Dye-sensitized solar cell

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spectrum, have more than enough energy to cross the band gap; although some of this extra energy is transferred into the electrons, the majority of it is wasted as heat. Another issue is that in order to have a reasonable chance of capturing a photon, the n-type layer has to be fairly thick. This also increases the chance that a freshly ejected electron will meet up with a previously created hole in the material before reaching the p–n junction. These effects produce an upper limit on the efficiency of silicon solar cells, currently around 20% for common modules and up to 27.1% for the best laboratory cells (33.16% is the theoretical maximum efficiency for single band gap solar cells, see

1196:). The "black dye" system was subjected to 50 million cycles, the equivalent of ten years' exposure to the sun in Switzerland. No discernible performance decrease was observed. However the dye is subject to breakdown in high-light situations. Over the last decade an extensive research program has been carried out to address these concerns. The newer dyes included 1-ethyl-3 methylimidazolium tetrocyanoborate which is extremely light- and temperature-stable, copper-diselenium which offers higher conversion efficiencies, and others with varying special-purpose properties. 243: 231: 251:

chlorophyll extracted from spinach (bio-mimetic or bionic approach). On the basis of such experiments electric power generation via the dye sensitization solar cell (DSSC) principle was demonstrated and discussed in 1972. The instability of the dye solar cell was identified as a main challenge. Its efficiency could, during the following two decades, be improved by optimizing the porosity of the electrode prepared from fine oxide powder, but the instability remained a problem.

5088: 1624:, advances in photosensitizers have resulted in a substantial improvement in performance of DSSC’s under solar and ambient light conditions. Another key factor to achieve power-conversion records is cosensitization, due to its ability combine dyes that can absorb light across a wider range of the light spectrum. Cosensitization is a chemical manufacturing method that produces DSSC electrodes containing two or more different dyes with complementary optical 5128: 1073:

attractive as a replacement for existing technologies in "low density" applications like rooftop solar collectors, where the mechanical robustness and light weight of the glass-less collector is a major advantage. They may not be as attractive for large-scale deployments where higher-cost higher-efficiency cells are more viable, but even small increases in the DSSC conversion efficiency might make them suitable for some of these roles as well.

197:. As the name implies, electrons in the conduction band are free to move about the silicon. When a load is placed across the cell as a whole, these electrons will flow out of the p-type side into the n-type side, lose energy while moving through the external circuit, and then flow back into the p-type material where they can once again re-combine with the valence-band hole they left behind. In this way, sunlight creates an electric current. 301:, typically titanium dioxide. The electrons from titanium dioxide then flow toward the transparent electrode where they are collected for powering a load. After flowing through the external circuit, they are re-introduced into the cell on a metal electrode on the back, also known as the counter electrode, and flow into the electrolyte. The electrolyte then transports the electrons back to the dye molecules and regenerates the oxidized dye. 5140: 1636:

used in the study were the organic dye SL9, which served as the primary long wavelength-light harvester, and the dye SL10, which provided an additional absorption peak that compensates the SL9’s inefficient blue light harvesting. It was found that adding this hydroxamic acid layer improved the dye layer’s molecular packing and ordering. This slowed down the adsorption of the sensitizers and augmented their fluorescence

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like roof tiles or building facades, lighter and more flexible materials are essential. This includes plastic films, metals, steel, or paper, which may also reduce manufacturing costs. The team found that the cell had an efficiency of 4% (close to that of a solar cell with a glass counter electrode), demonstrated the potential for creating building-integrated DSSC’s that are stable and low-cost.

1173: 375:. The most common counter electrode material currently used is platinum in DSSCs, but is not sustainable owing to its high costs and scarce resources. Thus, much research has been focused towards discovering new hybrid and doped materials that can replace platinum with comparable or superior electrocatalytic performance. One such category being widely studied includes 887:

of nanoparticles requires a high temperature of about 450 °C, which restricts the fabrication of these cells to robust, rigid solid substrates. It has been proven that there is an increase in the efficiency of DSSC, if the sintered nanoparticle electrode is replaced by a specially designed electrode possessing an exotic 'nanoplant-like' morphology.

22: 1261:

traditional liquid electrolyte (viscosity: 0.91 mPa·s). The much improved stabilities of the device under both thermal stress and soaking with light has never before been seen in DSCs, and they match the durability criteria applied to solar cells for outdoor use, which makes these devices viable for practical application.

1105:, with a metal backing for strength. Such systems suffer noticeable decreases in efficiency as the cells heat up internally. DSSCs are normally built with only a thin layer of conductive plastic on the front layer, allowing them to radiate away heat much easier, and therefore operate at lower internal temperatures. 446:. Comparison of these three morphologies revealed that the hybrid composite nanoparticles, due to having the largest electroactive surface area, had the highest power conversion efficiency of 9.27%, even higher than its platinum counterpart. Not only that, the nanoparticle morphology displayed the highest peak 1135:

additive. Thus, photocurrent matching is very important for the construction of highly efficient tandem pn-DSCs. However, unlike n-DSCs, fast charge recombination following dye-sensitized hole injection usually resulted in low photocurrents in p-DSC and thus hampered the efficiency of the overall device.

1224:(EPFL) has reportedly increased the thermostability of DSC by using amphiphilic ruthenium sensitizer in conjunction with quasi-solid-state gel electrolyte. The stability of the device matches that of a conventional inorganic silicon-based solar cell. The cell sustained heating for 1,000 h at 80 °C. 1491:

During the last 5–10 years, a new kind of DSSC has been developed – the solid state dye-sensitized solar cell. In this case the liquid electrolyte is replaced by one of several solid hole conducting materials. From 2009 to 2013 the efficiency of Solid State DSSCs has dramatically increased from 4% to

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The use of the amphiphilic Z-907 dye in conjunction with the polymer gel electrolyte in DSC achieved an energy conversion efficiency of 6.1%. More importantly, the device was stable under thermal stress and soaking with light. The high conversion efficiency of the cell was sustained after heating for

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The major disadvantage to the DSSC design is the use of the liquid electrolyte, which has temperature stability problems. At low temperatures the electrolyte can freeze, halting power production and potentially leading to physical damage. Higher temperatures cause the liquid to expand, making sealing

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is qualitatively different from that occurring in a traditional cell, where the electron is "promoted" within the original crystal. In theory, given low rates of production, the high-energy electron in the silicon could re-combine with its own hole, giving off a photon (or other form of energy) which

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and the clear electrode, or optical losses in the front electrode. The overall quantum efficiency for green light is about 90%, with the "lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in the top electrode. The quantum efficiency of traditional designs vary, depending on their thickness,

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metal. The two plates are then joined and sealed together to prevent the electrolyte from leaking. The construction is simple enough that there are hobby kits available to hand-construct them. Although they use a number of "advanced" materials, these are inexpensive compared to the silicon needed for

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One last area that has been actively studied is the synergy of different materials in promoting superior electroactive performance. Whether through various charge transport material, electrochemical species, or morphologies, exploiting the synergetic relationship between different materials has paved

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dcbpy is 4,4′-dicarboxylic acid-2,2′-bipyridine and dnbpy is 4,4′-dinonyl-2,2′-bipyridine) to increase dye tolerance to water in the electrolytes. In addition, the group also prepared a quasi-solid-state gel electrolyte with a 3-methoxypropionitrile (MPN)-based liquid electrolyte that was solidified

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light. The wide spectral response results in the dye having a deep brown-black color, and is referred to simply as "black dye". The dyes have an excellent chance of converting a photon into an electron, originally around 80% but improving to almost perfect conversion in more recent dyes, the overall

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The dyes used in early experimental cells (circa 1995) were sensitive only in the high-frequency end of the solar spectrum, in the UV and blue. Newer versions were quickly introduced (circa 1999) that had much wider frequency response, notably "triscarboxy-ruthenium terpyridine" , which is efficient

500:

Se) films at various stoichiometric ratios of nickel and cobalt to understand its impact on the resulting cell performance. Nickel and cobalt bimetallic alloys were known to have outstanding electron conduction and stability, so optimizing its stoichiometry would ideally produce a more efficient and

94:

The DSSC has a number of attractive features; it is simple to make using conventional roll-printing techniques, is semi-flexible and semi-transparent which offers a variety of uses not applicable to glass-based systems, and most of the materials used are low-cost. In practice it has proven difficult

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found that the efficiency to cosensitized solar cells can be raised by the pre-adsorption of a monolayer of hydroxamic acid derivative on a surface of nanocrystalline mesoporous titanium dioxide, which functions as the electron transport mechanism of the electrode. The two photosensitizer molecules

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demonstrated cell efficiencies of 8.2% using a new solvent-free liquid redox electrolyte consisting of a melt of three salts, as an alternative to using organic solvents as an electrolyte solution. Although the efficiency with this electrolyte is less than the 11% being delivered using the existing

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layer and upon the solar flux spectrum. The overlap between these two spectra determines the maximum possible photocurrent. Typically used dye molecules generally have poorer absorption in the red part of the spectrum compared to silicon, which means that fewer of the photons in sunlight are usable

