453:. Early winter is thus a period of restratification. If there is relatively little wind, or the lake is deep, only a thin layer of buoyant cold water forms above denser 4°C waters and the lake will be "cryostratified" once ice forms. If the lake experiences strong winds or is shallow, then the whole water column can cool to near 0°C before ice forms, these colder lakes are termed "cryomictic". Once ice forms on a lake, the heat fluxes from the atmosphere are largely shut down and the initial cyrostratified or cryomictic conditions are largely locked in. The development of thermal stratification during winter is then defined by two periods: Winter I and Winter II. During the early winter period of Winter I the major heat flux is due to heat stored in sediment; during this period the lake heats up from beneath forming a deep layer of 4 °C water. During late winter, the surface ice starts to melt and with the increased length of the day, there is increased sunlight that penetrates through the ice into the upper water column. Thus during Winter II, the major heat flux is now from above, and the warming causes an unstable layer to form, resulting in solar driven convection. This mixing of the upper water column is important for keeping plankton in suspension, which in turn influences the timing of under-ice algal blooms and levels of dissolved oxygen. Coriolis forces can also become important in driving circulation patterns due to differential heating by solar radiation. The winter period of lakes is probably the least studied, but the chemistry and biology are still very active under the ice.
465:
327:
273:, a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year. During winter, dimictic lakes are covered by a layer of ice, creating a cold layer at the surface, a slightly warmer layer beneath the ice, and a still-warmer unfrozen bottom layer, while during summer, the same temperature-derived density differences separate the warm surface waters (the
336:
density differences, the lake readily mixes from top to bottom. During winter any additional cooling below 4 °C results in stratification of water column, so dimictic lakes usually have an inverse thermal stratification, with water at 0 °C below ice and then with temperatures increasing to near 4 °C at the lake's base.
335:
Mixing (overturning) typically occurs during the spring and autumn, when the lake is "isothermal" (i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom). At this time, the water throughout the lake is near 4 °C (the temperature of maximum density), and, in the absence of any temperature or
440:
In late summer, air temperatures drop and the surface of lakes cool, resulting in a deeper mixed layer, until at some point the water column becomes isothermal, and generally high in dissolved oxygen. During fall a combination of wind and cooling air temperatures continue to keep the water column
344:
Once the ice melts, the water column can be mixed by the wind. In large lakes the upper water column is often below 4 °C when the ice melts, so that spring is characterized by continued mixing by solar driven convection, until the water column reaches 4 °C. In small lakes, the period of
1234:
Kirillin, Georgiy; Leppäranta, Matti; Terzhevik, Arkady; Granin, Nikolai; Bernhardt, Juliane; Engelhardt, Christof; Efremova, Tatyana; Golosov, Sergey; Palshin, Nikolai; Sherstyankin, Pavel; Zdorovennova, Galina (October 2012). "Physics of seasonally ice-covered lakes: a review".
330:
There is a seasonal cycle of thermal stratification with two periods of mixing in spring and fall. Such lakes are termed "dimictic'. During summer there is a strong thermal stratification, while there is a weaker inverse stratification in winter. (Figure modified
268:
is a body of freshwater whose difference in temperature between surface and bottom layers becomes negligible twice per year, allowing all strata of the lake's water to circulate vertically. All dimictic lakes are also considered
1385:
Bouffard, Damien; Zdorovennova, Galina; Bogdanov, Sergey; Efremova, Tatyana; Lavanchy, SĂ©bastien; Palshin, Nikolay; Terzhevik, Arkady; VinnĂĄ, Love RĂĄman; Volkov, Sergey; WĂĽest, Alfred; Zdorovennov, Roman (2019-02-19).
281:). In the spring and fall, these temperature differences briefly disappear, and the body of water overturns and circulates from top to bottom. Such lakes are common in mid-latitude regions with temperate climates.
1599:
Hampton, Stephanie E.; Galloway, Aaron W. E.; Powers, Stephen M.; Ozersky, Ted; Woo, Kara H.; Batt, Ryan D.; Labou, Stephanie G.; O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Sharma, Sapna; Lottig, Noah R.; Stanley, Emily H. (2017).
1539:
Ozersky, Ted; Bramburger, Andrew J.; Elgin, Ashley K.; Vanderploeg, Henry A.; Wang, Jia; Austin, Jay A.; Carrick, Hunter J.; Chavarie, Louise; Depew, David C.; Fisk, Aaron T.; Hampton, Stephanie E. (2021).
1175:
Yang, Bernard; Wells, Mathew G.; McMeans, Bailey C.; Dugan, Hilary A.; Rusak, James A.; Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A.; Brentrup, Jennifer A.; Hrycik, Allison R.; Laas, Alo; Pilla, Rachel M.; Austin, Jay A. (2021).
