Computer - Knowledge

1441: 3771:, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time". then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn. 883: 5023:

with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the

406: 1549: 94: 1021: 54: 598: 45: 5170:. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various 65: 3794: 9458: 896: 74: 5203: 85: 10522: 4766: 5054: 1258: 515: 2077:) the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals do not have to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs (Such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power. 1702: 1219: 1801: 913: 5265: 1383: 3502:, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return 744: 3579: 3360: 2009: 10510: 3606:

that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595." The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

1934:. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated". However, Kilby's invention was a 1124: 1888: 3698: 2506: 3375:(often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance. 2105:, removed this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s. 5300:

access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the

2027:, and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the 797:) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of 5183:

applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large

5234:, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design. Admiral 5022:

for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each

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Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend

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that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is

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operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark

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or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals;

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Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running,

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A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number

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were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on

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digital storage device. Although the computer was described as "small and primitive" by a 1998 retrospective, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project began

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and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in

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While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.

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RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power

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The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control

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saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone

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at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,

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Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in

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In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and

5042:) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a 3418:

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program

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It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words

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systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

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can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be

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Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as

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notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

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to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son,

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When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:

3621:). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in 2511: 2510: 2507: 1945:

Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Noyce's invention was the first true monolithic IC chip. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of

1425:. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February. 453:. The word continued to have the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period, women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts. By 1943, most human computers were women. 5385:, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by 2512: 3683:, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part. 5505:

A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of

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electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the "ENIAC girls".

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can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.

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blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.

4801:) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or 3775:

but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the

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refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical

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John Presper Eckert Jr. and John W. Mauchly, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,120,606, filed 26 June 1947, issued 4 February 1964, and invalidated 19 October 1973 after court ruling on

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more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a

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Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an

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The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division,

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systems. Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern-based systems include

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The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the

5353:, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information." According to this definition, any device that 2509: 1514:. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the 3426:

The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a

5847:, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there. 5005:

Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.

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It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the

843:, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876, Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the 955:, titled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables", he also designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an 1752:

in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.

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In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's

9283: 766:. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as 6237:

Fuat Sezgin "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany) Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp. 35 &

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Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract

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system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be

6088:: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a 1781:, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic 6596: 6541: 1467:

computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the

1379:(ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer". This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. 5284:. In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now 9265: 9247: 1238:; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using 9229: 9157: 5615:

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

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Leiner, Barry M.; Cerf, Vinton G.; Clark, David D.; Kahn, Robert E.; Kleinrock, Leonard; Lynch, Daniel C.; Postel, Jon; Roberts, Larry G.; Wolf, Stephen (1999). "A Brief History of the Internet".

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and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the

5084:, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into 3824:

to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to use most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale

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in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

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wrote a brief history of Babbage's efforts at constructing a mechanical Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. The paper contains a design of a machine capable to calculate formulas like

733:, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation. 971:. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The engine would incorporate an 5833:

architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.

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The control system's function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

3886:. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with 3402:

Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.

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von Neumann ... firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others.

5050:. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. 2508: 5142:. Historically a significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use, notably including the MOS Technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the Zilog Z80. 3226:(binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in 3804:

Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as

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Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

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However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called

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while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as

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Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.

5218:". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. However, in some cases they may cause the program or the entire system to " 10097: 2528:, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware. 3820:(multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result. 9494: 3634:

constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

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chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored

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counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of

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so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support

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it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.

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The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm, composed of 5.5 million transistors.

1649:, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to 549:

included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, likely livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of

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by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

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indicates that the "modern use" of the term, to mean 'programmable digital electronic computer' dates from "1945 under this name; theoretical from 1937, as

11747: 1142:. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a 1966:

in early 1959. In turn, the planar process was based on Mohamed M. Atalla's work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late 1950s.

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programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of

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It is called the stored program architecture or stored program model, also known as the von Neumann architecture. We will use these terms interchangeably.

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dates back to the mid 17th century, when it referred to "A person who makes calculations; specifically a person employed for this in an observatory etc."

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The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system

8939: 5800:, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a 7498: 6581:

Gomez-Jauregui, Valentin; Gutierrez-Garcia, Andres; González-Redondo, Francisco A.; Iglesias, Miguel; Manchado, Cristina; Otero, Cesar (1 June 2022).

1154:, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by 397:). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and they enable the results of operations to be saved and retrieved. 12340: 11701: 11080: 6725: 5637: 7560: 1440: 11735: 11730: 6465: 3708:

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called

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elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer

594:, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. 10525: 8869: 6695: 6139: 4553:

There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications.

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acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in

9770: 8179: 4743:) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of 1827:

at Bell Labs in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. With its

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needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for

5645: 5349:. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, a typical modern definition of a computer is: " 3752:

contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.

3506:(true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve 1323:, became the world's first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in 1950 and delivered to the 8539:

Jack S. Kilby, Miniaturized Electronic Circuits, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,138,743, filed 6 February 1959, issued 23 June 1964.

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Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage.

4731:. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for 10356: 8683: 7119: 1977:(MOS transistors). The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at 1911:. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in 11931: 6873: 4778: 2289: 10386: 10319: 11350: 8789:

Silicon Materials Science and Technology: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Silicon Materials Science and Technology

8058: 4575: 12243: 3667:, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called 1891:

Integrated circuits are typically packaged in plastic, metal, or ceramic cases to protect the IC from damage and for ease of assembly.

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rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an

5667: 5633: 4571: 9211: 7059: 5933:. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers. 11770: 11388: 8406: 8523: 6921: 12204: 12073: 11952: 11290: 10547: 8459: 7365: 4583: 3655:

to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the

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If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.

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system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as

3457:(CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single 863: 8146: 1831:, and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made it possible to build 10491: 10264: 10245: 10226: 10187: 10166: 10049: 10028: 9976: 9915: 9838: 9739: 9705: 9671: 9637: 9603: 9569: 9527: 9488: 9449: 9424: 9393: 9335: 9310: 9111: 9043: 8801: 8763: 8736: 8598: 8560: 8314: 8270: 7951: 7910: 7864: 7759: 7317: 7232: 7103: 7042: 6883: 6823: 6674: 6081: 5740: 5629: 5485:

is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (

1170: 847:. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The 2116:

run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market. These are powered by

1105:, Torres presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, which allowed a user to input arithmetic problems through a 590:

as early as 2400 BCE. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European

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equipment needed and used for full operation; or to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a

12484: 9982: 8664: 8428: 7990: 7690: 7652: 7425: 5725: 5663: 5659: 3549: 2565: 1872: 12066: 11338: 11237: 10540: 9882: 5309: 4436: 8634: 5535:

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.

12151: 12143: 11272: 11111: 7274: 6111: 5987: 5735: 5277: 5242:, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the 4567: 4506: 4448: 3958: 3740:

is another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A

3545: 3156: 1970: 1811:(G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink). 1147: 1127: 825: 338:

in the 1970s. The speed, power, and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with

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computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in

1405:

achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine,

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Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's

4532: 4420: 3182: 2183: 2171: 2166: 1985:

later introduced the first commercial MOS IC in 1964, developed by Robert Norman. Following the development of the

1955: 17: 6513:

Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales

2005:

at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. The MOSFET has since become the most critical device component in modern ICs.

12156: 11284: 11220: 9212:"Growth Accelerates in the Worldwide Mobile Phone and Smartphone Markets in the Second Quarter, According to IDC" 8375: 5896:

could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the

5641: 5158: 5151: 4728: 4612: 1355:. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the 1109:, and computed and printed the results, demonstrating the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine. 683:, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in 652:. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century. 10177: 5365:

There is active research to make non-classical computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as

3309:

The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:

7459: 5591: 5561: 5109: 4716: 4633: 3913: 1778: 1393:

programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at

740:

was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.

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within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.

4711:

The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be

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Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.

820:

for every year from 0 CE (that is, 1 BCE) to 4000 CE, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The

655:

Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The

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The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.

7789: 5750: 5539: 4686: 4661: 4579: 4440: 4362: 4173: 3942: 3829: 2637: 2537: 2450: 1939: 497: 327: 237: 8929: 7490: 6305:

Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi".

778:. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the 11104: 10943: 10914: 7816: 6587: 6532: 5230:. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an 4341: 4197: 2618: 2327: 2048: 1832: 1376: 1348: 1284: 882: 6733: 5313:

networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

1510:. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a 1331:, which was founded in 1941 as the first company with the sole purpose of developing computers in Berlin. 12820: 12364: 11527: 11422: 10740: 10682: 5745: 5730: 5231: 4817:

some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the

4690: 4657: 4653: 4169: 4049: 3954: 2332: 1745: 1705: 458: 8828: 7564: 6462: 5913:

However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An

12185: 11442: 11400: 10919: 10514: 10357:"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush" 9035: 8306: 7856: 6703: 6574: 6134: 5700: 4617: 4293: 4239: 4070: 3930: 3178: 2967: 2492: 1855:. The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers, and is the fundamental building block of 1585: 991:, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as 952: 871: 8660: 8136: 7184: 6527: 11343: 11328: 11254: 11214: 10733: 9762: 8262: 8169: 6089: 5649: 5423: 4806: 4802: 4536: 4243: 4201: 4140: 4089: 4085: 4066: 3527: 3411:

Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.

2267: 1935: 1900: 1686: 1610: 1098: 534: 445:] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." This usage of the term referred to a 419: 417:

It was not until the mid-20th century that the word acquired its modern definition; according to the

31: 6799: 1526:. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be 1043: 11558: 11355: 11260: 11248: 11050: 10963: 10936: 10907: 10670: 10406: 10382: 8728: 7820: 7522: 5776: 5692: 5675: 5478: 5442: 4829:

programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the

4724: 4625: 4213: 3741: 3541: 3540:

computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.

3203: 2161: 2012: 1982: 1848: 1766: 1741: 1606: 1511: 1468: 1174: 1155: 844: 672: 390: 335: 287:, some mechanical devices were built to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for 8897: 6490: 1899:(IC). The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the 1773:

designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Their first

12727: 12276: 12229: 12173: 11405: 11183: 11178: 10993: 10988: 10876: 10849: 9001: 8966: 8934: 8902: 8793: 8688: 8434: 8174: 8066: 7309: 6486: 6374: 6340: 5947: 5507: 5497:, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity. 5338: 5281: 5097: 4774: 4520: 4424: 4394: 4157: 3837: 3610: 3454: 3444: 2496: 1931: 1836: 1717: 1713: 1602: 1557: 1543: 1143: 1037: 1025: 859: 821: 767: 626: 358: 7586:

Turing, A. M. (1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem".

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program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labeled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.