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or ZnO. These nanoparticle DSSCs rely on trap-limited diffusion through the semiconductor nanoparticles for the electron transport. This limits the device efficiency since it is a slow transport mechanism. Recombination is more likely to occur at longer wavelengths of radiation. Moreover, sintering

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discovered not only that the rGO acted as a co-catalyst in accelerating the triiodide reduction, but also that the microparticles and rGO had a synergistic interaction that decreased the charge transfer resistance of the overall system. Although the efficiency of this system was slightly lower than

323:

Dye-sensitized solar cells separate the two functions provided by silicon in a traditional cell design. Normally the silicon acts as both the source of photoelectrons, as well as providing the electric field to separate the charges and create a current. In the dye-sensitized solar cell, the bulk of

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in the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. They found that with an increase nanorod concentration, the light absorption grew linearly; however, charge extraction was also dependent on the concentration. With an optimized concentration, they found that the overall power conversion efficiency

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announced in October a Successful Completion of Second Milestone in Joint Dyesol / CSIRO Project. Dyesol Director Gordon Thompson said, "The materials developed during this joint collaboration have the potential to significantly advance the commercialisation of DSC in a range of applications where

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As a result of these favorable "differential kinetics", DSSCs work even in low-light conditions. DSSCs are therefore able to work under cloudy skies and non-direct sunlight, whereas traditional designs would suffer a "cutout" at some lower limit of illumination, when charge carrier mobility is low

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By far the biggest problem with the conventional approach is cost; solar cells require a relatively thick layer of doped silicon in order to have reasonable photon capture rates, and silicon processing is expensive. There have been a number of different approaches to reduce this cost over the last

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in Poland developed a DSSC in which the classic glass counter electrode was replaced by an electrode based on a ceramic tile and nickel foil. The motivation for this change was that, despite that glass substrates have resulted in the highest recorded efficiencies for DSSC’s, for BIPV applications

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A standard tandem cell consists of one n-DSC and one p-DSC in a simple sandwich configuration with an intermediate electrolyte layer. n-DSC and p-DSC are connected in series, which implies that the resulting photocurrent will be controlled by the weakest photoelectrode, whereas photovoltages are

1100:

A practical advantage which DSSCs share with most thin-film technologies, is that the cell's mechanical robustness indirectly leads to higher efficiencies at higher temperatures. In any semiconductor, increasing temperature will promote some electrons into the conduction band "mechanically". The

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on the resulting performance. It has been found that in addition to the elemental composition of the material, these three parameters greatly impact the resulting counter electrode efficiency. Of course, there are a variety of other materials currently being researched, such as highly mesoporous

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and a metal film that carries electrons off the fiber. The cells are six times more efficient than a zinc oxide cell with the same surface area. Photons bounce inside the fiber as they travel, so there are more chances to interact with the solar cell and produce more current. These devices only

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The enhanced performance may arise from a decrease in solvent permeation across the sealant due to the application of the polymer gel electrolyte. The polymer gel electrolyte is quasi-solid at room temperature, and becomes a viscous liquid (viscosity: 4.34 mPa·s) at 80 °C compared with the

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The dye molecules are quite small (nanometer sized), so in order to capture a reasonable amount of the incoming light the layer of dye molecules needs to be made fairly thick, much thicker than the molecules themselves. To address this problem, a nanomaterial is used as a scaffold to hold large

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of the device is 1.91%, which exceeds the efficiency of its individual components, but is still much lower than that of high performance n-DSC devices (6%–11%). The results are still promising since the tandem DSC was in itself rudimentary. The dramatic improvement in performance in p-DSC can

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DSSCs are currently the most efficient third-generation (2005 Basic Research Solar Energy Utilization 16) solar technology available. Other thin-film technologies are typically between 5% and 13%, and traditional low-cost commercial silicon panels operate between 14% and 17%. This makes DSSCs

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means that only photons with that amount of energy, or more, will contribute to producing a current. In the case of silicon, the majority of visible light from red to violet has sufficient energy to make this happen. Unfortunately higher energy photons, those at the blue and violet end of the

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The DSSC developed by the team showed a record-breaking power conversion efficiency of 15.2% under standard global simulated sunlight and long-term operational stability over 500 hours. In addition, devices with a larger active area exhibited efficiencies of around 30% while maintaining high

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Dye sensitised solar cells operate as a photoanode (n-DSC), where photocurrent result from electron injection by the sensitized dye. Photocathodes (p-DSCs) operate in an inverse mode compared to the conventional n-DSC, where dye-excitation is followed by rapid electron transfer from a p-type

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In the late 1960s it was discovered that illuminated organic dyes can generate electricity at oxide electrodes in electrochemical cells. In an effort to understand and simulate the primary processes in photosynthesis the phenomenon was studied at the University of California at Berkeley with

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has gained attention from the scientific community due to its potential to reduce pollution and materials and electricity costs, as well as to improve the aesthetics of a building. In recent years, scientists have looked at ways to incorporate DSSC’s in BIPV applications, since the dominant

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terms, DSSCs are extremely efficient. Due to their "depth" in the nanostructure there is a very high chance that a photon will be absorbed, and the dyes are very effective at converting them to electrons. Most of the small losses that do exist in DSSC's are due to conduction losses in the

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Gao, Feifei; Wang, Yuan; Zhang, Jing; Shi, Dong; Wang, Mingkui; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Grätzel, Michael (2008). "A new heteroleptic ruthenium sensitizer enhances the absorptivity of mesoporous titania film for a high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cell".

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and ZnO instead of the conventional liquid redox couple electrolyte, researchers have managed to fabricate solid state p-DSCs (p-ssDSCs), aiming for solid state tandem dye sensitized solar cells, which have the potential to achieve much greater photovoltages than a liquid tandem device.

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Wang, Qing; Campbell, Wayne M; Bonfantani, Edia E; Jolley, Kenneth W; Officer, David L; Walsh, Penny J; Gordon, Keith; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Grätzel, Michael (2005). "Efficient Light Harvesting by Using Green Zn-Porphyrin-Sensitized Nanocrystalline TiO2Films".

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announced in November the targeted development of Grid Parity Competitive BIPV solar steel that does not require government subsidised feed in tariffs. TATA-Dyesol "Solar Steel" Roofing is currently being installed on the Sustainable Building Envelope Centre (SBEC) in Shotton, Wales.

1142:(PMI) as the acceptor and an oligothiophene coupled to triphenylamine as the donor greatly improve the performance of p-DSC by reducing charge recombination rate following dye-sensitized hole injection. The researchers constructed a tandem DSC device with NiO on the p-DSC side and TiO 1088:, only an extra electron. Although it is energetically possible for the electron to recombine back into the dye, the rate at which this occurs is quite slow compared to the rate that the dye regains an electron from the surrounding electrolyte. Recombination directly from the TiO 3256:

Campbell, Wayne M; Jolley, Kenneth W; Wagner, Pawel; Wagner, Klaudia; Walsh, Penny J; Gordon, Keith C; Schmidt-Mende, Lukas; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Wang, Qing; Grätzel, Michael; Officer, David L (2007). "Highly Efficient Porphyrin Sensitizers for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

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approach, although these cells are very high cost and suitable only for large commercial deployments. In general terms the types of cells suitable for rooftop deployment have not changed significantly in efficiency, although costs have dropped somewhat due to increased supply.

1045:

DSSCs degrade when exposed to light. In 2014 air infiltration of the commonly-used amorphous Spiro-MeOTAD hole-transport layer was identified as the primary cause of the degradation, rather than oxidation. The damage could be avoided by the addition of an appropriate barrier.

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Even with the same composition, morphology of the nanoparticles that make up the counter electrode play such an integral role in determining the efficiency of the overall photovoltaic. Because a material's electrocatalytic potential is highly dependent on the amount of

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As previously mentioned, using a solid-state electrolyte has several advantages over a liquid system (such as no leakage and faster charge transport), which has also been realised for dye-sensitised photocathodes. Using electron transporting materials such as PCBM,

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Xu, Bo; Tian, Lei; Etman, Ahmed S.; Sun, Junliang; Tian, Haining (January 2019). "Solution-processed nanoporous NiO-dye-ZnO photocathodes: Toward efficient and stable solid-state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells and dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells".

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for 1,000 h of light-soaking at 55 °C (100 mW cm) the efficiency had decreased by less than 5% for cells covered with an ultraviolet absorbing polymer film. These results are well within the limit for that of traditional inorganic silicon solar cells.

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semiconductor to the dye (dye-sensitized hole injection, instead of electron injection). Such p-DSCs and n-DSCs can be combined to construct tandem solar cells (pn-DSCs) and the theoretical efficiency of tandem DSCs is well beyond that of single-junction DSCs.

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Replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid has been a major ongoing field of research. Recent experiments using solidified melted salts have shown some promise, but currently suffer from higher degradation during continued operation, and are not flexible.

