1187:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.425
394:This section is an excerpt from
363:
281:
272:Closely linked to resilience is
48:to respond to a perturbation or
3260:Relative abundance distribution
2973:Plant defense against herbivory
2840:Competitive exclusion principle
2552:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2105:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002
1980:from the original on 2011-04-05
1951:from the original on 2011-04-04
1903:from the original on 2010-07-25
1851:from the original on 2011-02-25
1779:
1770:
1724:
1581:from the original on 2010-09-26
1556:from the original on 2010-07-25
1479:from the original on 2010-10-10
1290:
1278:from the original on 1 May 2010
1150:from the original on 2020-03-17
657:Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
508:Eutrophication and algal blooms
2845:Consumerâresource interactions
1698:Park, Albert Sanghoon (2023).
1666:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.09.013
1062:
952:. Princeton University Press.
941:
648:Vegetation Management Act 1999
428:
306:
143:
1:
3691:Biological data visualization
3518:Environmental niche modelling
3245:Population viability analysis
2137:Annual Review of Anthropology
837:
464:Dumping of waste into the sea
3176:Density-dependent inhibition
1897:www.millenniumassessment.org
1516:10.1016/j.marpol.2008.08.001
1310:Mitigation of Climate Change
1209:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
646:in New South Wales and the
378:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
150:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
121:anthropogenic climate change
7:
3645:Liebig's law of the minimum
3480:Resource selection function
2371:Metabolic theory of ecology
2216:Stockholm Resilience Centre
2093:Global Environmental Change
1452:Viewed September 12, 2010.
773:
573:The flaw of the free market
344:to control insects, reduce
96:may also be referred to as
21:Resilience (disambiguation)
10:
3842:
3545:Niche apportionment models
3265:Relative species abundance
2469:Primary nutritional groups
2366:List of feeding behaviours
1804:Journal of Law and Society
1765:Cambridge University Press
1423:10.1038/s41545-021-00133-2
1343:"Deforestation Statistics"
1303:"Summary for Policymakers"
1071:"Summary for Policymakers"
710:
620:ecosystem-based adaptation
524:
393:
310:
18:
3794:
3726:Ecosystem based fisheries
3668:
3568:
3493:
3366:
3338:Interspecific competition
3303:
3230:Minimum viable population
3163:
3088:Maximum sustainable yield
3073:Intraspecific competition
3068:Effective population size
3031:
2948:Anti-predator adaptations
2933:
2812:
2739:
2696:
2618:
2585:
2482:
2459:Photosynthetic efficiency
2394:
2288:
1577:. Grinning Planet. 2010.
1575:"Water Pollution Effects"
1475:. Grinning Planet. 2010.
1363:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1341:Naik, A. (29 June 2010).
796:Resilience of coral reefs
781:Climate change mitigation
616:climate change adaptation
214:
126:maximum sustainable yield
105:reduction of biodiversity
84:beyond which a different
3716:Ecological stoichiometry
3681:Alternative stable state
2186:. Simon & Schuster.
2004:Climate change and Water
1845:Climate change and Water
1379:Summary for Policymakers
605:impact of climate change
3560:Ontogenetic niche shift
3423:Ideal free distribution
3333:Ecological facilitation
3083:Malthusian growth model
3053:Consumer-resource model
2910:Paradox of the plankton
2875:Energy systems language
2595:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2562:Optimal foraging theory
2537:Heterotrophic nutrition
1704:Sustainable Development
1618:10.5751/ES-00356-060114
1550:"Effects of Oil Spills"
1314:Sixth Assessment Report
1230:10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995
1203:Tilman, D. (May 1999).
1082:Sixth Assessment Report
1045:10.5751/ES-00650-090205
816:Socio-ecological system
626:In environmental policy
533:sustainable development
527:Sustainable development
521:Sustainable development
138:supply chain resilience
3821:Ecological restoration
3706:Ecological forecasting
3650:Marginal value theorem
3448:Landscape epidemiology
3383:Cross-boundary subsidy
3318:Biological interaction
2668:Microbial intelligence
2356:Green world hypothesis
1112:Holling, C.S. (1973).