3230:

so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

484:". The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions. 279:

Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the

12697: 12666: 12646: 12606: 12411: 11499: 11296: 10363: 10093: 9385: 9379: 9130: 5900:

process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some

5553: 5549: 5118:) are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit ( 5093: 5080:

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike

4358: 4354: 4259: 4254: 4165: 3871: 3458: 2553: 2031:, designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, along with 1364: 775: 157: 9416: 9410: 8787: 8584: 8550: 7937: 7123: 6583:"Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients" 3744:

might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display

1942:(IC) chip. Kilby's IC had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce. 1211:, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During 12631: 12504: 12499: 12253: 11511: 11465: 11333: 11231: 11168: 10883: 10398: 10327: 9103: 8753: 7896: 6413: 5599: 5447: 5398: 4798: 4794: 4604: 4494: 4337: 4247: 4097: 4093: 3761: 3573: 3476: 3199: 3191: 2435: 1661:

decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. Lyons's

1523: 1372: 1300: 1208: 1162: 1151: 1094: 980: 972: 919: 836: 832: 618: 602: 503: 405: 284: 182: 9029: 8716: 8300: 7786:"Our Computer Heritage Pilot Study: Deliveries of Ferranti Mark I and Mark I Star computers" 6639: 5925:

microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel

2473:(Also known as an Application Processor or AP if it lacks circuitry such as radio circuitry) 2101:

were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the

1669:

of 1949, became operational in April 1951 and ran the world's first routine office computer

12806: 12762: 12732: 12494: 12401: 12323: 11437: 11432: 11415: 11135: 10871: 10418: 10125: 10006: 8843: 8213: 7943: 7902: 6261: 6169: 5943: 5760: 5715: 5686: 5583: 5557: 5438: 5342: 5075: 5024: 4760: 4712: 4557: 4498: 4402: 4390: 4370: 4289: 4270: 4152: 3883: 3745: 3641: 3594: 3582: 3557: 2156: 2129: 2062: 1844: 1840: 1794: 1785:, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the 1630: 1464: 1273: 771: 493: 466:

in the 1640s, meaning 'one who calculates'; this is an "agent noun from compute (v.)". The

370: 292: 241: 178: 9803: 7069: 6702:. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from 3712:. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and 1835:. In addition to data processing, it also enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as 8: 12825: 12801: 12626: 12529: 12514: 12436: 12406: 12311: 11551: 11484: 11427: 11266: 11188: 11163: 11127: 10745: 10205: 9962:

Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines". In Aspray, William (ed.).

9215: 8717: 8663:, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 1961-04-25, assigned to 6691: 6605: 6582: 6549: 5901: 5603: 5565: 5519: 5386: 5382: 5131: 4510: 4323: 4301: 4263: 4104: 3863: 3825: 3721: 3622: 3515: 3511: 3318: 3107: 2844: 2465: 2263: 2016: 1856: 1852: 1774: 1754: 1692: 1527: 1429: 1390: 941: 726: 684: 386: 378: 304: 10422: 10129: 10010: 8847: 8402: 8217: 6265: 6173: 4739:

for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (

4723:) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the 3386:) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. 1020: 629:. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the 441:] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [ 12856: 12779: 12752: 12671: 12013: 11914: 11574: 11504: 11489: 11370: 11208: 11173: 10299: 10291: 10155: 10141: 9952: 9858: 8518: 8237: 8117: 7603: 7165: 7064: 6915: 6620: 6322: 6287: 6203: 5696: 5587: 5524: 5494: 5171: 5046:

such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's

4747:

years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

4673: 4524: 4366: 4285: 4136: 3813: 3809: 3733: 3630: 3383: 3215: 3019: 2714: 2708: 2630: 2626: 2525: 2455: 2315: 2211: 2194: 2070: 1896: 1868: 1452: 1356: 1352: 1340: 1200: 1000: 817: 786: 704: 527: 354: 347: 198: 190: 143: 10137: 8339:"Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference" 8225: 7895:

Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017).

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Mémoires Présentés par Divers Savants à l'Académie des Scienes de l'Institut de France

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Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed

3393:

Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.

1012:) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. 597: 12446: 12431: 12294: 11836: 11742: 11460: 10893: 10757: 10655: 10567: 10487: 10434: 10303: 10260: 10241: 10222: 10183: 10162: 10045: 10024: 9972: 9911: 9834: 9735: 9701: 9667: 9633: 9599: 9565: 9523: 9484: 9445: 9420: 9389: 9331: 9306: 9107: 9093: 9039: 8861: 8797: 8759: 8755:

To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology

8732: 8594: 8556: 8310: 8266: 8229: 8109: 8010: 7947: 7906: 7860: 7702: 7660: 7313: 7270: 7228: 7099: 7038: 6898:, p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003. 6895: 6879: 6819: 6670: 6663: 6624: 6563: 6437: 6279: 6195: 6187: 6117: 6107: 6077: 5965: 5765: 5720: 5515: 5409: 5378: 5366: 5328: 5227: 5184: 5139: 5047: 4830: 4600: 4591: 4490: 4349: 4327: 4223: 4161: 3965: 3894: 3859: 3776: 3364: 3243: 3111: 3073: 3001: 2979: 2971: 2913: 2658: 2642: 2579: 2561: 2488: 2416: 2305: 2300: 2203: 2086: 1998: 1986: 1923: 1820: 1650: 1635: 1485: 1422: 1386: 959:, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via 956: 948: 902: 630: 432: 261: 210: 10116:

Swade, Doron D. (February 1993). "Redeeming Charles Babbage's Mechanical Computer".

8121: 7736: 7395: 7169: 6291: 6039: 12815: 12712: 12552: 12421: 12033: 11937: 11663: 11193: 10728: 10619: 10459: 10426: 10283: 10133: 10014: 8851: 8590: 8221: 8101: 8002: 7595: 7157: 7008: 6610: 6600: 6553: 6545: 6352: 6314: 6269: 6207: 6177: 5961: 5875: 5579: 5514:. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: 5511: 5470: 5454: 5429: 5418: 5414: 5405: 5374: 5289: 5255: 5219: 5123: 5081: 4756: 4720: 4596: 4470: 4462: 4444: 4378: 4217: 4147: 3903: 3890: 3867: 3749: 3737: 3717: 3660: 3647: 3553: 3313: 3278: 3168: 3103: 3038: 2994: 2989: 2959: 2903: 2878: 2855: 2770: 2666: 2662: 2460: 2374: 2250: 2117: 2054: 1912: 1729: 1658: 1569: 1519: 1451:, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the 1235: 1090: 937: 848: 759: 610: 546: 339: 308: 257: 230: 226: 214: 202: 133: 7763: 5888:

Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some

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from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In

1548: 102:

Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom:

12772: 12767: 12747: 12737: 12692: 12676: 12651: 12601: 12557: 12509: 12426: 12416: 12039: 12027: 11872: 11860: 11723: 11694: 11651: 11645: 11383: 11378: 11360: 11323: 11318: 11243: 11203: 10888: 10866: 10829: 10777: 10597: 10592: 10584: 10430: 10216: 9798: 9729: 9695: 9661: 9627: 9593: 9559: 9517: 9478: 9126: 9099: 8527: 8466: 8296: 8256: 7634: 7607: 7264: 6512: 6469: 6143: 5830: 5569: 5482: 5243: 5207: 4770: 4528: 4281: 3879: 3788: 3725: 3701: 3664: 3590: 3569: 3379: 3283: 3253: 3207: 3140: 3125: 3089: 2975: 2940: 2871: 2822: 2805: 2650: 2587: 2476: 2409: 2389: 2379: 2337: 2295: 2273: 2151: 2143: 2113: 2098: 2036: 2002: 1990: 1908: 1759: 1725: 1642: 1598: 1565: 1553: 1414: 1351:

in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the

1313: 1304: 1288: 1118: 1106: 992: 988: 984: 929: 622: 538: 366: 10448:"Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing" 9070: 6787:

Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,

1203:

had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a

1089:, for a sequence of sets of values. The whole machine was to be controlled by a 1008:, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the 27:

Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations

12757: 12742: 12707: 12636: 12616: 12591: 12576: 12479: 12021: 11313: 10953: 10854: 10624: 10607: 10039: 9963: 8370: 8105: 7599: 7334: 6069: 5973: 5969: 5801: 5322: 5301: 5223: 5028: 4732: 4406: 4208: 4054: 3713: 3586: 3495: 3463: 3448: 3428: 3273: 3248: 3069: 2892: 2727: 2694: 2583: 2500: 2470: 2255: 2221: 2024: 1959: 1882: 1878: 1828: 1670: 1515: 1472: 1406: 1402: 1394: 1368: 1183: 895: 816:, which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the 809: 782:

circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

606: 591: 533:

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using

480: 446: 410: 362: 343: 331: 253: 249: 245: 117: 12002: 8438: 8018: 7710: 7668: 7433: 6996:

Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of 'inventor of the modern computer'

6375:"Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents" 6370: 3862:

from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs,

1645:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer. Built by 12850: 12611: 12562: 12441: 12098: 11494: 11477: 11472: 11055: 11045: 11025: 10841: 10767: 10720: 10665: 10660: 10612: 10352: 10315: 8865: 8233: 8113: 8014: 7939:

Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century

7706: 7664: 7638: 7621: 7455: 6567: 6191: 5968:

microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain

5682: 5527:, font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing. 5490: 5466: 5433: 5370: 4665: 4502: 4482: 4385: 4374: 3994: 3918: 3875: 3805: 3614: 3531: 3507: 3258: 3081: 3010: 2963: 2858: 2840: 2836: 2751: 2747: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2575: 2440: 2280: 2242: 2236: 2189: 2074: 2040: 2019:, an early 1970s microprocessor integrating 3500 transistors on a single chip 1786: 1626: 1618: 1433: 1344: 1320: 1308: 1269: 1243: 1227: 1166: 1005: 968: 852: 550: 312: 265: 205:. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. The term 153: 137: 12058: 10532: 10041:

The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage

8006: 7145: 6121: 5304:, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like 5100:. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. 2524:

covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects.

851:

was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s,

12641: 12621: 12524: 10931: 10819: 10802: 10797: 10575: 10464: 10447: 10438: 10287: 10218:

The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer

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Media Technology and Society: A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet

8258:

Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation

6356: 6283: 6199: 5922: 5889: 5843:

unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example,

5462: 5457:, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. 5235: 5215: 5202: 5197: 5085: 5058: 5039: 5015: 4818: 4678: 4540: 4466: 4398: 4315: 4276: 3982: 3833: 3692: 3672: 3519: 3483: 3420: 3372: 3354: 3195: 3129: 3060: 2738: 2557: 2426: 2216: 2199: 2102: 2066: 2032: 1994: 1927: 1721: 1662: 1481: 1254:, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer. 1212: 1102: 976: 960: 730: 583: 519: 300: 296: 5038:

While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (

2023:

The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the

798: 283:

have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times. Early in the

53: 12596: 12534: 12474: 12387: 11791: 11030: 10998: 10901: 10861: 10824: 10792: 10634: 9138: 7793: 7091: 7026: 6789:

Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.