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performance and stability are essential requirements. Dyesol is extremely encouraged by the breakthroughs in the chemistry allowing the production of the target molecules. This creates a path to the immediate commercial utilisation of these new materials."

1118:, solvents which must be carefully sealed as they are hazardous to human health and the environment. This, along with the fact that the solvents permeate plastics, has precluded large-scale outdoor application and integration into flexible structure. 4018:

Ren, Yameng; Zhang, Dan; Suo, Jiajia; Cao, Yiming; Eickemeyer, Felix T.; Vlachopoulos, Nick; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M.; Hagfeldt, Anders; Grätzel, Michael (26 October 2022). "Hydroxamic acid preadsorption raises efficiency of cosensitized solar cells".

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Huang, Yi-June; Lee, Chuan-Pei; Pang, Hao-Wei; Li, Chun-Ting; Fan, Miao-Syuan; Vittal, R.; Ho, Kuo-Chuan (December 2017). "Microemulsion-controlled synthesis of CoSe 2 /CoSeO 3 composite crystals for electrocatalysis in dye-sensitized solar cells".

801:

The oxidized photosensitizer (S) accepts electrons from the redox mediator, typically I ion redox mediator, leading to regeneration of the ground state (S), and two I-Ions are oxidized to elementary Iodine which reacts with I to the oxidized state,

1601:

PV systems in the market have a limited presence in this field due to their energy-intensive manufacturing methods, poor conversion efficiency under low light intensities, and high maintenance requirements. In 2021, a group of researchers from the

1281:, to provide a direct path to the electrode via the semiconductor conduction band. Such structures may provide a means to improve the quantum efficiency of DSSCs in the red region of the spectrum, where their performance is currently limited. 1092:

to species in the electrolyte is also possible although, again, for optimized devices this reaction is rather slow. On the contrary, electron transfer from the platinum coated electrode to species in the electrolyte is necessarily very fast.

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the panels a serious problem. Another disadvantage is that costly ruthenium (dye), platinum (catalyst) and conducting glass or plastic (contact) are needed to produce a DSSC. A third major drawback is that the electrolyte solution contains

638:

after light absorption. The injected electron diffuses through the sintered particle network to be collected at the front side transparent conducting oxide (TCO) electrode, while the dye is regenerated via reduction by a redox shuttle,

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Nemala, Siva Sankar; Kartikay, Purnendu; Agrawal, Rahul Kumar; Bhargava, Parag; Mallick, Sudhanshu; Bohm, Sivasambu (2018). "Few layers graphene based conductive composite inks for Pt free stainless steel counter electrodes for DSSC".

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Several important measures are used to characterize solar cells. The most obvious is the total amount of electrical power produced for a given amount of solar power shining on the cell. Expressed as a percentage, this is known as the

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Bai, Yu; Cao, Yiming; Zhang, Jing; Wang, Mingkui; Li, Renzhi; Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Grätzel, Michael (2008). "High-performance dye-sensitized solar cells based on solvent-free electrolytes produced from eutectic melts".

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Younas, M.; Baroud, Turki N.; Gondal, M.A.; Dastageer, M.A.; Giannelis, Emmanuel P. (August 2020). "Highly efficient, cost-effective counter electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) augmented by highly mesoporous carbons".

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researchers announced a solution to a primary problem of DSSCs, that of difficulties in using and containing the liquid electrolyte and the consequent relatively short useful life of the device. This is achieved through the use of

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and light soaking, 90% of the initial photovoltaic efficiency was maintained – the first time such excellent thermal stability has been observed for a liquid electrolyte that exhibits such a high conversion efficiency. Contrary to

166:. When placed in contact, some of the electrons in the n-type portion flow into the p-type to "fill in" the missing electrons, also known as electron holes. Eventually enough electrons will flow across the boundary to equalize the 1836: 1284:

In August 2006, to prove the chemical and thermal robustness of the 1-ethyl-3 methylimidazolium tetracyanoborate solar cell, the researchers subjected the devices to heating at 80 °C in the dark for 1000 hours, followed by

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Dhonde, Mahesh; Sahu, Kirti; Das, Malyaj; Yadav, Anand; Ghosh, Pintu; Murty, Vemparala Venkata Satyanarayana (1 June 2022). "Review—Recent Advancements in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells; From Photoelectrode to Counter Electrode".

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One of the efficient DSSCs devices uses ruthenium-based molecular dye, e.g. (N3), that is bound to a photoanode via carboxylate moieties. The photoanode consists of 12 μm thick film of transparent 10–20 nm diameter

335:

numbers of the dye molecules in a 3-D matrix, increasing the number of molecules for any given surface area of cell. In existing designs, this scaffolding is provided by the semiconductor material, which serves double-duty.

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Burschka, Julian; Pellet, Norman; Moon, Soo-Jin; Humphry-Baker, Robin; Gao, Peng; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Grätzel, Michael (2013). "Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-sensitized solar cells".

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Photosensitizers are dye compounds that absorb the photons from incoming light and eject electrons, producing an electric current that can be used to power a device or a storage unit. According to a new study performed by

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does not result in current being generated. Although this particular case may not be common, it is fairly easy for an electron generated by another atom to combine with a hole left behind in a previous photoexcitation.

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nanostructures, as well as lead-based nanocrystals. However, the following section compiles a variety of ongoing research efforts specifically relating to CCNI towards optimizing the DSSC counter electrode performance.

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available to facilitate the diffusion and reduction of the redox species, numerous research efforts have been focused towards understanding and optimizing the morphology of nanostructures for DSSC counter electrodes.

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Jin, Zhitong; Zhao, Guanyu; Wang, Zhong-Sheng (2018). "Controllable growth of Ni x Co y Se films and the influence of composition on the photovoltaic performance of quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells".

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To improve electron transport in these solar cells, while maintaining the high surface area needed for dye adsorption, two researchers have designed alternate semiconductor morphologies, such as arrays of

934:. This reaction occurs quite quickly compared to the time that it takes for the injected electron to recombine with the oxidized dye molecule, preventing this recombination reaction that would effectively 2389:

Lu, Man-Ning; Lin, Jeng-Yu; Wei, Tzu-Chien (November 2016). "Exploring the main function of reduced graphene oxide nano-flakes in a nickel cobalt sulfide counter electrode for dye-sensitized solar cell".

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nanoparticles covered with a 4 μm thick film of much larger (400 nm diameter) particles that scatter photons back into the transparent film. The excited dye rapidly injects an electron into the

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The working principle for n-type DSSCs can be summarized into a few basic steps. Sunlight passes through the transparent electrode into the dye layer where it can excite electrons that then flow into the

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Stainless steel based counter-electrodes for DSSCs have been reported which further reduce cost compared to conventional platinum based counter electrode and are suitable for outdoor application.

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Liu, Yi-Yi; Ye, Xin-Yu; An, Qing-Qing; Lei, Bing-Xin; Sun, Wei; Sun, Zhen-Fan (2018). "A novel synthesis of the bottom-straight and top-bent dual TiO 2 nanowires for dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Chandrasekhar, P. S; Parashar, Piyush K; Swami, Sanjay Kumar; Dutta, Viresh; Komarala, Vamsi K (2018). "Enhancement of Y123 dye-sensitized solar cell performance using plasmonic gold nanorods".

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and the conversion of the liquid electrolyte to a solid. The current efficiency is about half that of silicon cells, but the cells are lightweight and potentially of much lower cost to produce.

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respectively. Finally, in order to understand the underlying physics, the "quantum efficiency" is used to compare the chance that one photon (of a particular energy) will create one electron.

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Du, Feng; Yang, Qun; Qin, Tianze; Li, Guang (April 2017). "Morphology-controlled growth of NiCo2O4 ternary oxides and their application in dye-sensitized solar cells as counter electrodes".

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realized that exploring various growth mechanisms that help to exploit the larger active surface areas of nanoflowers may provide an opening for extending DSSC applications to other fields.

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Se achieved superior power conversion efficiency (8.61%), lower charge transfer impedance, and higher electrocatalytic ability than both its platinum and binary selenide counterparts.

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Gullace, S.; Nastasi, F.; Puntoriero, F.; Trusso, S.; Calogero, G. (March 2020). "A platinum-free nanostructured gold counter electrode for DSSCs prepared by pulsed laser ablation".

903:. Photons striking the dye with enough energy to be absorbed create an excited state of the dye, from which an electron can be "injected" directly into the conduction band of the TiO 2255:

Mehmood, Umer; Ul Haq Khan, Anwar (November 2019). "Spray coated PbS nano-crystals as an effective counter-electrode material for platinum free Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)".

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for conversion of higher-energy (higher frequency) light into multiple electrons, using solid-state electrolytes for better temperature response, and changing the doping of the TiO

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approaches, but to date they have seen limited application due to a variety of practical problems. Another line of research has been to dramatically improve efficiency through the

3719:

Li, Heng; Zhao, Qing; Dong, Hui; Ma, Qianli; Wang, Wei; Xu, Dongsheng; Yu, Dapeng (2014). "Highly-flexible, low-cost, all stainless steel mesh-based dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Matsumura, Michio; Matsudaira, Shigeyuki; Tsubomura, Hiroshi; Takata, Masasuke; Yanagida, Hiroaki (1980). "Dye Sensitization and Surface Structures of Semiconductor Electrodes".