806:Regeneration (ecology)
313:agricultural expansion
224:
74:introduction of exotic
44:is the capacity of an
33:
3711:Ecological humanities
3610:Ecological energetics
3555:Niche differentiation
3418:Habitat fragmentation
3186:Ecological extinction
3133:Small population size
2885:Feed conversion ratio
2865:Ecological succession
2797:San Francisco Estuary
2711:Ecological efficiency
2653:Microbial cooperation
1000:10.1007/s100219900002
555:Academic perspectives
525:Further information:
485:Poisoning marine life
334:intensive agriculture
222:
29:
3826:Conservation biology
3736:Evolutionary ecology
3701:Ecological footprint
3696:Ecological economics
3620:Ecological threshold
3615:Ecological indicator
3485:Sourceâsink dynamics
3438:Land change modeling
3433:Insular biogeography
3285:Species distribution
3024:Modelling ecosystems
2683:Microbial metabolism
2522:Intraguild predation
2311:Biogeochemical cycle
2277:Modelling ecosystems
2047:Holling, CS (1973).
1841:"Threatened Species"
1645:Ecological Economics
1605:Conservation Ecology
801:Resistance (ecology)
562:beyond the 3 pillars
134:ecosystem management
98:critical transitions
19:For other uses, see
3816:Ecology terminology
3786:Theoretical ecology
3761:Natural environment
3625:Ecosystem diversity
3595:Ecological collapse
3585:Bateman's principle
3540:Limiting similarity
3453:Landscape limnology
3275:Species homogeneity
3113:Population modeling
3108:Population dynamics
2925:Trophic state index
2209:Resilience Alliance
1738:. 12 October 2011.
1658:2009EcoEc..68..605B
1414:2021npjCW...4...42G
1221:1999PNAS...96.5995T
1032:Ecology and Society
811:Stability (ecology)
791:Ecology and Society
749:adaptive management
601:weak sustainability
593:adaptive management
502:species composition
3797:Outline of ecology
3746:Industrial ecology
3741:Functional ecology
3605:Ecological deficit
3550:Niche construction
3513:Ecosystem engineer
3290:Speciesâarea curve
3211:Introduced species
3026:: Other components
2958:Deimatic behaviour
2860:Ecological network
2792:North Pacific Gyre
2777:hydrothermal vents
2716:Ecological pyramid
2663:Microbial food web
2474:Primary production
2419:Foundation species
2235:2014-01-09 at the
2130:Vayda, Andrew P.;
2034:2011-04-05 at the
1927:2018-08-20 at the
1767:: 1, 33, 429, 433.
1459:2010-11-30 at the
786:Climate resilience
402:Climate resilience
396:Climate resilience
346:plant biodiversity
225:
186:toxic algae blooms
182:ecosystem services
34:
3803:
3802:
3686:Balance of nature
3443:Landscape ecology
3328:Community ecology
3270:Species diversity
3206:Indicator species
3201:Gradient analysis
3078:Logistic function
2986:
2985:
2943:Animal coloration
2920:Trophic mutualism
2658:Microbial ecology
2449:Photoheterotrophs
2434:Myco-heterotrophy
2346:Ecosystem ecology
2331:Carrying capacity
2296:Abiotic component
1215:(11): 5995â6000.
733:negative feedback
612:biodiversity loss
545:political science
275:adaptive capacity
190:phosphorus cycles
90:bifurcation point
3833:
3503:Ecological niche
3475:selection theory
3295:Umbrella species
3280:Species richness
3216:Invasive species
3196:Flagship species
3103:Population cycle
3098:Overexploitation
3063:Ecological yield
3013:
3006:
2999:
2990:
2989:
2895:Mesotrophic soil
2835:Climax community
2767:Marine food webs
2706:Biomagnification
2507:Chemoorganotroph
2361:Keystone species
2321:Biotic component
2266:
2259:
2252:
2243:
2242:
2197:
2154:
2153:
2132:McCay, Bonnie J.