5930: 5469:

paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called

5334: 5053: 5018:

with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or

4786: 4765: 4736: 4486: 4458: 4432: 4311: 4297: 4180: 4006: 3729: 3537: 3503: 3499: 3487: 3293: 3133: 3121: 3028: 2884: 2867: 2404: 2357: 2310: 2231: 1963: 1824: 1782: 1770: 1749: 1614: 1577: 1573: 1503: 1448: 1360: 1261: 1247: 1239: 1223: 1139: 802: 656: 634: 542: 450: 394: 194: 93: 64: 11996: 10521: 10295: 10145: 9878: 9154:"7 dazzling smartphone improvements with Qualcomm's Snapdragon 835 chip" 8241: 6952: 2120:(SoCs), which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin. 2069:. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly above (known as 1634:

at the university to develop it into a practically useful computer, the

1576:. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid out by 1463:(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic 44: 12796: 12661: 12581: 11978: 11896: 11532: 11198: 11143: 10762: 10692: 10687: 10677: 10311: 10157:

Jacquard's Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information age

9031:

Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension

8856: 8483: 6615: 6558: 6326: 5607: 5474: 5458: 5162: 5127: 4825: 4810: 4744: 4682: 4477: 4319: 4109: 4030: 4014: 4010: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3817: 3709: 3350: 3338: 3333: 3323: 3268: 3227: 3219: 3093: 3056: 2949: 2945: 2863: 2832: 2828: 2815: 2811: 2798: 2704: 2421: 2399: 2384: 2352: 2270:

computers, video editing PCs and the like, this term is no longer used)

2109: 2028: 1919: 1808: 1737: 1701: 1682: 1418: 1324: 1179: 867: 790: 755: 748: 737: 712: 676: 660: 514: 315: 269: 222: 186: 123: 11096: 8204:

Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology".

7817:"A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973)" 7161: 6976:"Biography of Konrad Zuse, Inventor and Programmer of Early Computers" 5296:. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. 5206:

The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the

2134:

Computers can be classified in a number of different ways, including:

1895:

The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the

1413:

which were often run by women. To crack the more sophisticated German

1359:

network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of

1218: 1101:. In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the 12784: 12656: 12519: 12237: 11990: 11984: 11972: 11908: 11902: 11884: 11657: 11158: 11040: 11035: 11019: 10948: 10787: 10639: 10602: 10019: 9994: 9907:

Computer Architecture: Fundamentals and Principles of Computer Design

9830: 5918: 5481:

is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a

5346: 5032: 4002: 3998: 3768: 3680: 3432: 3328: 3298: 3288: 2909: 2848: 2394: 2362: 2347: 2342: 2094: 2058: 1951: 1733: 1654: 1531: 1296: 1257: 1204: 1135: 936:, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the " 763: 668: 664: 587: 523: 113: 9595:

Software Design Methodology: From Principles to Architectural Styles

9412:

Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User

8255:

Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994).

6318: 6274: 6249: 6182: 6157: 6146:, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007. 5264: 2516:

Video demonstrating the standard components of a "slimline" computer

729:, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, 12834: 12790: 12702: 12218: 11966: 11878: 11830: 11153: 11148: 10978: 10629: 9863: 5305: 5259: 5239: 5167: 5089: 5043: 4428: 4416: 4344:, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management 3849: 3767:

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an

3668: 3523: 3399:

Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.

3263: 3174: 3077: 2723: 2719: 2678: 2591: 2445: 2090: 1800: 1762:

basis, which limited them to a number of specialized applications.

1646: 1161:

The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the

933: 912: 840: 794: 703:

in 1235. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared

688: 382: 273: 218: 147: 84: 2061:(or chip) the size of a coin. They may or may not have integrated 1621:, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a 675:

in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE and is often attributed to

73: 12722: 12586: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 11866: 11824: 11713: 11588: 10812: 10750: 10704: 9408: 8997:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip" 8141: 7824: 7098:(in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 55. 5926: 5897: 5486: 5293: 5269: 5062: 4641: 4114: 4042: 3922: 3491: 3453:

The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a

3214:. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small 2933: 2921: 2917: 2888: 2775: 2743: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2622: 2367: 2089:

were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50 lb (23 kg)

1947: 1622: 1518:, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. 1328: 1230:, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer 743: 696: 680: 638: 561: 319: 174: 8684:"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented" 7306:

Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers

5976:

design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.

3578: 12571: 12261: 11960: 11890: 11848: 11842: 11812: 11806: 11684: 11605: 10926: 10699: 10509: 10323: 10179:

Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet

8059:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" 6225: 5914: 5770: 5019: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4038: 4034: 4026: 3800:

designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.

3598: 3148: 3085: 2929: 2763: 2670: 2322: 2285: 2008: 1974: 1816: 1804: 1696: 1534:

execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

1334: 1276:, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 1251: 700: 579: 571: 323: 280: 260:. Computers are at the core of general-purpose devices such as 12356: 8530:, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008. 6463:"The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage" 5473:

makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from

5461:

are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above

5381:. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any 3359: 1303:. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in 1173:

starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of

1123: 12811: 12717: 12212: 12193: 11628: 11622: 11543: 10207:

Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine

9303:

The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing

8063:

The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers

5893: 5844: 5285: 4740: 4637: 4629: 4621: 4227: 4058: 3949: 3934: 3926: 3679:

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM

3671:, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. 3206:(collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by 2925: 2896: 2759: 2731: 2674: 2654: 2646: 2044: 1460: 1444: 1410: 1409:, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical 1292: 1277: 642: 209:

may refer to a nominally complete computer that includes the

107: 7898:

Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes

5238:, an American computer scientist and developer of the first 1887: 1819:(MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by 1657:. In October 1947 the directors of British catering company 1158:, the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson. 12830: 11854: 11818: 11003: 10897: 9946:. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing corporation. 9663:

Fundamentals of Dependable Computing for Software Engineers

9325: 8829:"Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" 8629: 6828: 6802:, pp. 575-583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914. 6800:

Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)

6457: 6455: 6222:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

6106:. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. 5096:

before being run, or translated directly at run time by an

4698: 4649: 4645: 4193: 4185: 3938: 3909: 3887: 3797: 3656: 3618: 3552:

features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on

3211: 3152: 2785: 2755: 1382: 1215:

similar devices were developed in other countries as well.

1134:

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific

964: 708: 692: 556: 374: 353:

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one

346:

noted that counts doubled every two years), leading to the

288: 8892: 8890: 8161: 7967: 3697: 201:

computers can perform generic sets of operations known as

10983: 10807: 9693: 9519:

Computational Thinking: A Perspective on Computer Science

7033:

Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from:

5135: 5119: 5014:

In most computers, individual instructions are stored as

4694: 4235: 4231: 4189: 4021: 3223: 3190:

A general-purpose computer has four main components: the

3160: 2794: 1978: 1281: 779: 541:. The earliest counting device was most likely a form of 437: 291:. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized 127: 10274:

Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women".

10073:

Les machines à calculer; leurs principes, leur évolution

9344: 8898:"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution" 8586:

Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts

6452: 4805:). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen 1641:

The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the

1015: 855:

and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

758:

was invented around 1620–1630, by the English clergyman

10240:(2nd ed.). Swindon: The British Computer Society. 9377: 8991: 8989: 8887: 3637:

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

1327:. The computer was manufactured by Zuse's own company, 1268:

In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the

963:, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical 474:'calculating machine' (of any type) is from 1897." The 9697:

The Mythical Man-month: Essays on Software Engineering

9381:

Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors

7894: 7849:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits

7148:(1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". 6660: 5972:

division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the

3629:

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called

951:

he announced his invention in 1822, in a paper to the

762:, shortly after the publication of the concept of the 299:

electronic calculating machines were developed during

10005:(3). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press: 74–75. 9971:. Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 59–98. 9181:"Global notebook shipments finally overtake desktops" 7418: 6689: 6528:"A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle" 6504: 1502:

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by

1471:

of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the

1421:

and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the

1046: 10475:

Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories

9148: 9146: 8986: 7541: 6757:"Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer" 2047:. In the early 1970s, MOS IC technology enabled the 1839:

storage elements, leading to the development of MOS

330:

chip technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the

10477:. IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium. 9856: 8676: 8302:

Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs

8254: 8092:Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)". 7529: 6853: 6850:

The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109-120, 1982.