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Kartikay, Purnendu; Nemala, Siva Sankar; Mallick, Sudhanshu (2017). "One-dimensional TiO2 nanostructured photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells by hydrothermal synthesis".

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and recombination becomes a major issue. The cutoff is so low they are even being proposed for indoor use, collecting energy for small devices from the lights in the house.

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Nattestad, A; Mozer, A. J; Fischer, M. K. R; Cheng, Y.-B; Mishra, A; Bäuerle, P; Bach, U (2009). "Highly efficient photocathodes for dye-sensitized tandem solar cells".

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in partnership with Romande Energie. The total surface is 300 m, in 1400 modules of 50 cm x 35 cm. Designed by artists Daniel Schlaepfer and Catherine Bolle.

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Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Zhang, Lei (10 February 2016). "Solid state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells: concept, experiment and mechanism".

1777: 1010:). That is, if an illuminated DSSC is connected to a voltmeter in an "open circuit", it would read about 0.7 V. In terms of voltage, DSSCs offer slightly higher V 2477:

Hamann, Thomas W; Jensen, Rebecca A; Martinson, Alex B. F; Van Ryswyk, Hal; Hupp, Joseph T (2008). "Advancing beyond current generation dye-sensitized solar cells".

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Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Sun, Junliang; Kubart, Tomas; Johansson, Malin; Yang, Wenxing; Lin, Junzhong; Zhang, Zhibin (20 December 2017).

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redox electrolytes, which have achieved 13.1% efficiency under standard AM1.5G, 100 mW/cm conditions and record 32% efficiency under 1000 lux of indoor light.

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Weintraub, Benjamin; Wei, Yaguang; Wang, Zhong Lin (2009). "Optical Fiber/Nanowire Hybrid Structures for Efficient Three-Dimensional Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

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DSSCs are still at the start of their development cycle. Efficiency gains are possible and have recently started more widespread study. These include the use of

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its platinum analog (efficiency of NCS/rGO system: 8.96%; efficiency of Pt system: 9.11%), it provided a platform on which further research can be conducted.

1584:

Researchers from Uppsala University have used n-type semiconductors instead of redox electrolyte to fabricate solid state p-type dye sensitized solar cells.

1378:

collect light at the tips, but future fiber cells could be made to absorb light along the entire length of the fiber, which would require a coating that is

2987:

Tian, Haining; Hammarström, Leif; Boschloo, Gerrit; Kloo, Lars; Sun, Junliang; Hua, Yong; Kubart, Tomas; Lin, Junzhong; Pati, Palas Baran (10 April 2018).

2089:

Tian, Haining; Gardner, James; Edvinsson, Tomas; Pati, Palas B.; Cong, Jiayan; Xu, Bo; Abrahamsson, Maria; Cappel, Ute B.; Barea, Eva M. (19 August 2019),

663:

The photosensitizers are excited from the ground state (S) to the excited state (S). The excited electrons are injected into the conduction band of the TiO

1014:

than silicon, about 0.7 V compared to 0.6 V. This is a fairly small difference, so real-world differences are dominated by current production, J

1025:, only photons absorbed by the dye ultimately produce current. The rate of photon absorption depends upon the absorption spectrum of the sensitized TiO 1418:, resulting in a liquid or gel that is transparent and non-corrosive, which can increase the photovoltage and improve the cell's output and stability. 1030:

for current generation. These factors limit the current generated by a DSSC, for comparison, a traditional silicon-based solar cell offers about 35 m

1965:

Gerischer, H; Michel-Beyerle, M.E; Rebentrost, F; Tributsch, H (1968). "Sensitization of charge injection into semiconductors with large band gap".

1298:, whose performance declines with increasing temperature, the dye-sensitized solar-cell devices were only negligibly influenced when increasing the 3129: 1632: 1574: 1524: 1403: 1221: 84: 3972:

Cole, Jacqueline M.; Pepe, Giulio; Al Bahri, Othman K.; Cooper, Christopher B. (26 June 2019). "Cosensitization in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

485:, as the valence and conduction energy bands must overlap with those of the redox electrolyte species to allow for efficient electron exchange. 1290: 1101:

fragility of traditional silicon cells requires them to be protected from the elements, typically by encasing them in a glass box similar to a

922:

Meanwhile, the dye molecule has lost an electron and the molecule will decompose if another electron is not provided. The dye strips one from

4993: 4670: 343:

One of the most important components of DSSC is the counter electrode. As stated before, the counter electrode is responsible for collecting

2713: 2774: 5170: 4639: 4475: 174:, where charge carriers are depleted and/or accumulated on each side of the interface. In silicon, this transfer of electrons produces a 4348: 2754: 2434: 1879: 1445:

announced in June the development of the world's largest dye sensitized photovoltaic module, printed onto steel in a continuous line.

798:

nanoparticles with diffusion toward the back contact (TCO). And the electrons finally reach the counter electrode through the circuit.

1407: 3887:

Szindler, Marek; Szindler, Magdalena; Drygała, Aleksandra; Lukaszkowicz, Krzysztof; Kaim, Paulina; Pietruszka, Rafał (4 July 2021).

4810: 3473: 2177:

Zatirostami, Ahmad (December 2020). "Electro-deposited SnSe on ITO: A low-cost and high-performance counter electrode for DSSCs".

586:

only absorbs a small fraction of the solar photons (those in the UV). The plate is then immersed in a mixture of a photosensitive

4777: 4772: 4106: 360: 1794:

O'Regan, Brian; Grätzel, Michael (1991). "A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films".

4517: 1625: 1192:

A solar cell must be capable of producing electricity for at least twenty years, without a significant decrease in efficiency (

966:. Electrical power is the product of current and voltage, so the maximum values for these measurements are important as well, J 481:

Of course, the composition of the material that is used as the counter electrode is extremely important to creating a working

2110: 450:

and smallest potential gap between the anodic and cathodic peak potentials, thus implying the best electrocatalytic ability.

1774: 1492:

15%. Michael Grätzel announced the fabrication of Solid State DSSCs with 15.0% efficiency, reached by the means of a hybrid

3382: 3157:"A stable quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell with an amphiphilic ruthenium sensitizer and polymer gel electrolyte" 2451: 643:/I, dissolved in a solution. Diffusion of the oxidized form of the shuttle to the counter electrode completes the circuit. 3155:

Wang, Peng; Zakeeruddin, Shaik M; Moser, Jacques E; Nazeeruddin, Mohammad K; Sekiguchi, Takashi; Grätzel, Michael (2003).

1992:

Tributsch, H; Calvin, M (1971). "Electrochemistry of Excited Molecules: Photo-Electrochemical Reactions of Chlorophylls".

5165: 4815: 3946: 1076:

There is another area where DSSCs are particularly attractive. The process of injecting an electron directly into the TiO

124: 103:, and the liquid electrolyte presents a serious challenge to making a cell suitable for use in all weather. Although its 4831: 4183: 1762: 80: 2791: 71:

system. The modern version of a dye solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by

4959: 4894: 4836: 4333: 3530: 2521: 1906:"LONGi Sets a New World Record of 27.09% for the Efficiency of Silicon Heterojunction Back-Contact (HBC) Solar Cells" 1603: 1593: 116: 1037:

Overall peak power conversion efficiency for current DSSCs is about 11%. Current record for prototypes lies at 15%.

4964: 4727: 4208: 2090: 1150:

film thicknesses to control the optical absorptions and therefore match the photocurrents of both electrodes. The

4978: 4485: 4343: 4224: 1189:

efficiency is about 90%, with the "lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in top electrode.

4161: 3125: 2622: 1555:

nanostructures directly on fluorine-doped tin oxide glass substrates was successful demonstrated via a two-stop

941:

The triiodide then recovers its missing electron by mechanically diffusing to the bottom of the cell, where the

566::F) deposited on the back of a (typically glass) plate. On the back of this conductive plate is a thin layer of 308:(typically nickel oxide). However, instead of injecting an electron into the semiconductor, in a p-type DSSC, a 5175: 5103: 4929: 4455: 4249: 4198: 1674: 694: 4762: 3544: 2537:

Tiwari, Ashutosh; Snure, Michael (2008). "Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Nano-Plant-Like Electrodes".

1383: 304:

The basic working principle above, is similar in a p-type DSSC, where the dye-sensitised semiconductor is of

5049: 5029: 4409: 4168: 2027:

Tributsch, Helmut (2008). "Reaction of Excited Chlorophyll Molecules at Electrodes and in Photosynthesis".