373:, usually defined as the region where temperature gradients exceed 1 °C/m. Due to the stable density gradient, mixing is inhibited within the thermocline, which reduces the vertical transport of
839:
Chowdhury, Mijanur R.; Wells, Mathew G.; Cossu, Remo (December 2015). "Observations and environmental implications of variability in the vertical turbulent mixing in Lake Simcoe".
735:
Pierson, D.C.; Weyhenmeyer, G. A.; Arvola, L.; Benson, B.; Blenckner, T.; Kratz, T.; Livingstone, D.M.; Markensten, H.; Marzec, G.; Pettersson, K.; Weathers, K. (February 2011).
988:
Chowdhury, Mijanur R.; Wells, Mathew G.; Howell, Todd (April 2016). "Movements of the thermocline lead to high variability in benthic mixing in the nearshore of a large lake".
357:
During summer, the heat fluxes from the atmosphere to a lake warms the surface layers. This results in dimictic lakes have a strong thermal stratification, with a warm
935:
Choi, Jun; Troy, Cary D.; Hsieh, Tsung-Chan; Hawley, Nathan; McCormick, Michael J. (July 2012). "A year of internal
Poincaré waves in southern Lake Michigan".
251:
345:
spring overturn can be very brief, so that spring overturn is often much shorter than the fall overturn. As the upper water column warms past 4 °C a
381:
and has a high sediment oxygen demand, the hypolimnion in dimictic lakes can become hypoxic during summer stratification, as often seen in
632:
Cannon, D. J.; Troy, C. D.; Liao, Q.; Bootsma, H. A. (2019-06-28). "Ice-Free
Radiative Convection Drives Spring Mixing in a Large Lake".
524:
1437:"Mixing, stratification, and plankton under lake-ice during winter in a large lake: Implications for spring dissolved oxygen levels"
244:
449:
After the water column reaches the temperature of maximum density at 4°C, any subsequent cooling produces less dense water due to
563:
Wells, M. G., & Troy, C. D. (2022). Surface Mixed Layers in Lakes. In
Encyclopedia of Inland Waters (pp. 546–561). Elsevier.
400:(due to the Earth's rotation). This is expected to occur when the period of internal seiche becomes comparable to the local
441:
mixed. The water continues to cool until the temperature reaches 4 °C. Often fall overturn can last for 3–4 months.
237:
1149:
1124:
786:"Influence of Lake Surface Area and Depth Upon Thermal Stratification and the Depth of the Summer Thermocline"
1287:
585:"High-Frequency Observations of Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen Reveal Under-Ice Convection in a Large Lake"
392:
due to energy input from winds. If the lake is small (less than 5 km in length), then the period of the
396:
is well predicted by the Merian formulae. Long period internal waves in larger lakes can be influenced by
1177:
1436:
736:
1490:
RamĂłn, Cintia L.; Ulloa, Hugo N.; Doda, Tomy; Winters, Kraig B.; Bouffard, Damien (2021-04-07).
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35:
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8:
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125:
77:
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1021:
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766:
717:
669:
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614:
564:
374:
220:
1542:"The Changing Face of Winter: Lessons and Questions from the Laurentian Great Lakes"
1125:"Wind Mixing and Restratification in a Lake near the Temperature of Maximum Density"
1629:
1621:
1571:
1561:
1511:
1456:
1407:
1357:
1310:
1272:
1252:
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1144:
1097:
1052:
1041:"Internal waves pump waters in and out of a deep coastal embayment of a large lake"
1005:
960:
952:
913:
909:
864:
856:
805:
756:
707:
649:
604:
539:
1669:"Circulation: annual patterns of dimictic lakes" at Encyclopædia Britannica Online
1412:
1387:
1080:
Bouffard, Damien; Lemmin, Ulrich (December 2013). "Kelvin waves in Lake Geneva".
193:
180:
158:
147:
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46:
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305:
290:
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68:
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370:
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362:
310:
300:
278:
114:
103:
583:
Yang, Bernard; Young, Joelle; Brown, Laura; Wells, Mathew (2017-12-23).
1634:
1039:
Flood, Bryan; Wells, Mathew; Dunlop, Erin; Young, Joelle (2019-08-14).
869:
498:
493:
488:
483:
358:
274:
270:
92:
1668:
1625:
1460:
1057:
1040:
712:
687:
382:
1435:
Yang, Bernard; Wells, Mathew G.; Li, Jingzhi; Young, Joelle (2020).