3435:program that causes all of these events to happen. 2177: 10154: 7984: 7982: 7458:; Fensom, Harry; Milne, Frank A. (15 March 1995). 7454: 6662: 6307:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 6220:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 6008: 5805:these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. 5392: 3367:instruction would be decoded by the control system 2093:was an early example. Later portables such as the 2051:of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip. 1789:of 1955, built by the electronics division of the 1417:machine, used for high-level Army communications, 1401:During World War II, the British code-breakers at 1081: 770:such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and 295:calculations in the early 20th century. The first 10405: 10381: 9143: 9091: 8962:"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs" 6732:. Science Museum. 19 January 2007. Archived from 6020: 5921:is able to run most of the same programs that an 5808: 5797: 3593:of choice in the 1960s, until it was replaced by 3405:Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register. 1748:in 1948. From 1955 onwards, transistors replaced 1568:and can store in memory a set of instructions (a 1178:some specialized applications such as education ( 835:, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve 393:that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era 12848: 10409:(1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". 9824: 9721: 9439: 8042: 7988: 7366:"Meet the female codebreakers of Bletchley Park" 5530: 5226:clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to 3438: 2531: 1993:and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first 1989:(silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert Kerwin, 1130:'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81 1093:program, which was complete with provisions for 621:is believed to be the earliest known mechanical 427:was in a different sense, in a 1613 book called 248:, including simple special-purpose devices like 9727: 9625: 9557: 8786:Huff, Howard R.; Tsuya, H.; Gösele, U. (1998). 8785: 8403:"Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009" 8051: 7979: 7299: 7297: 7295: 7293: 7262: 7176: 6840: 5134:) cannot understand the machine language of an 3836:applications, as well as with other so-called " 3704:are common storage devices used with computers. 3526:. These can be useful for creating complicated 1480:(about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of 350:during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. 276:, which links billions of computers and users. 9995:"Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer" 9409:Jerry Peek; Grace Todino; John Strang (2002). 9028:Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). 8758:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. 7991:"Some early transistor applications in the UK" 7762:. The University of Manchester. Archived from 7588:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 7060:"A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On" 6754: 6637: 6304: 6101: 5249: 4750: 3470: 1580:in his 1936 paper. In 1945, Turing joined the 1272:, the world's first working electromechanical 12372: 12341:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 12088: 12074: 11559: 11112: 11081:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 10562: 10548: 9328:Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics 9067:"Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004" 8295: 7218: 7216: 7057: 6920:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017. 6718: 6343:(1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". 3897:computer, it is sometimes called "firmware". 3218:which can be turned off or on by means of an 1969:Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS ( 1497: 582:was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The 565: 9362: 9300: 9027: 9021: 8199: 8197: 7931: 7929: 7290: 7185:"How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" 6896:Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf) 6250:"Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece" 1744:, in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's 1665:computer, modelled closely on the Cambridge 1335:Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits 940:", he conceptualized and invented the first 377:. Peripheral devices include input devices ( 10472: 10345:Irascible Genius, Charles Babbage, inventor 9687: 9659: 9653: 9619: 9350: 9069:. Intel Corp. November 1971. Archived from 8930:"1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced" 8512: 7995:Engineering Science & Education Journal 7222: 6945:"Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers" 6936: 6436:. chonday.com. 11 July 2013. Archived from 6416:(1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", 5316: 4925:# if odd number is greater than n then exit 1817:metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor 1150:(later to become Lord Kelvin) in 1872. The 866:that could solve real and complex roots of 545:. Later record keeping aids throughout the 449:, a person who carried out calculations or 12379: 12365: 12081: 12067: 11566: 11552: 11119: 11105: 10555: 10541: 10452:CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 9792:Taylor, Alexander L. III (16 April 1984). 9551: 8047:. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. p. 139. 7735:. University of Manchester. Archived from 7691:"Early computers at Manchester University" 7213: 7138: 6519: 6136:The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project 5500: 5483:minimum capability (being Turing-complete) 5222:", becoming unresponsive to input such as 5161:that are able to express the needs of the 4727:often have machine code in the form of an 4576:Generational list of programming languages 3490:. Some can operate only on whole numbers ( 3486:functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and 3378:A key component common to all CPUs is the 1851:, and became the driving force behind the 1437:I, greatly speeding the decoding process. 687:. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical 385:, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, 10463: 10235: 10018: 9862: 9785: 9483:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 9092:Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998). 8855: 8576: 8344:United States Patent and Trademark Office 8203: 8194: 8091: 7973: 7935: 7926: 7751: 7650: 6779: 6755:Graham-Cumming, John (23 December 2010). 6614: 6604: 6557: 6273: 6181: 6076:. Princeton University Press. p. 5. 4572:List of programming languages by category 3659:that orchestrates loading the computer's 808:In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer 9591: 9585: 9480:Computer Architecture and Implementation 9178: 8708: 8336: 7620: 7303: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6247: 6224:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 6155: 5263: 5214:Errors in computer programs are called " 5201: 5052: 4764: 3792: 3736:serve as both input and output devices. 3696: 3577: 3358: 3048: 2504: 2073:) or below (on the opposite side of the 2007: 1886: 1799: 1700: 1547: 1439: 1381: 1256: 1217: 1122: 1024:Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by 1019: 881: 742: 596: 555: 513: 470:states that the use of the term to mean 404: 11291:Application-specific integrated circuit 11126: 10351: 10257:Préhistoire et Histoire des ordinateurs 9961: 9515: 8751: 8619: 8617: 8548: 8421: 7150:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 6859: 6834: 6700:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 6665:Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer 6491:"Memória sobre las Máquinas Algébricas" 5917:compatible microprocessor like the AMD 5145: 5069: 4904:# check if the number is less than 1000 4824:Comparatively, a person using a pocket 4584:Non-English-based programming languages 1918:The first working ICs were invented by 1295:. Program code was supplied on punched 679:. A combination of the planisphere and 318:in the late 1940s were followed by the 14: 12849: 10526:Wikiversity has a quiz on this article 10310: 9791: 9476: 9464: 9442:Noise Reduction in Speech Applications 9160:from the original on 30 September 2019 9131:The Making of the First Microprocessor 8822: 8820: 8582: 8409:from the original on 19 September 2019 8395: 8149:from the original on 24 September 2019 7733:"Early Electronic Computers (1946–51)" 7585: 7501:from the original on 17 September 2013 7488: 7363: 7335:"The woman who cracked Enigma cyphers" 7332: 7058:Salz Trautman, Peggy (20 April 1994). 7037:. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. 6973: 6967: 6848:Electromechanical Calculating Machine, 6525: 6485: 6395:from the original on 15 September 2009 6068: 5103: 1862: 918:The Difference Engine Number 2 at the 870:, which were published in 1901 by the 862:began to develop a series of advanced 645:, and has been dated to approximately 413:, with microscope and calculator, 1952 12360: 12062: 11547: 11100: 10536: 10445: 10273: 10175: 9885:from the original on 26 December 2009 9700:. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 9120: 8942:from the original on 22 December 2015 8836:The Electrochemical Society Interface 8725:Springer Science & Business Media 8714: 8482: 8460:"The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer" 8363: 8330: 8182:from the original on 13 December 2013 8134: 7989:Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998). 7888: 7814: 7553: 7547: 7535: 7345:from the original on 10 November 2014 7144: 6986:from the original on 13 December 2020 6901: 6339: 6050:from the original on 16 November 2016 6026: 6014: 5741:List of computer system manufacturers 3686: 3609:In almost all modern computers, each 1016:Electromechanical calculating machine 932:, an English mechanical engineer and 12346:List of pioneers in computer science 11799: 11226:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 11086:List of pioneers in computer science 10387:"Tokens: The Cognitive Significance" 10103:from the original on 1 December 2017 10058:from the original on 20 January 2007 9988:from the original on 9 October 2022. 9954:Giant Brains, or Machines That Think 9734:. Pearson Education. pp. 4–17. 9629:Introduction to Software Engineering 9561:Introduction to Software Engineering 9326:Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). 9179:Chartier, David (23 December 2008). 8719:History of Semiconductor Engineering 8696:from the original on 24 October 2019 8614: 8383:from the original on 27 October 2019 8167: 8137:"Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive" 8073:from the original on 27 October 2019 7563:. techiwarehouse.com. Archived from 7470:from the original on 3 February 2012 7406:from the original on 4 February 2010 7396:"Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" 7376:from the original on 7 February 2019 7090: 7035:Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984) 7025: 7009:"Who is the Father of the Computer?" 