1684: 1151: 123:. Commercial applications, which were held up due to chemical stability problems, had been forecast in the 87:

until the publication of the first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Michael Grätzel has been awarded the 2010

862:

The efficiency of a DSSC depends on four energy levels of the component: the excited state (approximately

4939: 4414: 4099: 1528: 962: 954: 605:

the film in the dye solution, a thin layer of the dye is left covalently bonded to the surface of the TiO

206: 88: 5118: 4949: 4802: 4791: 4665: 4512: 4470: 4450: 1930:

Rühle, Sven (2016). "Tabulated values of the Shockley–Queisser limit for single junction solar cells".

551: 324:

the semiconductor is used solely for charge transport, the photoelectrons are provided from a separate

72: 3764:"Direct Contact of Selective Charge Extraction Layers Enables High-Efficiency Molecular Photovoltaics" 1905: 5180: 4429: 4363: 4178: 3826: 1719: 1540: 1115: 372: 140: 67: 3271: 2829:"Solid hybrid dye-sensitized solar cells: new organic materials, charge recombination and stability" 2643: 1355:

made dye-sensitized solar cells with a higher effective surface area by wrapping the cells around a

5160: 4864: 4846: 4737: 4583: 4570: 4565: 4465: 1849:

Tributsch, H (2004). "Dye sensitization solar cells: A critical assessment of the learning curve".

1429:, which is far less expensive, more efficient, more stable and easier to produce in the laboratory. 4070: 3762:

Cao, Yiming; Liu, Yuhang; Zakeeruddin, Shaik Mohammed; Hagfeldt, Anders; Grätzel, Michael (2018).

1021:

Although the dye is highly efficient at converting absorbed photons into free electrons in the TiO

5132: 4954: 4874: 4752: 4722: 4480: 4460: 4389: 4275: 4270: 4239: 4234: 3461: 2808: 2572: 1475: 1363: 1241: 185:

of the sunlight can excite electrons on the p-type side of the semiconductor, a process known as

112: 3085:"Solid-state p-type dye-sensitized solar cells: progress, potential applications and challenges" 1837:

Professor Grätzel wins the 2010 millennium technology grand prize for dye-sensitized solar cells

5092: 4934: 4904: 4869: 4856: 4742: 4318: 4308: 4203: 4092: 3266: 2771: 1724: 1654: 1556: 1493: 1387: 4076: 3449: 990:

In theory, the maximum voltage generated by such a cell is simply the difference between the (

4909: 4899: 4879: 4732: 4555: 4358: 4156: 3803:

Service, Robert F (2018). "Solar cells that work in low light could charge devices indoors".

2630: 1699: 1299: 189:. In silicon, sunlight can provide enough energy to push an electron out of the lower-energy 128: 104: 1394:

would not be necessary for such cells, and would work on cloudy days when light is diffuse.

1252:

1,000 h at 80 °C, maintaining 94% of its initial value. After accelerated testing in a

4944: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4889: 4884: 4399: 4328: 4173: 4141: 3900: 3861: 3775: 3728: 3685: 3571: 3504: 3340: 3168: 3049: 2893: 2850: 2751: 2670: 2431: 2399: 2335: 2264: 2221: 2143: 1939: 1883: 1803: 1714: 1379: 656:

The incident photon is absorbed by the photosensitizer (eg. Ru complex) adsorbed on the TiO

574:), which forms into a highly porous structure with an extremely high surface area. The (TiO 501:

stable cell performance than its singly metallic counterparts. Such is the result that Jin

331:. Charge separation occurs at the surfaces between the dye, semiconductor and electrolyte. 317: 305: 298: 159: 151: 54: 1084:

In comparison, the injection process used in the DSSC does not introduce a hole in the TiO

8: 4598: 4578: 4545: 4353: 4289: 4229: 4188: 1598: 1245: 1177: 3904: 3865: 3779: 3732: 3689: 3575: 3344: 3172: 3053: 2897: 2854: 2674: 2403: 2339: 2268: 2225: 2147: 1943: 1807: 4634: 4593: 4540: 4313: 4193: 4044: 3997: 3923: 3888: 3701: 3657: 3622: 3194: 3065: 2694: 2280: 2237: 2194: 2159: 2116: 2044: 2040: 2009: 2005: 1819: 1709: 1704: 1295: 1146:

on the n-DSC side. Photocurrent matching was achieved through adjustment of NiO and TiO

978: 3225: 3126:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DYSC) based on Nanocrystalline Oxide Semiconductor Films" 1617: 651:

The following steps convert in a conventional n-type DSSC photons (light) to current:

76: 4660: 4655: 4588: 4384: 4323: 4254: 4244: 4048: 4036: 4001: 3989: 3928: 3744: 3705: 3661: 3626: 3587: 3431: 3387: 3356: 3312: 3186: 3106: 3069: 3018: 3010: 2966: 2958: 2917: 2909: 2866: 2739: 2686: 2603: 2554: 2517: 2284: 2241: 2198: 2163: 2120: 2106: 1978: 1463: 1442: 1311: 942: 254:

A modern n-type DSSC, the most common type of DSSC, is composed of a porous layer of

175: 3889:"Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell for Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) Applications" 3198: 2048: 2013: 4717: 4701: 4685: 4675: 4146: 4028: 3981: 3918: 3908: 3869: 3808: 3783: 3736: 3693: 3649: 3614: 3579: 3423: 3348: 3304: 3276: 3221: 3176: 3096: 3057: 3000: 2948: 2901: 2858: 2698: 2678: 2595: 2546: 2509: 2486: 2411: 2407: 2371: 2343: 2308: 2272: 2229: 2186: 2155: 2151: 2098: 2071: 2036: 2001: 1974: 1947: 1858: 1823: 1811: 1689: 895:

In a conventional n-type DSSC, sunlight enters the cell through the transparent SnO

567: 278: 255: 242: 171: 3697: 2347: 2276: 2190: 1951: 1330:

in animals. He reports efficiency on the order of 5.6% using these low-cost dyes.

882:

In DSSC, electrodes consisted of sintered semiconducting nanoparticles, mainly TiO

289:(the platinum) are placed on either side of a liquid conductor (the electrolyte). 4629: 4560: 3492: 3061: 2778: 2758: 2438: 2312: 2233: 1781: 1729: 1621: 1253: 1155:

eventually lead to tandem devices with much greater efficiency than lone n-DSCs.

1003: 533:

with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) nanoflakes to create the counter electrode. Lu

447: 294: 194: 186: 3985: 3788: 3763: 3474:

Tata Steel and Dyesol produce world’s largest dye sensitised photovoltaic module

3392: 2455: 2102: 1373:

along the surface, treated them with dye molecules, surrounded the fibers by an

866:) and the ground state (HOMO) of the photosensitizer, the Fermi level of the TiO 5039: 5014: 4680: 4532: 4434: 4424: 4394: 4151: 4032: 3873: 1480: 1426: 325: 218: 108: 3653: 3618: 1862: 1567:

nanowire cells was enhanced, reaching a power conversion efficiency of 7.65%.

1343:

iodine-based solutions, the team is confident the efficiency can be improved.

5154: 5144: 4624: 4614: 4527: 4419: 4136: 4115: 3110: 3014: 2962: 2913: 2427: 1679: 1637: 1391: 1359: 1314:, New Zealand, has experimented with a wide variety of organic dyes based on 1286: 1227:

The group has previously prepared a ruthenium amphiphilic dye Z-907 (cis-Ru(H

1050: 935: 530: 482: 465:

had the greatest power conversion efficiency and electrocatalytic ability as

431: 392: 309: 163: 143: 58: 21: 3812: 2513: 1269:

The first successful solid-hybrid dye-sensitized solar cells were reported.

359:

to I. Thus, it is important for the counter electrode to not only have high

5069: 5024: 4757: 4040: 3993: 3932: 3748: 3591: 3435: 3427: 3360: 3316: 3190: 3022: 2970: 2921: 2870: 2690: 2607: 2558: 1352: 1278: 1193: 1054: 1006:

of the electrolyte, about 0.7 V under solar illumination conditions (V

443: 419: 313: 258: 230: 190: 2828: 1964: 1060:(which emit at longer wavelengths which may be reabsorbed by the dye) and 833:, diffuses toward the counter electrode and then it is reduced to I ions. 602: 83:

and this work was later developed by the aforementioned scientists at the

5064: 5034: 5009: 4767: 4404: 4379: 2937:"Ultrafast dye regeneration in a core–shell NiO–dye–TiO2 mesoporous film" 2550: 1664: 1415: 1374: 1323: 1319: 1200: 1061: 1057: 995: 609:. The bond is either an ester, chelating, or bidentate bridging linkage. 559: 348: 266: 262: 167: 120: 62: 2682: 2075: 945:

re-introduces the electrons after flowing through the external circuit.

4550: 4522: 4300: 3913: 3740: 3583: 3101: 3084: 3005: 2989:"Solid state p-type dye sensitized NiO–dye–TiO2 core–shell solar cells" 2988: 2953: 2936: 2905: 2504:

Hara, Kohjiro; Arakawa, Hironori (2005). "Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells".