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2053:
2044:
2038:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2010:. Archived from
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1937:
1931:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1877:. Archived from
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1819:
1795:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1768:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1695:
1684:
1681:
1670:
1669:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1620:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1561:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1499:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1469:
1463:
1446:
1440:
1435:
1425:
1392:
1386:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1362:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1328:
1322:
1307:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1242:
1232:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1170:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1149:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1075:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1047:
1023:
1012:
1011:
993:
973:
964:
963:
945:
939:
938:
918:
901:
900:
894:
886:
858:
549:urban ecosystems
443:marine ecosystem
382:land use changes
3841:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3790:
3776:Systems ecology
3664:
3635:Extinction debt
3600:Ecological debt
3590:Bioluminescence
3571:
3564:
3533:marine habitats
3508:Ecological trap
3489:
3369:
3362:
3305:
3299:
3255:Rapoport's rule
3250:Priority effect
3191:Endemic species
3159:
3118:Population size
3034:
3027:
3017:
2987:
2982:
2935:
2929:
2915:Trophic cascade
2825:Bioaccumulation
2808:
2735:
2692:
2614:
2581:
2478:
2390:
2351:Ecosystem model
2284:
2270:
2237:Wayback Machine
2204:
2194:
2162:
2160:Further reading
2157:
2128:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2089:
2085:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2036:Wayback Machine
2023:
2019:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1983:
1981:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1954:
1952:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1929:Wayback Machine
1919:
1915:
1906:
1904:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1798:Ross A (2008).
1796:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1755:
1745:
1743:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1717:10.1002/sd.2645
1696:
1687:
1682:
1673:
1640:
1636:
1597:
1593:
1584:
1582:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1557:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1531:"Oil Pollution"
1529:
1527:
1523:
1500:
1491:
1482:
1480:
1471:
1470:
1466:
1461:Wayback Machine
1447:
1443:
1402:npj Clean Water
1393:
1389:
1376:
1372:
1356:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1339:
1335:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1260:
1256:
1201:
1194:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1116:
1110:
1103:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1024:
1015:
974:
967:
960:
946:
942:
919:
904:
888:
887:
859:
844:
840:
835:
821:Soil resilience
776:
764:social sciences
725:state variables
713:
675:
628:
589:
575:
557:
529:
523:
510:
487:
473:to process the
466:
458:fishing vessels
431:
426:
425:
399:
391:
366:
315:
309:
284:
217:
146:
56:events such as
32:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3839:
3829:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3756:Microecosystem
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3655:Thorson's rule
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3580:Assembly rules
3576:
3574:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3499:
3497:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3465:
3463:Patch dynamics
3460:
3458:Metapopulation
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3374:
3372:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3355:
3353:Storage effect
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3309:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3235:Neutral theory
3232:
3227:
3222:
3220:Native species
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3145:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3093:Overpopulation
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3029:
3028:
3016:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2993:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2900:Nutrient cycle
2897:
2892:
2890:Feeding frenzy
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2870:Energy quality
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2830:Cascade effect
2827:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2702:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2673:Microbial loop
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2638:Lithoautotroph
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2620:Microorganisms
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2579:
2577:Prey switching
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2454:Photosynthesis
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2409:Chemosynthesis
2406:
2400:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2301:Abiotic stress
2298:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2269:
2268:
2261:
2254:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2226:
2219:
2218:
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2202:External links
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2099:(3): 253â267.
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2017:
2014:on 2011-02-25.
1990:
1961:
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1913:
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1881:on 2010-07-14.
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1652:(3): 605â612.
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1510:(2): 322â331.
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869:(5): 437â440.