6606:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830 6550:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003 6369: 6363: 5942:High level languages are also often 5756:List of pioneers in computer science 4785:This section applies to most common 4296:, Scheduling & Time management, 1847:in computers. The MOSFET led to the 1791:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 1591:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 1194: 1189: 901:A diagram of a portion of Babbage's 711:knowledge processing machine with a 695:-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of 10314:; Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; 10221:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 9626:Ronald J. Leach (27 January 2016). 9558:Ronald J. Leach (27 January 2016). 9522:. Singapore: Springer. p. 60. 9209: 9009:from the original on 12 August 2021 8875:from the original on 29 August 2017 8826: 8817: 8665:Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation 8045:Introduction to Transistor Circuits 7845: 7839: 7651:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998). 6871:Cristopher Moore. Stephan Mertens. 6434:"The Writer Automaton, Switzerland" 6214: 5726:Glossary of computer hardware terms 4715:. That is to say that some type of 2080: 2057:(SoCs) are complete computers on a 1950:, whereas Kilby's chip was made of 1873:Invention of the integrated circuit 1492: 1112: 858:In the 1890s, the Spanish engineer 824:invented by the Scottish scientist 586:was developed from devices used in 509: 24: 11238:Erasable programmable logic device 9903: 9694:Frederick P. Brooks (Jr.) (1975). 9516:Xu, Zhiwei; Zhang, Jialin (2021). 9378:Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). 9365:Introduction to the Basic Computer 9135:IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine 8910:from the original on 10 March 2020 7757: 7326: 7201:from the original on 9 August 2017 6767:from the original on 5 August 2012 6526:Thomas, Federico (1 August 2008). 5268:Visualization of a portion of the 4437:Integrated development environment 4076:List of embedded operating systems 3782: 3617:in groups of eight bits (called a 2137: 1973:) integrated circuits, built from 1537: 570:). The number represented on this 423:, the first known use of the word 25: 12878: 12244:Computers built 1955 through 1978 11273:Complex programmable logic device 10502: 10238:A History of Manchester Computers 10138:10.1038/scientificamerican0293-86 10096:: Digital Equipment Corporation. 9536:from the original on 30 July 2022 9497:from the original on 30 July 2022 8974:from the original on 29 July 2020 8637:from the original on 21 July 2019 8226:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 7182: 6924:from the original on 12 July 2010 6638:Torres Quevedo, Leonardo (1901). 5988:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 5773:(list of most powerful computers) 5736:List of computer term etymologies 5177: 4568:Timeline of programming languages 4449:Software configuration management 3959:Comparison of Linux distributions 3716:, and output devices such as the 3363:Diagram showing how a particular 3304: 1769:, a team under the leadership of 1264:, inventor of the modern computer 1097:. He also introduced the idea of 877: 12490:Failure of electronic components 10520: 10508: 10210:. Chicago: Washington Institute. 9897: 9871: 9850: 9818: 9755: 9509: 9470: 9433: 9402: 9371: 9356: 9319: 9294: 9276: 9258: 9240: 9222: 9203: 9191:from the original on 4 July 2017 9172: 9095:Computer Organization and Design 9085: 9059: 8500:from the original on 29 May 2008 7430:The National Museum of Computing 7364:Bearne, Suzanne (24 July 2018). 7333:Miller, Joe (10 November 2014). 7269:. University of Michigan Press. 6949:The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse 6942: 6156:Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). 5979: 5953: 5936: 5907: 5882: 5868: 5859: 5850: 5836: 5823: 5814: 5159:high-level programming languages 4613:high-level programming languages 3233: 2184:List of computer size categories 2178:By size, form-factor and purpose 2172:Reduced instruction set computer 2167:Complex instruction set computer 1833:high-density integrated circuits 1777:and the first in the world, was 911: 894: 462:gives the first attested use of 92: 83: 72: 63: 52: 43: 12386: 11285:Field-programmable object array 11221:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 10320:"Architectures Share Over Time" 10182:. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. 10070: 9827:Systems, Experts, and Computers 9794:"The Wizard Inside the Machine" 9773:from the original on 1 May 2018 9660:John Knight (12 January 2012). 9305:. A K Peters, Ltd. p. 54. 8954: 8922: 8779: 8745: 8649: 8542: 8533: 8493:. Stockholm: Nobel Foundation. 8476: 8453: 8437:. 6 August 2010. Archived from 8376:National Inventors Hall of Fame 8337:Marriott, J.W. (10 June 2019). 8289: 8248: 8168:Laws, David (4 December 2013). 8135:Young, Ian (12 December 2018). 8128: 8085: 8043:Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (1957). 8036: 7808: 7778: 7725: 7683: 7644: 7614: 7579: 7513: 7489:Fensom, Jim (8 November 2010). 7482: 7448: 7388: 7357: 7256: 7241: 7227:. Springer Nature. p. 65. 7112: 7084: 7051: 7019: 7001: 6917:The Modern History of Computing 6888: 6865: 6805: 6792: 6748: 6683: 6661:Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). 6654: 6631: 6479: 6426: 6407: 6333: 6298: 6241: 6231: 5393:Computer architecture paradigms 5333:A computer does not need to be 5152:High-level programming language 5126:CPU (such as may be found in a 5116:low-level programming languages 5009: 4797:and are generally carried out ( 4773:, the world's first electronic 4729:imperative programming language 4061:(previously OS X and Mac OS X) 3755: 3344: 1552:A section of the reconstructed 1428:Colossus was the world's first 667:in the early 11th century. The 609:circa 150–100 BCE, is an early 502:For a chronological guide, see 11573: 10473:Verma, G.; Mielke, N. (1988). 8170:"Who Invented the Transistor?" 7936:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). 7426:"Colossus – The Rebuild Story" 7120:"Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse" 6149: 6128: 6095: 6062: 6032: 5790: 5562:Telecommunications engineering 5110:Low-level programming language 4779:Museum of Science and Industry 4564:Lists of programming languages 2547:(mechanical/electromechanical) 1676: 1082:{\displaystyle a^{x}(y-z)^{2}} 1070: 1057: 13: 1: 12336:History of computing hardware 11411:Hardware description language 11279:Field-programmable gate array 11076:History of computing hardware 10081:Digital Equipment Corporation 8430:Triumph of the MOS Transistor 8299:; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). 7790:Computer Conservation Society 7266:The First Electronic Computer 7096:Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk 6974:Bellis, Mary (15 May 2019) . 6002: 5811:estimates it took 4000 years. 5751:List of films about computers 5531:Professions and organizations 5292:that resulted was called the 4880:# set first number to add = 1 4580:List of programming languages 4441:Software performance analysis 3943:List of BSD operating systems 3439:Central processing unit (CPU) 2566:Quevedo's analytical machines 2538:History of computing hardware 2532:History of computing hardware 2451:Programmable logic controller 1962:, developed by his colleague 1940:monolithic integrated circuit 1530:, which is to say, they have 1246:, created by German engineer 1234:Early digital computers were 716: 646: 498:History of computing hardware 365:, together with some type of 328:monolithic integrated circuit 12485:List of emerging electronics 10944:Network interface controller 10431:10.1126/science.211.4479.283 10086:PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook 10037: 9904:II, Joseph D. Dumas (2005). 9598:. Elsevier. pp. 47–72. 9367:. Prentice-Hall. p. 12. 7760:"Introduction to the Mark 1" 7653:"Computing's Golden Jubilee" 7225:A Brief History of Computing 6951:. EPE Online. Archived from 6588:Mechanism and Machine Theory 6533:Mechanism and Machine Theory 5540:Computer-related professions 5246:computer in September 1947. 5000:# put sum in output register 4976:# repeat the summing process 4548: 4342:Computer-aided manufacturing 3222:. Each circuit represents a 2328:Desktop replacement computer 1954:. Noyce's monolithic IC was 1582:National Physical Laboratory 1349:Post Office Research Station 1307:'s earlier design), using a 400: 342:increasing at a rapid pace ( 106:Early vacuum tube computer ( 7: 11423:Formal equivalence checking 10741:Refreshable braille display 10683:Refreshable braille display 10486:. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag. 10342: 10255:Ligonnière, Robert (1987). 10161:. Oxford University Press. 10152: 9941: 9284:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9266:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9248:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 9230:"Google Books Ngram Viewer" 8827:Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). 8752:Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). 6818:Springer, pp. 84-85, 2017. 6500:(in Spanish) (28): 217–222. 6248:Charette, François (2006). 6074:Mathematics in Ancient Iraq 6044:Online Etymology Dictionary 5746:List of fictional computers 5731:History of computer science 5708: 5250:Networking and the Internet 5061:containing one line from a 4751:Stored program architecture 4706: 4050:Macintosh operating systems 3955:List of Linux distributions 3878:. It is often divided into 3866:and related non-executable 3843: 3471:Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 3382:, a special memory cell (a 2482: 1938:(hybrid IC), rather than a 1746:bipolar junction transistor 1706:Bipolar junction transistor 1506:in his seminal 1936 paper, 1489:capacitors, and inductors. 1165:, built by H. L. Hazen and 944:in the early 19th century. 793:, built a mechanical doll ( 476:Online Etymology Dictionary 468:Online Etymology Dictionary 459:Online Etymology Dictionary 256:, and factory devices like 10: 12883: 12186:University of Pennsylvania 11443:Hierarchical state machine 11401:Transaction-level modeling 10214: 10115: 10075:. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. 10071:Couffignal, Louis (1933). 9992: 9965:Computing Before Computers 9934: 9910:. CRC Press. p. 340. 9666:. CRC Press. p. 186. 9592:Hong Zhu (22 March 2005). 9444:. CRC Press. p. 111. 9036:Cambridge University Press 8555:. Routledge. p. 221. 8307:Cambridge University Press 8106:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462 7857:Cambridge University Press 6878:OUP Oxford, p. 291, 2011. 6798:Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. 6650:. Impr. nationale (París). 6474:Scientific Computing World 5701:Apache Software Foundation 5594:, Information technology, 5592:Human–computer interaction 5326: 5320: 5253: 5195: 5149: 5107: 5073: 4754: 4537:Package management systems 4294:Database management system 3847: 3786: 3759: 3690: 3567: 3474: 3442: 3348: 3210:, often made of groups of 2968:Personal digital assistant 2535: 2493:Personal computer hardware 2486: 2181: 2127: 1876: 1866: 1807:(MOS transistor), showing 1736:, built the first working 1690: 1680: 1586:University of Pennsylvania 1541: 1498:Concept of modern computer 1319:Zuse's next computer, the 1116: 953:Royal Astronomical Society 814:Perpetual Calendar machine 707:astrolabe, an early fixed- 501: 491: 487: 29: 12685: 12543: 12460: 12394: 12304: 12287: 12271: 12252: 12228: 12203: 12184: 12171: 12142: 12094: 12089:IBM vacuum tube computers 12056: 12049: 12012: 11951: 11924: 11790: 11783: 11763: 11680: 11673: 11638: 11615: 11598: 11581: 11520: 11453: 11369: 11344:Digital signal processing 11329:Logic in computer science 11306: 11255:Programmable logic device 11215:Hybrid integrated circuit 11134: 11068: 11012: 10971: 10962: 10840: 10776: 10719: 10648: 10583: 10574: 10481: 10407:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 10383:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 10259:. Paris: Robert Laffont. 