2375: 2064:

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development

1694: 1367: 1327: 1139: 1102: 621:

normal cells because they require no expensive manufacturing steps. TiO

466: 147: 50: 3308: 3280: 1753:, University of Alabama Department of Chemistry, p. 3, published 2004. 547: 4841: 4747: 4619: 3352: 3133: 2862: 2599: 2573:"Ultrathin, Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Called Most Efficient To Date" 2490: 1815: 1315: 931: 908: 667:

electrode. This results in the oxidation of the photosensitizer (S).

587: 579: 376: 368: 364: 214: 100: 5127: 3239: 3214:

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews

3181: 3156: 2742:, European patent WO/2004/006292, Publication Date: 15 January 2004. 714: 5054: 5044: 5019: 3886: 3123: 2714:"New findings to help extend high efficiency solar cells' lifetime" 1659: 1370: 1274: 1185: 912: 617: 591: 344: 274: 270: 201: 170:

of the two materials. The result is a region at the interface, the

155: 150:

is made from two doped crystals, one doped with n-type impurities (

96: 2761:, U.S. Department of Energy Office of Basic Energy Sciences, 2005. 2061: 5139: 5059: 2772:"Interface engineering in solid-state dye sensitized solar cells" 1669: 1548:

improved from 5.31 to 8.86% for Y123 dye-sensitized solar cells.

1544: 1422: 598: 396: 286: 4084: 3476:. Tatasteeleurope.com (10 June 2011). Retrieved on 26 July 2011. 134: 3561: 3154: 2659: 2623:"Dye-sensitized solar cells rival conventional cell efficiency" 2476: 1578: 1459: 1448: 1438: 1356: 1031: 923: 613: 384: 380: 261:, covered with a molecular dye that absorbs sunlight, like the 182: 3947:"New Record Efficiency Achieved by Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells" 2211: 1508:

dye, subsequently deposited from the separated solutions of CH

554:

design, the cell has 3 primary parts. On top is a transparent

3674: 3519:. Brr.com.au (23 November 2011). Retrieved on 6 January 2012. 1452: 916: 555: 352: 347:

from the external circuit and introducing them back into the

282: 3293: 2883: 4066:

Brian O'Regan's account of the invention of the modern DSSC

2986: 2132: 1172: 863: 405: 388: 265:

in green leaves. The titanium dioxide is immersed under an

235: 3517:

DYESOL LIMITED – Dyesol 2011 AGM – Boardroom Radio webcast

3255: 2934: 2840: 1644:

stability, offering new possibilities for the DSSC field.

1628:

capabilities, enabling the use of all available sunlight.

1318:. In nature, porphyrin is the basic building block of the 899::F top contact, striking the dye on the surface of the TiO 3761: 3124:

Kalyanasundaram, K.; Grätzel, Michael (2 February 1999).

2809:"New Efficiency Benchmark For Dye-sensitized Solar Cells" 1640:, improving the power conversion efficiency of the cell. 729: 594: 401: 328: 3495:. Dyesol (21 October 2011). Retrieved on 6 January 2012. 2088: 1523:

The first architectural integration was demonstrated at

625:, for instance, is already widely used as a paint base. 3212:

Grätzel, Michael (2003). "Dye-sensitized solar cells".

1923: 612:

A separate plate is then made with a thin layer of the

442:

composite crystals to produce nanocubes, nanorods, and

3971: 3607:

Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics

1765:, European Institute for Energy Research, 30 June 2006 1410:

claim to have overcome two of the DSC's major issues:

870:

electrode and the redox potential of the mediator (I/I

616:

electrolyte spread over a conductive sheet, typically

95:

to eliminate a number of expensive materials, notably

5116: 3604: 1784:. Workspace.imperial.ac.uk. Retrieved on 30 May 2013. 697: 4073:, the assembly guide for making your own solar cells 1207:

to better match it with the electrolyte being used.

1138:

Researchers have found that using dyes comprising a

790:

The injected electrons in the conduction band of TiO

522:

the way for even newer counter electrode materials.

115:

should be good enough to allow them to compete with

1064:to protect and improve the efficiency of the cell. 3850: 3545:"EPFL's campus has the world's first solar window" 3380: 2254: 1793: 765: 367:ability, but also electrochemical stability, high 3462:Inexpensive Highly Efficient Solar Cells Possible 2752:Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization 1880:"Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells), How They Work" 1125: 1034:/cm, whereas current DSSCs offer about 20 mA/cm. 457:in 2017 determined that the ternary oxide of NiCo 5152: 3413: 3240:"Nanowires Could Lead to Improved Solar Cells " 2831:, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 2006 2781:, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 2003 2506:Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering 453:With a similar study but a different system, Du 391:(CCNI), particularly the effects of morphology, 4801: 3329: 2823: 2821: 2655: 2653: 2588: 2097:, Inorganic Materials Series, pp. 89–152, 1991: 1633:École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 85:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 61:formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an 4077:Breakthrough in low-cost efficient solar cells 4017: 3450:Breakthrough in low-cost efficient solar cells 3383:"Wrapping Solar Cells around an Optical Fiber" 3038: 2297: 1563:sol treatment, the performance of the dual TiO 1240:by a photochemically stable fluorine polymer, 1184:right into the low-frequency range of red and 338: 158:, and the other doped with p-type impurities ( 4994:List of countries by photovoltaics production 4671:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 4100: 3034: 3032: 2982: 2980: 225: 154:), which add additional free conduction band 135:Current technology: semiconductor solar cells 3718: 3407: 3323: 3287: 3148: 2834: 2818: 2650: 2620: 2582: 2530: 2441:, Departament de Física, Universitat Jaume I 877: 469:when compared to nanorods or nanosheets. Du 4476:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 3128:. Laboratory for Photonics and Interfaces, 2536: 2503: 2360: 2325: 2176: 1839:, Technology Academy Finland, 14 June 2010. 492:prepared ternary nickel cobalt selenide (Ni 4349:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 4107: 4093: 3639: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3029: 2977: 2807:Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1763:"Dye-Sensitized vs. Thin Film Solar Cells" 1539:Researchers have investigated the role of 1414:"New molecules" have been created for the 911:(as a result of an electron concentration 597:(also called molecular sensitizers) and a 578:) is chemically bound by a process called 351:to catalyze the reduction reaction of the 25:A selection of dye-sensitized solar cells. 3922: 3912: 3787: 3270: 3180: 3100: 3004: 2952: 2539:Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 2026: 1848: 766:{\displaystyle {\ce {S^{.}->{S+}+e-}}} 4811:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 3130:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 3117: 2388: 1594:building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) 1404:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 1222:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 1171: 434:-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of CoSe 241: 229: 20: 4778:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 4773:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 4013: 4011: 3802: 3528: 3416:Angewandte Chemie International Edition 3367: 3211: 2423: 2421: 1176:"Black Dye", an anionic Ru-terpyridine 5153: 3854:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 3381:Bourzac, Katherine (30 October 2009). 2452:"Dye Solar Cell Assembly Instructions" 2091:"CHAPTER 3:Dye-sensitised Solar Cells" 4088: 2711: 2621:Papageorgiou, Nik (7 November 2013). 1929: 1874: 1872: 1559:reaction. Additionally, through a TiO 1116:volatile organic compounds (or VOC's) 646: 5099: 4008: 3531:"Taking Solar Technology Up a Notch" 3082: 2418: 1551:The synthesis of one-dimensional TiO 1289:at 60 °C for 1000 hours. After 987:but are about the same as the DSSC. 834: 807: 688: 668: 4816:List of photovoltaic power stations 3827:"Building-Integrated Photovoltaics" 3564:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 3297:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 3259:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2941:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2886:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 1631:The researchers from Switzerland’s 1277:and a combination of nanowires and 1210: 125:European Union Photovoltaic Roadmap 13: 5171:Renewable energy commercialization 4832:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 4235:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 4184:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 3505:Industrialisation Target Confirmed 2479:Energy & Environmental Science 2041:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1972.tb06297.x 2006:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1971.tb06156.x 1869: 715: 430:utilized various surfactants in a 14: 5192: 4837:Building-integrated photovoltaics 4334:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 4240:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 4114: 4059: 1604:Silesian University of Technology 1577:have advanced the DSSCs based on 117:fossil fuel electrical generation 5138: 5126: 5098: 5087: 5086: 4209:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 2712:Estes, Kathleen (7 April 2014). 2364:Journal of Materials Chemistry C 1108: 476: 4344:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 4225:List of semiconductor materials 3965: 3939: 3880: 3844: 3819: 3796: 3755: 3712: 3668: 3633: 3598: 3555: 3537: 3522: 3510: 3498: 3479: 3467: 3455: 3442: 3249: 3232: 3205: 3083:Tian, Haining (26 March 2019). 3076: 2928: 2877: 2801: 2792:"Solar cell doubles as battery" 2784: 2764: 2745: 2728: 2705: 2614: 2565: 2497: 2470: 2444: 2382: 2354: 2319: 2291: 2248: 2205: 2179:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2170: 2126: 2082: 2055: 2029:Photochemistry and Photobiology 2020: 1994:Photochemistry and Photobiology 1985: 1958: 1408:Université du Québec à Montréal 541: 127:to significantly contribute to 4456:Incremental conductance method 4250:Copper indium gallium selenide 4199:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 3529:Fellman, Megan (23 May 2012). 3464:, ScienceDaily, 12 April 2010. 3089:Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2412:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.09.144 2156:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228359 2095:Solar Energy Capture Materials 1898: 1851:Coordination Chemistry Reviews 1842: 1830: 1787: 1768: 1756: 1743: 1675:Luminescent solar concentrator 1362:. The researchers removed the 1220:A group of researchers at the 1167: 1126:Photocathodes and tandem cells 1049:The barrier layer may include 1040: 829:The oxidized redox mediator, I 1: 4763:South African Solar Challenge 3698:10.1016/j.solener.2018.02.061 3448:Coxworth, Ben (8 April 2010) 3226:10.1016/S1389-5567(03)00026-1 2348:10.1016/j.solener.2017.02.025 2277:10.1016/j.solener.2019.09.035 2191:10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.156151 1952:10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015 1882:. specmat.com. Archived from 1736: 1067: 948: 412: 285:(the titanium dioxide) and a 4410:Photovoltaic mounting system 3062:10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.10.054 2432:"Dye-sensitized solar cells" 2313:10.1016/j.mtener.2017.10.004 2234:10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144690 1979:10.1016/0013-4686(68)80076-3 1751:"Dye Sensitized Solar Cells" 1302:from ambient to 60 °C. 1152:energy conversion efficiency 926:in electrolyte below the TiO 890: 546:In the case of the original 529:mixed nickel cobalt sulfide 312:flows from the dye into the 246:Operation of a Grätzel cell. 16:Type of thin-film solar cell 7: 4415:Maximum power point tracker 3986:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00632 3789:10.1016/j.joule.2018.03.017 2571:American Chemical Society, 2454:. Solaronix. Archived from 2103:10.1039/9781788013512-00089 1647: 1529:SwissTech Convention Center 1425:, platinum was replaced by 963:solar conversion efficiency 955:Solar conversion efficiency 849: 818: 794:are transported between TiO 779: 679: 339:Counter Electrode Materials 269:solution, above which is a 89:Millennium Technology Prize 10: 5197: 5166:Dye-sensitized solar cells 4666:Solar panels on spacecraft 4513:Solar-powered refrigerator 4471:Concentrated photovoltaics 4451:Perturb and observe method 4230:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 4033:10.1038/s41586-022-05460-z 3642:Advanced Powder Technology 3533:. Northwestern University. 3507:. Dyesol. 21 November 2011 1541:surface plasmon resonances 1366:from optical fibers, grew 1351:A group of researchers at 952: 516: 226:Dye-sensitized solar cells 200:In any semiconductor, the 53:belonging to the group of 5082: 5002: 4986: 4977: 4855: 4824: 4790: 4710: 4694: 4648: 4607: 4505: 4498: 4443: 4372: 4364:Heterojunction solar cell 4339:Dye-sensitized solar cell 4299: 4288: 4263: 4217: 4179:Multi-junction solar cell 4169:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 4129: 4122: 3654:10.1016/j.apt.2018.03.008 3619:10.1007/s10854-017-6950-2 3486:Dye-sensitized solar cell 2734:Chittibabu, Kethinni, G. 2625:– via actu.epfl.ch. 1863:10.1016/j.ccr.2004.05.030 1720:Photoelectrochemical cell 907:. From there it moves by 878:Nanoplant-like morphology 234:Type of cell made at the 31:dye-sensitized solar cell 4847:Strasskirchen Solar Park 4738:American Solar Challenge 4584:Solar-powered flashlight 4571:Solar-powered calculator 4566:Solar cell phone charger 4255:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 4071:Dye Solar Cells for Real 3874:10.1149/1945-7111/ac741f 2796:Technology Research News 2777:26 February 2006 at the 2437:21 December 2011 at the 2392:Journal of Power Sources 2136:Journal of Power Sources 1338:An article published in 181:When placed in the sun, 178:of about 0.6 to 0.7 eV. 162:), which add additional 4753:Frisian Solar Challenge 4723:List of solar car teams 4481:Space-based solar power 4461:Constant voltage method 4390:Solar charge controller 4276:Timeline of solar cells 4271:Growth of photovoltaics 3813:10.1126/science.aat9682 2993:Chemical Communications 2827:Nathalie Rossier-Iten, 2592:Chemical Communications 2514:10.1002/0470014008.ch15 2214:Applied Surface Science 1610: 1587: 1534: 1486: 1476:Northwestern University 1470: 1433: 1397: 1346: 1333: 1305: 1264: 1215: 558:made of fluoride-doped 277:. As in a conventional 207:Shockley–Queisser limit 193:into the higher-energy 113:price/performance ratio 4743:Formula Sun Grand Prix 4575:Solar-powered fountain 4518:Solar air conditioning 4319:Quantum dot solar cell 4309:Nanocrystal solar cell 4204:Sun-free photovoltaics 3428:10.1002/anie.200904492 2638:Cite journal requires 2301:Materials Today Energy 1725:Solid-state solar cell 1388:University of Michigan 1242:polyvinylidenefluoride 1180: 874:) in the electrolyte. 767: 247: 239: 238:by Grätzel and O'Regan 107:is less than the best 26: 5176:Ultraviolet radiation 4733:World Solar Challenge 4556:Photovoltaic keyboard 4486:PV system performance 4359:Perovskite solar cell 4157:Solar cell efficiency 3491:28 March 2016 at the 1780:28 March 2016 at the 1700:Perovskite solar cell 1620:and fellow scientist 1300:operating temperature 1175: 768: 361:electron conductivity 245: 233: 129:renewable electricity 105:conversion efficiency 55:thin film solar cells 24: 5003:Individual producers 4711:Solar vehicle racing 4400:Solar micro-inverter 4329:Plasmonic solar cell 4174:Thin-film solar cell 4142:Photoelectric effect 2757:16 July 2011 at the 2551:10.1166/jnn.2008.299 2508:. pp. 663–700. 