1384:
543:
388:
During summer stratification, most lakes are observed to experience
1538:
1233:
478:
424:) the observed frequencies of internal seiches are dominated by
326:
393:
321:
1346:"Convection in ice-covered lakes: effects on algal suspension"
734:
688:"Observations of radiatively driven convection in a deep lake"
785:
1598:
1150:
10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<1516:wmaria>2.0.co;2
1492:"Bathymetry and latitude modify lake warming under ice"
892:
Mortimer, C. H. (January 1974). "Lake hydrodynamics".
1489:
1174:
1038:
631:
987:
460:
1178:"A New Thermal Categorization of Ice-Covered Lakes"
934:
838:
737:"An automated method to monitor lake ice phenology"
582:
525:"A revised classification of lakes based on mixing"
784:Gorham, Eville; Boyce, Farrell M. (January 1989).
565:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819166-8.00126-2
532:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
1123:Farmer, David M.; Carmack, Eddy (November 1981).
1675:
1434:
1388:"Under-ice convection dynamics in a boreal lake"
444:
1546:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
404:, which is 16.971 hours at a latitude of 45 °N
1286:Bouffard, Damien; WĂĽest, Alfred (2019-01-05).
1079:
1285:
1122:
284:
245:
578:
576:
574:
572:
322:Seasonal cycles of mixing and stratification
783:
451:non-linearity of equation of state of water
252:
238:
16:Body of freshwater that mixes twice a year
1633:
1575:
1565:
1515:
1411:
1361:
1148:
1056:
964:
868:
760:
711:
608:
569:
891:
352:
325:
937:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1676:
1343:
685:
277:), from the colder bottom waters (the
1229:
1227:
1170:
1168:
522:
681:
679:
1496:Hydrology and Earth System Sciences
1315:10.1146/annurev-fluid-010518-040506
741:Limnology and Oceanography: Methods
13:
1224:
1165:
339:
14:
1695:
1662:
676:
1295:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
1129:Journal of Physical Oceanography
463:
435:
1592:
1532:
1483:
1428:
1378:
1337:
1279:
1116:
1082:Journal of Great Lakes Research
1073:
1032:
981:
928:
841:Journal of Great Lakes Research
790:Journal of Great Lakes Research
365:by the metalimnion. Within the
914:10.1080/05384680.1974.11923886
885:
832:
777:
728:
625:
557:
523:Lewis, William M. Jr. (1983).
516:
1:
1413:10.1080/20442041.2018.1533356
894:SIL Communications, 1953-1996
810:10.1016/s0380-1330(89)71479-9
686:Austin, Jay A. (2019-04-22).
509:
445:Winter inverse stratification
1350:Journal of Plankton Research
1182:Geophysical Research Letters
634:Geophysical Research Letters
589:Geophysical Research Letters
7:
456:
406:(link to Coriolis utility).
10:
1700:
1441:Limnology and Oceanography
1102:10.1016/j.jglr.2013.09.005
1045:Limnology and Oceanography
861:10.1016/j.jglr.2015.07.008
692:Limnology and Oceanography
285:Examples of dimictic lakes
1517:10.5194/hess-25-1813-2021
1363:10.1093/plankt/19.12.1859
1257:10.1007/s00027-012-0279-y
1602:"Ecology under lake ice"
990:Water Resources Research
361:separated from the cold
1344:Kelley, Dan E. (1997).
762:10.4319/lom.2010.9.0074
595:(24): 12, 218–12, 226.
408:In large lakes (such a
347:thermal stratification
332:
1288:"Convection in Lakes"
353:Summer stratification
329:
1567:10.1029/2021JG006247
1552:(6): e2021JG006247.
1202:10.1029/2020GL091374
1188:(3): e2020GL091374.
1010:10.1002/2015wr017725
957:10.1029/2012jc007984
654:10.1029/2019gl082916
610:10.1002/2017GL075373
1618:2017EcolL..20...98H
1558:2021JGRG..12606247O
1508:2021HESS...25.1813R
1453:2020LimOc..65.2713Y
1404:2019InWat...9..142B
1307:2019AnRFM..51..189B
1249:2012AqSci..74..659K
1194:2021GeoRL..4891374Y
1141:1981JPO....11.1516F
1094:2013JGLR...39..637B
1002:2016WRR....52.3019C
949:2012JGRC..117.7014C
906:1974SILC...20..124M
853:2015JGLR...41..995C
802:1989JGLR...15..233G
753:2011LimOM...9...74P
704:2019LimOc..64.2152A
646:2019GeoRL..46.6811C
601:2017GeoRL..4412218Y
349:starts to develop.
78:Lake stratification
333:
221:Aquatic ecosystems
1626:10.1111/ele.12699
1461:10.1002/lno.11543
1447:(11): 2713–2729.