10254: 10236:Lavington, Simon (1998). 10203: 10176:Evans, Claire L. (2018). 9951:Berkeley, Edmund (1949). 9950: 9881:. Thefreedictionary.com. 9825:Agatha C. Hughes (2000). 9763:"Why do computers crash?" 9632:. CRC Press. p. 56. 9564:. CRC Press. p. 11. 9440:Gillian M. Davis (2002). 9330:. CRC Press. p. 45. 8583:Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). 8263:American Chemical Society 7561:"Generations of Computer" 6874:The Nature of Computation 6669:. Crowell-Collier Press. 6498:Revista de Obras Públicas 6092:was in use 2350–2000 BCE. 6090:sexagesimal number system 5991:(6th ed, 2007), the word 5424:Non-Uniform Memory Access 5360: 5357:qualifies as a computer. 4269: 4255:Text-based user interface 4207: 4146: 4141:Standard Template Library 4103: 3902: 3563: 3139: 3055: 2985: 2781: 2700: 2609: 2544: 2268:non-linear editing system 2245:(term fallen into disuse) 1971:metal–oxide–semiconductor 1936:hybrid integrated circuit 1901:Royal Radar Establishment 1843:, which replaced earlier 1687:History of the transistor 1375:developed and tested the 1099:floating-point arithmetic 872:Paris Academy of Sciences 845:ball-and-disk integrators 566: 535:one-to-one correspondence 420:Oxford English Dictionary 32:Computer (disambiguation) 11356:Switching circuit theory 11261:Programmable Array Logic 11249:Programmable logic array 10446:Smith, Erika E. (2013). 10343:Moseley, Maboth (1964). 10153:Essinger, James (2004). 10079: 9957:. John Wiley & Sons. 9879:"Definition of computer" 9728:Ian Sommerville (2007). 8520:The Chip that Jack Built 7821:British Computer Society 7600:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 7523:Honeywell v. Sperry Rand 7460:"Obituary: Allen Coombs" 7263:Arthur W. Burks (1989). 7223:O'Regan, Gerard (2010). 6158:"In search of lost time" 6104:Numbers through the ages 5783: 5777:Unconventional computing 5693:Free Software Foundation 5602:, Software engineering, 5443:von Neumann architecture 5397:There are many types of 5317:Unconventional computers 4835: 4725:von Neumann architecture 4334:Design and manufacturing 4214:Graphical user interface 3742:graphics processing unit 3204:input and output devices 3039:Wetware/Organic computer 2986:Theoretical/experimental 2619:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 2162:Von Neumann architecture 2123: 1983:General Microelectronics 1849:microcomputer revolution 1767:University of Manchester 1742:point-contact transistor 1607:University of Manchester 1512:universal Turing machine 1377:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 768:transcendental functions 633:off the Greek island of 336:microcomputer revolution 12728:Electromagnetic warfare 12277:UNIVAC family computers 12230:Sperry Rand Corporation 11771:Soviet computer systems 11406:Register-transfer level 10850:Central processing unit 10391:Documenta Praehistorica 10215:Ifrah, Georges (2001). 10038:Collier, Bruce (1970). 9993:Cohen, Bernard (2000). 9477:Cragon, Harvey (2000). 9351:Verma & Mielke 1988 9002:Computer History Museum 8967:Computer History Museum 8935:Computer History Museum 8903:Computer History Museum 8794:Electrochemical Society 8689:Computer History Museum 8549:Winston, Brian (1998). 8473:, accessed 8 July 2008. 8471:Electronic Product News 8435:Computer History Museum 8175:Computer History Museum 8094:Proceedings of the IEEE 8067:Computer History Museum 8032:(subscription required) 7846:Lee, Thomas H. (2003). 7491:"Harry Fensom obituary" 7310:Oxford University Press 7304:Copeland, Jack (2006). 7031:The Computer – My Life 6468:3 November 2012 at the 6102:Flegg, Graham. (1989). 5508:artificial intelligence 5501:Artificial intelligence 5191: 5138:CPU that might be in a 4775:stored-program computer 4521:Artificial intelligence 3838:embarrassingly parallel 3455:central processing unit 3445:Central processing unit 2584:IBM ASCC/Harvard Mark I 2497:Central processing unit 2202:(term no longer used), 1932:Fairchild Semiconductor 1775:transistorized computer 1718:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld 1714:field-effect transistor 1603:stored-program computer 1558:stored-program computer 1556:, the first electronic 1544:Stored-program computer 1144:tide-predicting machine 1038:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 1026:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 860:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 822:tide-predicting machine 774:trigonometry and other 627:Derek J. de Solla Price 429:The Yong Mans Gleanings 361:(CPU) in the form of a 359:central processing unit 12698:Automotive electronics 12647:Robotic vacuum cleaner 12607:Information technology 12412:Electronic engineering 11953:University of Illinois 11297:Tensor Processing Unit 10484:The Computer – My life 10465:10.7771/1481-4374.1972 10288:10.1353/tech.1999.0128 10276:Technology and Culture 10204:Felt, Dorr E. (1916). 10044:. Garland Publishing. 9942:Bowden, B. V. (1953). 6357:10.1109/MM.1984.291305 5809:Schmandt-Besserat 1999 5798:Schmandt-Besserat 1981 5656:Professional societies 5554:Electronic engineering 5550:Electrical engineering 5399:computer architectures 5351:A device that computes 5273: 5211: 5066: 4831:MIPS assembly language 4782: 4781:in Manchester, England 4359:Vector graphics editor 4355:Raster graphics editor 4260:Command-line interface 3801: 3705: 3602: 3528:conditional statements 3459:MOS integrated circuit 3414:Jump back to step (1). 3368: 2517: 2239:(term no longer used) 2020: 1892: 1812: 1728:, while working under 1709: 1659:J. Lyons & Company 1605:. It was built at the 1601:was the world's first 1560: 1456: 1398: 1365:John Vincent Atanasoff 1301:floating-point numbers 1265: 1231: 1131: 1083: 1029: 938:father of the computer 887: 837:differential equations 805:, and still operates. 751: 614: 575: 530: 431:by the English writer 414: 272:. Computers power the 12632:Portable media player 12505:Molecular electronics 12500:Low-power electronics 11512:Electronic literature 11466:Hardware acceleration 11334:Computer architecture 11232:Emitter-coupled logic 11169:Printed circuit board 10482:Zuse, Konrad (1993). 10347:. London: Hutchinson. 9363:Donald Eadie (1968). 9301:David J. Eck (2000). 8661:US patent 2981877 8625:"Integrated circuits" 8007:10.1049/esej:19980301 7944:John Wiley & Sons 7903:John Wiley & Sons 6814:Numbers and Computers 6640:"Machines á calculer" 6516:, Misericordia, 1895. 6414:Donald Routledge Hill 6142:28 April 2008 at the 5600:Computational science 5448:Cellular architecture 5355:processes information 5267: 5205: 5056: 4859:# initialize sum to 0 4768: 4558:Programming languages 4507:Massively multiplayer 4338:Computer-aided design 4098:Plan 9 from Bell Labs 3816:. Multiprocessor and 3796: 3762:Computer multitasking 3700: 3581: 3574:Computer data storage 3477:Arithmetic logic unit 3362: 3192:arithmetic logic unit 3049:Other hardware topics 2515: 2436:Single-board computer 2290:Small form factor PCs 2011: 1913:Washington, D.C. 1890: 1877:Further information: 1803: 1704: 1691:Further information: 1551: 1524:theory of computation 1508:On Computable Numbers 1443: 1385: 1373:Iowa State University 1260: 1221: 1209:Torpedo Data Computer 1163:differential analyzer 1152:differential analyser 1126: 1095:conditional branching 1084: 1023: 981:conditional branching 973:arithmetic logic unit 947:After working on his 922:laboratory in Seattle 920:Intellectual Ventures 885: 833:differential analyser 746: 619:Antikythera mechanism 603:Antikythera mechanism 600: 559: 517: 504:Timeline of computing 408: 326:(MOS transistor) and 285:Industrial Revolution 12867:Electronics industry 12862:Consumer electronics 12826:Terahertz technology 12807:Open-source hardware 12763:Consumer electronics 12733:Electronics industry 12495:Flexible electronics 12402:Analogue electronics 12324:Vacuum-tube computer 11438:Finite-state machine 11416:High-level synthesis 11351:Circuit minimization 10517:at Wikimedia Commons 10369:on 21 September 2013 10318:(13 November 2006). 9731:Software Engineering 9415:. O'Reilly. p. 9210:IDC (25 July 2013). 8796:. pp. 181–182. 8658:'s Unitary circuit, 8449:– via YouTube. 7946:. pp. 165–167. 7626:The Essential Turing 7312:. pp. 101–115. 7126:on 18 September 2016 6982:. Dotdash Meredith. 6692:Robertson, Edmund F. 5761:Outline of computers 5716:Computability theory 5687:open source software 5584:Computer engineering 5558:Computer engineering 5479:Church–Turing thesis 5439:Harvard architecture 5146:High-level languages 5122:). For instance, an 5076:Programming language 5070:Programming language 5025:Harvard architecture 4761:Computer programming 4499:First-person shooter 4413:Software engineering 4391:Digital audio editor 4371:3D computer graphics 4290:Presentation program 3884:application software 3872:online documentation 3642:random-access memory 3595:semiconductor memory 3583:Magnetic-core memory 3504:Boolean truth values 2788:integrated circuits) 2638:Programmable devices 2572:Programmable devices 2157:Harvard architecture 2130:Classes of computers 1909:Geoffrey W.A. Dummer 1845:magnetic-core memory 1841:semiconductor memory 1755:Junction transistors 1611:Frederic C. Williams 1588:also circulated his 1280:, implementing a 22 1044: 1034:Essays on Automatics 671:was invented in the 665:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 494:History of computing 435:: "I haue [ 391:input/output devices 371:semiconductor memory 30:For other uses, see 12802:Nuclear electronics 12627:Networking hardware 12530:Quantum electronics 12515:Organic electronics 12437:Printed electronics 12407:Digital electronics 12312:Transistor computer 11748:Electronika SS VLSI 11485:Digital photography 11267:Generic Array Logic 11189:Combinational logic 11164:Printed electronics 11128:Digital electronics 10423:1981Sci...211..283S 10401:on 30 January 2012. 10330:on 20 February 2007 10130:1993SciAm.268b..86S 10118:Scientific American 10011:2000PhT....53c..74C 9944:Faster than thought 9767:Scientific American 8848:2013ECSIn..22a..55K 8465:11 May 2013 at the 8351:on 17 December 2019 8218:1973SciAm.229b..48H 8206:Scientific American 7796:on 11 December 2016 7250:Des Moines Register 6837:, p. 6, 11–13. 6811:Ronald T. Kneusel. 6785:L. Torres Quevedo. 6690:O'Connor, John J.; 6489:(10 October 1895). 6440:on 20 February 2015 6423:, pp. 139–163. 