2458:on 28 September 2007 1715:Biohybrid solar cell 1386:. Max Shtein of the 1235:, where the ligand H 1053:and/or UV absorbing 930:, oxidizing it into 695: 355:shuttle, generally I 318:p-type semiconductor 299:n-type semiconductor 213:decade, notably the 160:p-type semiconductor 152:n-type semiconductor 131:generation by 2020. 91:for this invention. 68:photoelectrochemical 4599:Solar traffic light 4579:Solar-powered radio 4546:Solar-powered watch 4354:Printed solar panel 4189:Solar cell research 3905:2021Mate...14.3743S 3866:2022JElS..169f6507D 3780:2018Joule...2.1108C 3733:2014Nanos...613203L 3690:2018SoEn..169...67N 3576:2018PCCP...20.9651C 3345:2008NatMa...7..626B 3173:2003NatMa...2..402W 3054:2019NEne...55...59X 2898:2016PCCP...18.5080Z 2855:2010NatMa...9...31N 2683:10.1038/nature12340 2675:2013Natur.499..316B 2579:, 20 September 2006 2404:2016JPS...332..281L 2340:2017SoEn..146..125D 2269:2019SoEn..193....1M 2226:2020ApSS..50644690G 2148:2020JPS...46828359Y 2076:10.1021/i360075a025 1967:Electrochimica Acta 1944:2016SoEn..130..139R 1808:1991Natur.353..737O 1402:Researchers at the 1392:sun-tracking system 1296:silicon solar cells 1246:hexafluoropropylene 734: 731: 57:. It is based on a 4635:The Quiet Achiever 4594:Solar street light 4541:Solar-powered pump 4314:Organic solar cell 4194:Thermophotovoltaic 4162:Quantum efficiency 3914:10.3390/ma14133743 3741:10.1039/C4NR03999H 3584:10.1039/C7CP08445E 3551:. 5 November 2013. 3395:on 30 October 2009 3136:on 6 February 2005 3102:10.1039/C8SE00581H 3006:10.1039/C8CC00505B 2954:10.1039/C7CP07088H 2906:10.1039/C5CP05247E 2376:10.1039/C8TC00611C 1857:(13–14): 1511–30. 1710:Polymer solar cell 1705:Organic solar cell 1310:Wayne Campbell at 1231:dcbpy)(dnbpy)(NCS) 1181: 979:quantum efficiency 763: 719: 647:Mechanism of DSSCs 404:-based materials, 369:catalytic activity 248: 240: 27: 5114: 5113: 5078: 5077: 4973: 4972: 4786: 4785: 4661:Mauro Solar Riser 4656:Electric aircraft 4589:Solar-powered fan 4494: 4493: 4385:Balance of system 4373:System components 4324:Hybrid solar cell 4284: 4283: 4245:Cadmium telluride 3980:(12): 7279–7327. 3953:. 26 October 2022 3388:Technology Review 3309:10.1021/jp052877w 3303:(32): 15397–409. 3281:10.1021/jp0750598 2999:(30): 3739–3742. 2815:, 3 November 2008 2740:Photovoltaic cell 2370:(15): 3901–3909. 2112:978-1-78801-107-5 1573:Researchers from 1464:Tata Steel Europe 1443:Tata Steel Europe 1312:Massey University 1140:perylenemonoimide 943:counter electrode 857: 856: 826: 825: 787: 786: 755: 741: 735: 733: 722: 702: 687: 686: 176:potential barrier 139:In a traditional 5188: 5181:Swiss inventions 5143: 5142: 5133:Renewable energy 5131: 5130: 5122: 5102: 5101: 5090: 5089: 4984: 4983: 4825:Building-mounted 4803:PV power station 4799: 4798: 4728:Solar challenges 4718:Solar car racing 4686:Solar Challenger 4676:Gossamer Penguin 4503: 4502: 4297: 4296: 4147:Solar irradiance 4127: 4126: 4109: 4102: 4095: 4086: 4085: 4053: 4052: 4015: 4006: 4005: 3974:Chemical Reviews 3969: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3926: 3916: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3774:(6): 1108–1117. 3759: 3753: 3752: 3727:(21): 13203–12. 3716: 3710: 3709: 3672: 3666: 3665: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3613:(15): 11528–33. 3602: 3596: 3595: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3446: 3440: 3439: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3391:. Archived from 3378: 3365: 3364: 3353:10.1038/nmat2224 3333:Nature Materials 3327: 3321: 3320: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3274: 3253: 3247: 3238:Michael Berger, 3236: 3230: 3229: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3184: 3161:Nature Materials 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3132:. Archived from 3121: 3115: 3114: 3104: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3036: 3027: 3026: 3008: 2984: 2975: 2974: 2956: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2892:(7): 5080–5085. 2881: 2875: 2874: 2863:10.1038/nmat2588 2843:Nature Materials 2838: 2832: 2825: 2816: 2805: 2799: 2790:Kimberly Patch, 2788: 2782: 2770:Jessica Krüger, 2768: 2762: 2749: 2743: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2657: 2648: 2647: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2626: 2618: 2612: 2611: 2600:10.1039/b802909a 2586: 2580: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2501: 2495: 2494: 2491:10.1039/b809672d 2474: 2468: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2448: 2442: 2425: 2416: 2415: 2386: 2380: 2379: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2295: 2289: 2288: 2252: 2246: 2245: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2086: 2080: 2079: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2024: 2018: 2017: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1876: 1867: 1866: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1827: 1816:10.1038/353737a0 1802:(6346): 737–40. 1791: 1785: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1747: 1690:Titanium dioxide 1685:Stationary phase 1579:copper complexes 1340:Nature Materials 1322:, which include 1211:New developments 938:the solar cell. 851: 835: 820: 808: 781: 772: 770: 769: 764: 762: 761: 760: 753: 748: 747: 746: 739: 736: 732: 730: 727: 720: 717: 710: 708: 707: 700: 689: 681: 669: 568:titanium dioxide 371:and appropriate 279:alkaline battery 256:titanium dioxide 111:, in theory its 49:) is a low-cost 5196: 5195: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5161:Thin-film cells 5151: 5150: 5149: 5137: 5125: 5117: 5115: 5110: 5074: 4998: 4969: 4851: 4820: 4793: 4782: 4706: 4695:Water transport 4690: 4644: 4630:Solar golf cart 4603: 4561:Solar road stud 4490: 4444:System concepts 4439: 4368: 4291: 4280: 4259: 4213: 4118: 4113: 4082: 4062: 4057: 4056: 4027:(7942): 60–65. 4016: 4009: 3970: 3966: 3956: 3954: 3945: 3944: 3940: 3885: 3881: 3849: 3845: 3835: 3833: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3801: 3797: 3760: 3756: 3717: 3713: 3673: 3669: 3638: 3634: 3603: 3599: 3560: 3556: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3493:Wayback Machine 3484: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3460: 3456: 3447: 3443: 3412: 3408: 3398: 3396: 3379: 3368: 3328: 3324: 3292: 3288: 3272:10.1.1.459.6793 3265:(32): 11760–2. 3254: 3250: 3237: 3233: 3210: 3206: 3182:10.1038/nmat904 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3122: 3118: 3081: 3077: 3037: 3030: 2985: 2978: 2933: 2929: 2882: 2878: 2839: 2835: 2826: 2819: 2806: 2802: 2789: 2785: 2779:Wayback Machine 2769: 2765: 2759:Wayback Machine 2750: 2746: 2733: 2729: 2719: 2717: 2710: 2706: 2669:(7458): 316–9. 2658: 2651: 2639: 2637: 2628: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2587: 2583: 2570: 2566: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2502: 2498: 2475: 2471: 2461: 2459: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2439:Wayback Machine 2426: 2419: 2387: 2383: 2359: 2355: 2324: 2320: 2296: 2292: 2253: 2249: 2210: 2206: 2175: 2171: 2131: 2127: 2113: 2087: 2083: 2060: 2056: 2025: 2021: 1990: 1986: 1963: 1959: 1928: 1924: 1914: 1912: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1889: 1887: 1878: 1877: 1870: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1831: 1792: 1788: 1782:Wayback Machine 1773: 1769: 1761: 1757: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1730:Photosensitizer 1650: 1622:Anders Hagfeldt 1618:Michael Grätzel 1613: 1590: 1566: 1562: 1554: 1537: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1489: 1473: 1436: 1400: 1349: 1336: 1308: 1267: 1254:solar simulator 1238: 1234: 1230: 1218: 1213: 1206: 1170: 1162: 1149: 1145: 1128: 1111: 1091: 1087: 1079: 1070: 1043: 1028: 1024: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004:redox potential 1001: 985: 973: 969: 957: 951: 929: 915:) to the clear 906: 902: 898: 893: 885: 880: 873: 869: 860: 841: 832: 805: 797: 793: 756: 752: 742: 738: 737: 728: 723: 718: 716: 709: 703: 699: 698: 696: 693: 692: 666: 659: 649: 642: 637: 632: 624: 608: 585: 577: 573: 565: 544: 519: 512: 508: 499: 495: 479: 464: 460: 448:current density 441: 437: 426:In 2017, Huang 415: 358: 341: 295:conduction band 228: 195:conduction band 187:photoexcitation 137: 109:thin-film cells 77:Michael Grätzel 17: 12: 11: 5: 5194: 5184: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5148: 5147: 5135: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5096: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5040:Solar Frontier 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5015:Hanwha Q CELLS 5012: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4990: 4988: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4960:United Kingdom 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4895:Czech Republic 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4861: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4850: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4818: 4813: 4807: 4805: 4796: 4788: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4698: 4696: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4681:Qinetiq Zephyr 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4652: 4650: 4646: 4645: 4643: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4608:Land transport 4605: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4535: 4533:Solar 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3286: 3248: 3231: 3204: 3147: 3116: 3095:(4): 888–898. 3075: 3028: 2976: 2927: 2876: 2833: 2817: 2800: 2783: 2763: 2744: 2727: 2704: 2649: 2640:|journal= 2613: 2594:(23): 2635–7. 2581: 2564: 2529: 2522: 2496: 2469: 2443: 2417: 2381: 2353: 2318: 2290: 2247: 2204: 2169: 2125: 2111: 2081: 2054: 2019: 1984: 1973:(6): 1509–15. 1957: 1922: 1897: 1886:on 18 May 2007 1868: 1841: 1829: 1786: 1767: 1755: 1741: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1657: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1612: 1609: 1589: 1586: 1564: 1560: 1552: 1536: 1533: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1488: 1485: 1481:nanotechnology 1472: 1469: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1427:cobalt sulfide 1419: 1399: 1396: 1348: 1345: 1335: 1332: 1326:in plants and 1307: 1304: 1266: 1263: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1204: 1169: 1166: 1160: 1147: 1143: 1127: 1124: 1110: 1107: 1089: 1085: 1077: 1069: 1066: 1051:UV stabilizers 1042: 1039: 1026: 1022: 1015: 1011: 1007: 999: 983: 971: 967: 953:Main article: 950: 947: 927: 904: 900: 896: 892: 889: 883: 879: 876: 871: 867: 859: 858: 855: 854: 845: 843: 839: 830: 827: 824: 823: 814: 812: 803: 799: 795: 791: 788: 785: 784: 775: 773: 759: 751: 745: 726: 713: 706: 685: 684: 675: 673: 664: 661: 657: 653: 648: 645: 640: 635: 630: 622: 606: 583: 575: 571: 563: 543: 540: 531:microparticles 518: 515: 510: 506: 497: 493: 478: 475: 462: 458: 439: 435: 414: 411: 373:band structure 356: 340: 337: 326:photosensitive 227: 224: 219:multi-junction 164:electron holes 136: 133: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5193: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5123: 5120: 5107: 5106: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5085: 5084: 5081: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 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