1356:(12): 1859–1880.
1135:(11): 1516–1533.
1058:10.1002/lno.11292
713:10.1002/lno.11175
640:(12): 6811–6820.
538:(10): 1779–1787.
262:
261:
1691:
1656:
1655:
1637:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1579:
1569:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1519:
1502:(4): 1813–1825.
1487:
1481:
1480:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1415:
1382:
1376:
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1341:
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1237:Aquatic Sciences
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1114:
1113:
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1036:
1030:
1029:
996:(4): 3019–3039.
985:
979:
978:
968:
932:
926:
925:
889:
883:
882:
872:
836:
830:
829:
781:
775:
774:
764:
732:
726:
725:
715:
698:(5): 2152–2160.
683:
674:
673:
629:
623:
622:
612:
580:
567:
561:
555:
554:
552:
546:. Archived from
529:
520:
473:
468:
467:
466:
375:dissolved oxygen
254:
247:
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126:Destratification
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19:
18:
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1606:Ecology Letters
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1121:
1117:
1078:
1074:
1037:
1033:
986:
982:
933:
929:
890:
886:
847:(4): 995–1009.
837:
833:
782:
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729:
684:
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630:
626:
581:
570:
562:
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544:10.1139/f83-207
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469:
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462:
459:
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438:
402:inertial period
398:Coriolis forces
394:internal seiche
377:. If a lake is
355:
342:
340:Spring overturn
324:
287:
258:
199:
198:
194:Meromictic lake
188:
187:
181:Polymictic lake
175:
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159:Monomictic lake
153:
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148:Holomictic lake
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119:
109:
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98:
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63:
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1663:External links
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1577:2027.42/168250
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1398:(2): 142–161.
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436:Fall overturn
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418:Lake Michigan
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296:Lake Superior
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266:dimictic lake
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170:Dimictic lake
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36:Littoral zone
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747:(2): 74–83.
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548:the original
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471:Lakes portal
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430:Kelvin waves
422:Lake Ontario
387:
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343:
334:
306:Lake Opeongo
291:Lake Mendota
265:
263:
205:Amictic lake
169:
69:Benthic zone
1635:10919/94398
943:(C7): n/a.
870:1807/107899
504:Thermocline
414:Lake Geneva
410:Lake Simcoe
371:thermocline
369:there is a
367:metalimnion
363:hypolimnion
311:Loch Lomond
301:Lake Simcoe
279:hypolimnion
115:Hypolimnion
104:Metalimnion
510:References
499:Polymictic
494:Monomictic
489:Meromictic
484:Holomictic
359:epilimnion
275:epilimnion
271:holomictic
134:Lake types
93:Epilimnion
22:Lake zones
1644:1461-0248
1586:2169-8961
1526:1027-5606
1477:225490164
1469:1939-5590
1422:2044-2041
1372:0142-7873
1331:125132769
1323:0066-4189
1265:1015-1621
1218:233921281
1210:1944-8007
1159:0022-3670
1110:0380-1330
1067:0024-3590
1026:130510367
1018:0043-1397
975:0148-0227
922:0538-4680
879:0380-1330
826:128748369
818:0380-1330
771:1541-5856
722:0024-3590
670:197574599
662:0094-8276
619:0094-8276
383:Lake Erie
379:eutrophic
1678:Category
1652:27889953
457:See also
213:See also
1614:Bibcode
1554:Bibcode
1504:Bibcode
1449:Bibcode
1400:Bibcode
1303:Bibcode
1273:6722239
1245:Bibcode
1190:Bibcode
1137:Bibcode
1090:Bibcode
998:Bibcode
945:Bibcode
902:Bibcode
849:Bibcode
798:Bibcode
749:Bibcode
700:Bibcode
642:Bibcode
597:Bibcode
479:Amictic
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1473:S2CID
1327:S2CID
1291:(PDF)
1269:S2CID
1214:S2CID
1022:S2CID
822:S2CID
666:S2CID
551:(PDF)
528:(PDF)
331:from)
1648:PMID
1640:ISSN
1582:ISSN
1522:ISSN
1465:ISSN
1418:ISSN
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1063:ISSN
1014:ISSN
971:ISSN
918:ISSN
875:ISSN
814:ISSN
767:ISSN
718:ISSN
658:ISSN
615:ISSN
428:and
1630:hdl
1622:doi
1572:hdl
1562:doi
1550:126
1512:doi
1457:doi
1408:doi
1358:doi
1311:doi
1253:doi
1198:doi
1145:doi
1098:doi
1053:doi
1006:doi
961:hdl
953:doi
941:117
910:doi
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857:doi
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650:doi
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