6266:2006Natur.444..551C 6174:2006Natur.444..534M 5902:non-volatile memory 5622: 5604:Video game industry 5596:Information systems 5566:Optical engineering 5542: 5520:pattern recognition 5383:computable function 5256:Computer networking 5172:video game consoles 5132:hand-held videogame 5104:Low-level languages 4674:scripting languages 4560: 4511:Interactive fiction 4324:Mail transfer agent 4302:Accounting software 4264:Text user interface 4133:Programming library 4094:AOS, Bluebottle, A2 3810:mainframe computers 3738:Computer networking 3734:optical disc drives 3613:is set up to store 3544:and computers with 3542:Graphics processors 3494:) while others use 3216:electrical circuits 3169:computer networking 2966:, Laptop computer, 2845:MOS Technology 6502 2709:integrated circuits 2554:Pascal's calculator 2466:System in a package 2264:Multimedia computer 1905:Ministry of Defence 1863:Integrated circuits 1857:digital electronics 1853:computer revolution 1779:operational by 1953 1693:Transistor computer 1572:) that details the 1287:that operated at a 1148:Sir William Thomson 1128:Sir William Thomson 1036:published in 1914, 942:mechanical computer 826:Sir William Thomson 685:spherical astronomy 12780:Marine electronics 12753:Integrated circuit 12672:Video game console 12470:2020s in computing 12452:Thermal management 12014:Harvard University 11433:Asynchronous logic 11209:Integrated circuit 11174:Electronic circuit 9156:. 3 January 2017. 8857:10.1149/2.F06131if 8715:Lojek, Bo (2007). 8526:1 May 2015 at the 8469:, (n.d.), (HTML), 8021:on 8 November 2020 7876:on 9 December 2019 7815:Lavington, Simon. 7766:on 26 October 2008 7701:(4). Summer 1992. 7252:. 15 January 1941. 7072:on 4 November 2016 7065:The New York Times 6341:Price, Derek de S. 5829:Most major 64-bit 5697:Mozilla Foundation 5618: 5588:Desktop publishing 5538: 5516:rule-based systems 5495:cellular automaton 5337:, nor even have a 5274: 5212: 5067: 4789:–based computers. 4783: 4592:assembly languages 4556: 4525:Antivirus software 4286:Desktop publishing 4137:C standard library 3830:graphics rendering 3802: 3706: 3687:Input/output (I/O) 3665:embedded computers 3603: 3369: 2707:and SSI, MSI, LSI 2518: 2456:Computer-on-module 2316:Internet appliance 2228:Personal computer 2195:Mainframe computer 2071:Package on package 2021: 1999:self-aligned gates 1897:integrated circuit 1893: 1869:Integrated circuit 1813: 1710: 1561: 1457: 1453:United States Army 1430:electronic digital 1399: 1391:electronic digital 1357:telephone exchange 1353:telephone exchange 1341:electronic circuit 1266: 1232: 1201:United States Navy 1132: 1079: 1030: 1001:British Government 888: 818:perpetual calendar 787:Pierre Jaquet-Droz 752: 705:lunisolar calendar 615: 576: 531: 528:prehistoric Africa 415: 355:processing element 348:Digital Revolution 262:personal computers 199:digital electronic 191:logical operations 144:Video game console 12844: 12843: 12821:Radio electronics 12447:Schematic capture 12432:Power electronics 12354: 12353: 12295:Colossus computer 12283: 12282: 12180: 12179: 12165: 12164: 11947: 11946: 11779: 11778: 11541: 11540: 11490:Digital telephone 11461:Computer hardware 11428:Synchronous logic 11094: 11093: 11064: 11063: 10994:Analog audio jack 10715: 10714: 10513:Media related to 10493:978-0-387-56453-1 10417:(4479): 283–285. 10266:978-2-221-05261-7 10247:978-0-902505-01-8 10228:978-0-471-39671-0 10189:978-0-7352-1175-9 10168:978-0-19-280577-5 10051:978-0-8240-0043-1 10030:978-0-262-53179-5 9978:978-0-8138-0047-9 9917:978-0-8493-2749-0 9840:978-0-262-08285-3 9741:978-0-321-31379-9 9707:978-0-201-00650-6 9673:978-1-4665-1821-6 9639:978-1-4987-0528-8 9605:978-0-08-045496-2 9571:978-1-4987-0528-8 9529:978-981-16-3848-0 9490:978-0-521-65168-4 9451:978-0-8493-0949-6 9426:978-0-596-00261-9 9395:978-0-471-05051-3 9384:. Wiley. p. 9337:978-0-8247-4067-2 9312:978-1-56881-128-4 9113:978-1-55860-428-5 9098:. San Francisco: 9045:978-1-107-05240-6 8803:978-1-56677-193-1 8765:978-0-8018-8639-3 8738:978-3-540-34258-8 8600:978-981-281-445-6 8562:978-0-415-14230-4 8441:on 18 August 2021 8316:978-1-107-43449-3 8272:978-0-8412-2861-0 7976:, pp. 34–35. 7953:978-0-470-50892-3 7912:978-3-527-34053-8 7866:978-1-139-64377-1 7758:Napper, R. B. E. 7739:on 5 January 2009 7713:on 28 August 2017 7671:on 9 January 2012 7319:978-0-19-284055-4 7234:978-3-030-66599-9 7162:10.1109/85.707574 7105:978-3-540-56292-4 7044:978-3-642-08151-4 6884:978-0-199-23321-2 6824:978-3-319-50508-4 6763:. New Scientist. 6696:"Charles Babbage" 6676:978-0-02-741370-0 6510:Leonardo Torres. 6418:Annals of Science 6382:Turk J Elec Engin 6260:(7119): 551–552. 6168:(7119): 534–538. 6083:978-0-691-09182-2 5985:According to the 5876:computer clusters 5766:Pulse computation 5721:Computer security 5706: 5705: 5613: 5612: 5525:voice recognition 5455:abstract machines 5410:Chemical computer 5387:quantum factoring 5379:quantum computers 5367:optical computers 5329:Harvard Computers 5082:natural languages 5048:assembly language 4967:# get next number 4704: 4703: 4546: 4545: 4328:Instant messaging 4224:Microsoft Windows 3966:Microsoft Windows 3906:/System Software 3895:IBM PC compatible 3750:desktop computers 3365:MIPS architecture 3244:Computer keyboard 3220:electronic switch 3188: 3187: 3046: 3045: 3002:Chemical computer 2980:Wearable computer 2972:Portable computer 2956:Personal computer 2941:Embedded computer 2782:Fourth generation 2659:Manchester Mark 1 2610:Second generation 2580:Analytical engine 2562:Difference engine 2513: 2489:Computer hardware 2417:Wearable computer 2306:Portable computer 2301:Keyboard computer 2260:Slimline desktop 2204:Midrange computer 2001:was developed by 1987:self-aligned gate 1924:Texas Instruments 1915:, on 7 May 1952. 1821:Mohamed M. Atalla 1712:The concept of a 1636:Manchester Mark 1 1486:J. Presper Eckert 1369:Clifford E. Berry 1347:, working at the 1236:electromechanical 1195:Electromechanical 1190:Digital computers 987:, and integrated 957:analytical engine 949:difference engine 903:Difference engine 715:and gear-wheels, 673:Hellenistic world 631:Antikythera wreck 605:, dating back to 574:is 6,302,715,408. 433:Richard Brathwait 340:transistor counts 309:thermionic valves 305:electromechanical 258:industrial robots 244:use computers as 242:consumer products 236:A broad range of 181:to automatically 16:(Redirected from 12874: 12816:Radio navigation 12713:Data acquisition 12422:Microelectronics 12381: 12374: 12367: 12358: 12357: 12083: 12076: 12069: 12060: 12059: 12054: 12053: 12034:Harvard Mark III 11797: 11796: 11788: 11787: 11756: 11739: 11727: 11710: 11698: 11678: 11677: 11568: 11561: 11554: 11545: 11544: 11194:Sequential logic 11121: 11114: 11107: 11098: 11097: 10969: 10968: 10620:Optical trackpad 10585:Pointing devices 10581: 10580: 10557: 10550: 10543: 10534: 10533: 10524: 10512: 10497: 10478: 10469: 10467: 10442: 10402: 10397:. Archived from 10378: 10376: 10374: 10368: 10362:. Archived from 10361: 10348: 10339: 10337: 10335: 10326:. Archived from 10307: 10270: 10251: 10232: 10211: 10200: 10198: 10196: 10172: 10160: 10149: 10112: 10110: 10108: 10102: 10091: 10076: 10067: 10065: 10063: 10034: 10022: 10020:10.1063/1.883007 9989: 9987: 9970: 9958: 9947: 9929: 9928: 9926: 9924: 9901: 9895: 9894: 9892: 9890: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9866: 9854: 9848: 9847: 9822: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9811: 9806:on 16 March 2007 9802:. Archived from 9789: 9783: 9782: 9780: 9778: 9759: 9753: 9752: 9750: 9748: 9725: 9719: 9718: 9716: 9714: 9691: 9685: 9684: 9682: 9680: 9657: 9651: 9650: 9648: 9646: 9623: 9617: 9616: 9614: 9612: 9589: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9578: 9555: 9549: 9548: 9543: 9541: 9513: 9507: 9506: 9504: 9502: 9474: 9468: 9462: 9456: 9455: 9437: 9431: 9430: 9406: 9400: 9399: 9375: 9369: 9368: 9360: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9341: 9323: 9317: 9316: 9298: 9292: 9291: 9288:books.google.com 9280: 9274: 9273: 9270:books.google.com 9262: 9256: 9255: 9252:books.google.com 9244: 9238: 9237: 9234:books.google.com 9226: 9220: 9219: 9218:on 26 June 2014. 9214:. 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Archived from 8334: 8328: 8327: 8325: 8323: 8297:Fossum, Jerry G. 8293: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8279: 8252: 8246: 8245: 8201: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8187: 8165: 8159: 8158: 8156: 8154: 8132: 8126: 8125: 8089: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8055: 8049: 8048: 8040: 8034: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8026: 8017:. Archived from 7986: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7964: 7962: 7960: 7933: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7919: 7892: 7886: 7885: 7883: 7881: 7875: 7869:. Archived from 7854: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7832: 7823:. Archived from 7812: 7806: 7805: 7803: 7801: 7792:. Archived from 7782: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7771: 7755: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7744: 7729: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7718: 7709:. Archived from 7687: 7681: 7680: 7678: 7676: 7667:. Archived from 7648: 7642: 7632: 7618: 7612: 7611: 7583: 7577: 7576: 7574: 7572: 7557: 7551: 7545: 7539: 7533: 7527: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7506: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7475: 7452: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7441: 7436:on 18 April 2015 7432:. Archived from 7422: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7392: 7386: 7385: 7383: 7381: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7330: 7324: 7323: 7301: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7283: 7260: 7254: 7253: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7220: 7211: 7210: 7208: 7206: 7200: 7189: 7180: 7174: 7173: 7142: 7136: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7122:. Archived from 7116: 7110: 7109: 7088: 7082: 7081: 7079: 7077: 7068:. Archived from 7055: 7049: 7048: 7023: 7017: 7016: 7005: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6991: 6971: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6960: 6940: 6934: 6933: 6931: 6929: 6912: 6899: 6894:Randell, Brian. 6892: 6886: 6869: 6863: 6857: 6851: 6844: 6838: 6832: 6826: 6809: 6803: 6796: 6790: 6783: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6743: 6741: 6736:on 7 August 2012 6722: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6668: 6658: 6652: 6651: 6635: 6629: 6628: 6618: 6608: 6578: 6572: 6571: 6561: 6523: 6517: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6495: 6487:Torres, Leonardo 6483: 6477: 6459: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6445: 6430: 6424: 6411: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6394: 6379: 6367: 6361: 6360: 6337: 6331: 6330: 6302: 6296: 6295: 6277: 6245: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6185: 6153: 6147: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6099: 6093: 6087: 6066: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6036: 6030: 6024: 6018: 6012: 5996: 5983: 5977: 5962:Pentium FDIV bug 5957: 5951: 5940: 5934: 5911: 5905: 5886: 5880: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5857: 5854: 5848: 5840: 5834: 5827: 5821: 5818: 5812: 5794: 5626:Standards groups 5623: 5617: 5580:Computer science 5576:Software-related 5546:Hardware-related 5543: 5537: 5512:machine learning 5430:Register machine 5426:(NUMA) computers 5419:Vector processor 5415:Scalar processor 5406:Quantum computer 5389:) very quickly. 