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537:sustainability
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479:eutrophication
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410:climate hazard
400:
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389:Climate change
387:
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358:soil fertility
354:surface runoff
350:soil nutrients
322:organic matter
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3781:Urban ecology
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3416:
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3413:Foster's rule
3411:
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2732:
2731:Trophic level
2729:
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2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2703:
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2699:
2695:
2689:
2688:Phage ecology
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2678:Microbial mat
2676:
2674:
2671:
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2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2633:Bacteriophage
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Decomposition
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2547:Mesopredators
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2492:Apex predator
2490:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
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2326:Biotic stress
2324:
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2255:
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2217:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2043:
2037:
2033:
2030:
2027:(NSW) No.101
2026:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1902:
1898:
1894:
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1876:
1872:
1865:
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1846:
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1809:
1805:
1801:
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1713:
1709:
1705:
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1676:
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1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1504:Marine Policy
1498:
1496:
1494:
1478:
1474:
1473:"Overfishing"
1468:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1366:
1360:
1344:
1337:
1323:on 2022-08-07
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
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1250:
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1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1197:
1188:
1184:
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1167:
1165:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1106:
1091:on 2022-02-28
1087:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1009:
1005:
1001:
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992:
987:
983:
979:
972:
970:
961:
955:
951:
944:
936:
932:
928:
924:
917:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
898:
892:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
842:
832:
829:
827:
826:Vulnerability
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
778:
771:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
750:
746:
742:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
705:
704:
700:
697:
696:
692:
689:
688:
684:
683:
682:
679:
666:
665:
659:
658:
652:
649:
645:
640:
636:
635:
634:
631:
623:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
596:
594:
584:
581:
570:
566:
563:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
528:
518:
516:
505:
503:
498:
495:
492:
482:
480:
476:
475:marine debris
472:
461:
459:
454:
452:
451:Blue fin tuna
448:
444:
440:
436:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
397:
386:
383:
379:
374:
371:
370:deforestation
364:Deforestation
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
314:
304:
300:
298:
295:, fertility,
294:
290:
282:Human impacts
279:
277:
276:
266:
263:
260:
257:
256:
255:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
221:
212:
210:
206:
202:
201:Regime shifts
198:
193:
191:
187:
183:
178:
172:
168:
164:
163:
162:
159:
154:
151:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
101:
99:
95:
94:regime shifts
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:deforestation
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
28:
22:
3766:Regime shift
3751:Macroecology
3472:
3468:
3408:Edge effects
3378:Biogeography
3323:Commensalism
3171:Biodiversity
3142:
3048:Allee effect
2787:kelp forests
2740:Example webs
2605:Detritivores
2444:Organotrophs
2424:Kinetotrophs
2376:Productivity
2183:
2141:
2135:
2125:
2113:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2061:
2055:
2042:
2024:
2020:
2012:the original
2003:
1997:DECCW 2010
1993:
1982:. Retrieved
1973:
1964:
1953:. Retrieved
1944:
1935:
1916:
1905:. Retrieved
1896:
1887:
1879:the original
1864:
1853:. Retrieved
1844:
1838:DECCW 2010
1834:
1807:
1803:
1781:
1772:
1744:. Retrieved
1736:columbia.edu
1735:
1726:
1707:
1703:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1608:
1604:
1594:
1583:. Retrieved
1569:
1558:. Retrieved
1543:
1535:the original
1524:
1507:
1503:
1481:. Retrieved
1467:
1449:
1444:
1405:
1401:
1390:
1377:IPCC, 2022:
1373:
1349:12 September
1347:. Retrieved
1336:
1325:. Retrieved
1318:the original
1309:
1292:
1282:12 September
1280:. Retrieved
1267:
1257:
1212:
1208:
1178:
1174:
1152:. Retrieved
1124:
1120:
1093:. Retrieved
1086:the original
1077:
1064:
1035:
1031:
981:
977:
949:
943:
926:
922:
891:cite journal
866:
862:
768:Bonnie McCay
762:, and other
756:anthropology
753:
737:
721:C.S. Holling
714:
701:
693:
685:
680:
676:
668:generations.
662:
655:
647:
643:
632:
629:
609:
597:
590:
576:
567:
558:
530:
515:algal blooms
511:
499:
496:
488:
467:
455:
447:coastal fish
432:
375:
367:
352:and prevent
316:
301:
297:biodiversity
289:regime shift
285:
273:
271:
253:
248:
244:
240:
236:
229:Brian Walker
226:
194:
179:
176:
158:C.S. Holling
155:
147:
128:paradigm to
102:
41:
35:
3403:Disturbance
3306:interaction
3128:Recruitment
3058:Depensation
2850:Copiotrophs
2721:Energy flow
2643:Lithotrophy
2587:Decomposers
2567:Planktivore
2542:Insectivore
2532:Heterotroph
2497:Bacterivore
2464:Phototrophs
2414:Chemotrophs
2386:Restoration
2336:Competition
2144:: 293â306.
1868:DERM 2010
1746:13 December
1710:: 260â274.
1547:ITOPF 2010
1181:: 425â439.
984:(1): 6â18.
929:: 557â581.
831:Homeostasis
741:uncertainty
729:equilibrium
580:free market
471:marine life
439:overfishing
435:fish stocks
429:Overfishing
332:, however,
318:Agriculture
307:Agriculture
293:water cycle
233:C S Holling
227:Ecologists
167:equilibrium
144:Definitions
50:disturbance
3810:Categories
3771:Sexecology
3348:Parasitism
3313:Antibiosis
3148:Resistance
3143:Resilience
3033:Population
2953:Camouflage
2905:Oligotroph
2820:Ascendency
2782:intertidal
2772:cold seeps
2726:Food chain
2527:Herbivores
2502:Carnivores
2429:Mixotrophs
2404:Autotrophs
2283:components
2230:Resilience
1984:2010-09-12
1955:2010-09-12
1907:2010-09-12
1855:2010-09-12
1628:10535/5285
1585:2010-09-12
1560:2010-09-12
1483:2010-09-12
1327:2022-05-20
1154:2019-12-10
1095:2022-05-20
1055:10535/3282
978:Ecosystems
838:References
717:resilience
638:ecosystem.
491:oil spills
441:threatens
406:ecosystems
342:pesticides
338:herbicides
311:See also:
241:resistance
195:Likewise,
66:windstorms
54:stochastic
42:resilience
3676:Allometry
3630:Emergence
3358:Symbiosis
3343:Mutualism
3138:Stability
3043:Abundance
2855:Dominance
2813:Processes
2802:tide pool
2698:Food webs
2572:Predation
2557:Omnivores
2484:Consumers
2439:Mycotroph
2396:Producers
2341:Ecosystem
2306:Behaviour
2176:Earthscan
1826:154594989
1810:(1): 32.
1611:(1): 14.
1528:IMO 2010
1432:2059-7037
1408:(1): 42.
986:CiteSeerX
541:economics
414:hazardous
368:The term
330:shortages
209:herbivory
113:pollution
82:threshold
78:magnitude
46:ecosystem
3731:Endolith
3660:Xerosere
3572:networks
3388:Ecocline
2934:Defense,
2610:Detritus
2512:Foraging
2381:Resource
2233:Archived
2078:53309505
2064:: 1â23.
2032:Archived
1978:Archived
1949:Archived
1925:Archived
1901:Archived
1849:Archived
1740:Archived
1579:Archived
1554:Archived
1477:Archived
1457:Archived
1359:cite web
1301:(2022).
1276:Archived
1249:10339530
1145:Archived
1141:53309505
1127:: 1â23.
1038:(2): 5.
883:12374053
774:See also
422:droughts
249:panarchy
237:latitude
170:Holling.
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