5375:neural computers 5290:computer network 5124:ARM architecture 5040:machine language 5001: 4998: 4995: 4992: 4989: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4977: 4974: 4971: 4968: 4965: 4962: 4959: 4956: 4953: 4950: 4947: 4944: 4941: 4938: 4935: 4932: 4929: 4926: 4923: 4920: 4917: 4914: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4899: 4896: 4893: 4890: 4887: 4884: 4881: 4878: 4875: 4872: 4869: 4866: 4863: 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4848: 4845: 4842: 4839: 4757:Computer program 4561: 4555: 4471:Flight simulator 4463:Educational game 4445:Revision control 4379:Image processing 4367:Animation editor 3904:Operating system 3900: 3899: 3726:Hard disk drives 3702:Hard disk drives 3661:operating system 3648:read-only memory 3623:two's complement 3314:Computer monitor 3279:Overlay keyboard 3053: 3052: 3020:Optical computer 2995:IBM Q System One 2990:Quantum computer 2960:Desktop computer 2771:Desktop Computer 2701:Third generation 2667:Ferranti Mercury 2663:Ferranti Pegasus 2545:First generation 2542: 2541: 2514: 2461:System on module 2251:Desktop computer 2212:Rackmount server 2148:Digital computer 2118:System on a Chip 2087:mobile computers 2081:Mobile computers 2055:System on a Chip 2015:photograph of a 1829:high scalability 1730:William Shockley 1716:was proposed by 1493:Modern computers 1182:) and aircraft ( 1113:Analog computers 1088: 1086: 1085: 1080: 1078: 1077: 1056: 1055: 915: 898: 849:torque amplifier 760:William Oughtred 721: 718: 651: 648: 611:analog computing 569: 568: 553:is one example. 547:Fertile Crescent 510:Pre-20th century 473: 231:computer cluster 227:computer network 215:operating system 134:Desktop computer 96: 87: 76: 67: 56: 47: 21: 18:Digital computer 12882: 12881: 12877: 12876: 12875: 12873: 12872: 12871: 12847: 12846: 12845: 12840: 12773:Small appliance 12768:Major appliance 12748:Home automation 12738:Embedded system 12693:Audio equipment 12681: 12677:Washing machine 12602:Home theater PC 12558:Central heating 12553:Air conditioner 12545: 12539: 12510:Nanoelectronics 12462: 12456: 12427:Optoelectronics 12417:Instrumentation 12390: 12385: 12355: 12350: 12300: 12279: 12267: 12248: 12224: 12199: 12176: 12167: 12166: 12161: 12138: 12090: 12087: 12045: 12040:Harvard Mark IV 12028:Harvard Mark II 12008: 11943: 11920: 11775: 11759: 11750: 11733: 11721: 11704: 11692: 11669: 11634: 11611: 11594: 11577: 11572: 11542: 11537: 11516: 11449: 11384:Place and route 11379:Logic synthesis 11365: 11361:Gate equivalent 11324:Logic synthesis 11319:Boolean algebra 11302: 11244:Macrocell array 11204:Boolean circuit 11130: 11125: 11095: 11090: 11060: 11008: 10958: 10836: 10830:USB flash drive 10779: 10772: 10711: 10644: 10598:Game controller 10593:Graphics tablet 10570: 10561: 10505: 10500: 10494: 10372: 10370: 10366: 10359: 10333: 10331: 10267: 10248: 10229: 10194: 10192: 10190: 10169: 10106: 10104: 10100: 10089: 10061: 10059: 10052: 10031: 9985: 9979: 9968: 9937: 9932: 9922: 9920: 9918: 9902: 9898: 9888: 9886: 9877: 9876: 9872: 9855: 9851: 9841: 9833:. p. 161. 9823: 9819: 9809: 9807: 9790: 9786: 9776: 9774: 9761: 9760: 9756: 9746: 9744: 9742: 9726: 9722: 9712: 9710: 9708: 9692: 9688: 9678: 9676: 9674: 9658: 9654: 9644: 9642: 9640: 9624: 9620: 9610: 9608: 9606: 9590: 9586: 9576: 9574: 9572: 9556: 9552: 9539: 9537: 9530: 9514: 9510: 9500: 9498: 9491: 9475: 9471: 9463: 9459: 9452: 9438: 9434: 9427: 9407: 9403: 9396: 9376: 9372: 9361: 9357: 9349: 9345: 9338: 9324: 9320: 9313: 9299: 9295: 9282: 9281: 9277: 9264: 9263: 9259: 9246: 9245: 9241: 9228: 9227: 9223: 9208: 9204: 9194: 9192: 9177: 9173: 9163: 9161: 9152: 9151: 9144: 9137:, Winter 2009, 9127:Federico Faggin 9125: 9121: 9114: 9100:Morgan Kaufmann 9090: 9086: 9076: 9074: 9065: 9064: 9060: 9050: 9048: 9046: 9026: 9022: 9012: 9010: 8995: 8994: 8987: 8977: 8975: 8960: 8959: 8955: 8945: 8943: 8928: 8927: 8923: 8913: 8911: 8896: 8895: 8888: 8878: 8876: 8872: 8831: 8825: 8818: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8784: 8780: 8770: 8768: 8766: 8750: 8746: 8739: 8713: 8709: 8699: 8697: 8682: 8681: 8677: 8669: 8659: 8654: 8650: 8640: 8638: 8623: 8622: 8615: 8605: 8603: 8601: 8593:. p. 140. 8581: 8577: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8547: 8543: 8538: 8534: 8528:Wayback Machine 8517: 8513: 8503: 8501: 8497: 8490: 8488:"Nobel lecture" 8481: 8477: 8467:Wayback Machine 8458: 8454: 8444: 8442: 8427: 8426: 8422: 8412: 8410: 8401: 8400: 8396: 8386: 8384: 8369: 8368: 8364: 8354: 8352: 8335: 8331: 8321: 8319: 8317: 8309:. p. vii. 8294: 8290: 8277: 8275: 8273: 8265:. p. 389. 8253: 8249: 8202: 8195: 8185: 8183: 8166: 8162: 8152: 8150: 8133: 8129: 8090: 8086: 8076: 8074: 8057: 8056: 8052: 8041: 8037: 8031: 8024: 8022: 7987: 7980: 7972: 7968: 7958: 7956: 7954: 7934: 7927: 7917: 7915: 7913: 7893: 7889: 7879: 7877: 7873: 7867: 7852: 7844: 7840: 7830: 7828: 7813: 7809: 7799: 7797: 7784: 7783: 7779: 7769: 7767: 7756: 7752: 7742: 7740: 7731: 7730: 7726: 7716: 7714: 7689: 7688: 7684: 7674: 7672: 7649: 7645: 7635:Stanley Frankel 7619: 7615: 7584: 7580: 7570: 7568: 7559: 7558: 7554: 7546: 7542: 7534: 7530: 7518: 7514: 7504: 7502: 7487: 7483: 7473: 7471: 7464:The Independent 7453: 7449: 7439: 7437: 7424: 7423: 7419: 7409: 7407: 7394: 7393: 7389: 7379: 7377: 7362: 7358: 7348: 7346: 7331: 7327: 7320: 7302: 7291: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7261: 7257: 7247: 7246: 7242: 7235: 7221: 7214: 7204: 7202: 7198: 7187: 7181: 7177: 7143: 7139: 7129: 7127: 7118: 7117: 7113: 7106: 7089: 7085: 7075: 7073: 7056: 7052: 7045: 7024: 7020: 7007: 7006: 7002: 6989: 6987: 6972: 6968: 6958: 6956: 6941: 6937: 6927: 6925: 6914: 6913: 6902: 6893: 6889: 6870: 6866: 6858: 6854: 6845: 6841: 6833: 6829: 6810: 6806: 6797: 6793: 6784: 6780: 6770: 6768: 6753: 6749: 6739: 6737: 6724: 6723: 6719: 6709: 6707: 6706:on 16 June 2006 6688: 6684: 6677: 6659: 6655: 6636: 6632: 6579: 6575: 6524: 6520: 6509: 6505: 6493: 6484: 6480: 6476:, May/June 2003 6470:Wayback Machine 6460: 6453: 6443: 6441: 6432: 6431: 6427: 6412: 6408: 6398: 6396: 6392: 6377: 6368: 6364: 6338: 6334: 6319:10.2307/1006002 6303: 6299: 6275:10.1038/444551a 6246: 6242: 6236: 6232: 6219: 6215: 6183:10.1038/444534a 6154: 6150: 6144:Wayback Machine 6133: 6129: 6114: 6100: 6096: 6084: 6070:Robson, Eleanor 6067: 6063: 6053: 6051: 6040:"computer (n.)" 6038: 6037: 6033: 6025: 6021: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6000: 5999: 5984: 5980: 5958: 5954: 5941: 5937: 5912: 5908: 5887: 5883: 5873: 5869: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5841: 5837: 5831:instruction set 5828: 5824: 5819: 5815: 5806: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5711: 5570:Nanoengineering 5533: 5503: 5395: 5363: 5331: 5325: 5319: 5272:on the Internet 5262: 5254:Main articles: 5252: 5244:Harvard Mark II 5208:Harvard Mark II 5200: 5194: 5180: 5154: 5148: 5112: 5106: 5078: 5072: 5012: 5003: 5002: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4990: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4975: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4963: 4960: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4948: 4945: 4942: 4939: 4936: 4933: 4930: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4915: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4882: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4870: 4867: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4837: 4819:flow of control 4771:Manchester Baby 4769:Replica of the 4763: 4755:Main articles: 4753: 4733:word processors 4709: 4551: 4529:Malware scanner 4403:Audio synthesis 4308:Internet Access 4282:Word processing 3880:system software 3852: 3846: 3791: 3789:Multiprocessing 3785: 3783:Multiprocessing 3764: 3758: 3695: 3689: 3591:computer memory 3576: 3570:Computer memory 3568:Main articles: 3566: 3530:and processing 3479: 3473: 3451: 3443:Main articles: 3441: 3431:, which runs a 3380:program counter 3357: 3349:Main articles: 3347: 3307: 3284:Real-time clock 3254:Graphics tablet 3236: 3126:hard disk drive 3090:graphics tablet 3051: 3031:-based computer 2872:WDC 65816/65802 2783: 2702: 2651:Manchester Baby 2611: 2588:Harvard Mark II 2546: 2540: 2534: 2505: 2503: 2487:Main articles: 2485: 2477:Microcontroller 2410:Pocket computer 2390:Ultra-mobile PC 2380:Tablet computer 2375:Mobile computer 2323:Laptop computer 2296:Home theater PC 2274:Gaming computer 2186: 2180: 2152:Hybrid computer 2144:Analog computer 2140: 2138:By architecture 2132: 2126: 2099:Compaq Portable 2083: 2037:Masatoshi Shima 2003:Federico Faggin 1885: 1875: 1867:Main articles: 1865: 1760:mass-production 1726:Walter Brattain 1699: 1689: 1681:Main articles: 1679: 1643:Ferranti Mark 1 1599:Manchester Baby 1566:instruction set 1554:Manchester Baby 1546: 1540: 1538:Stored programs 1528:Turing-complete 1500: 1495: 1434:boolean logical 1415:Lorenz SZ 40/42 1337: 1314:Turing complete 1305:Charles Babbage 1289:clock frequency 1207:. This was the 1197: 1192: 1184:control systems 1121: 1119:Analog computer 1115: 1073: 1069: 1051: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1018: 993:Turing-complete 979:in the form of 930:Charles Babbage 927: 926: 925: 924: 923: 916: 907: 906: 905: 899: 886:Charles Babbage 880: 864:analog machines 719: 649: 625:, according to 623:analog computer 526:dating back to 512: 507: 500: 492:Main articles: 490: 471: 403: 367:computer memory 254:remote controls 250:microwave ovens 246:control systems 207:computer system 167: 166: 165: 164: 163: 138:ThinkCentre S50 99: 98: 97: 89: 88: 79: 78: 77: 69: 68: 59: 58: 57: 49: 48: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12880: 12870: 12869: 12864: 12859: 12842: 12841: 12839: 12838: 12837:Communications 12828: 12823: 12818: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12788: 12782: 12777: 12776: 12775: 12770: 12765: 12758:Home appliance 12755: 12750: 12745: 12743:Home appliance 12740: 12735: 12730: 12725: 12720: 12715: 12710: 12708:Control system 12705: 12700: 12695: 12689: 12687: 12683: 12682: 12680: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12664: 12659: 12654: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12617:Microwave oven 12614: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12594: 12589: 12584: 12579: 12574: 12565: 12560: 12555: 12549: 12547: 12541: 12540: 12538: 12537: 12532: 12527: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12487: 12482: 12480:Bioelectronics 12477: 12472: 12466: 12464: 12458: 12457: 12455: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12424: 12419: 12414: 12409: 12404: 12398: 12396: 12392: 12391: 12384: 12383: 12376: 12369: 12361: 12352: 12351: 12349: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12333: 12332: 12331: 12321: 12320: 12319: 12308: 12306: 12302: 12301: 12299: 12298: 12291: 12289: 12288:United Kingdom 12285: 12284: 12281: 12280: 12275: 12273: 12269: 12268: 12266: 12265: 12258: 12256: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12246: 12240: 12234: 12232: 12226: 12225: 12223: 12222: 12216: 12209: 12207: 12201: 12200: 12198: 12197: 12190: 12188: 12182: 12181: 12178: 12177: 12174:IBM mainframes 12172: 12169: 12168: 12163: 12162: 12160: 12159: 12154: 12148: 12146: 12140: 12139: 12137: 12136: 12131: 12126: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12101: 12095: 12092: 12091: 12086: 12085: 12078: 12071: 12063: 12057: 12051: 12047: 12046: 12044: 12043: 12037: 12031: 12025: 12022:Harvard Mark I 12018: 12016: 12010: 12009: 12007: 12006: 12003:Trusted ILLIAC 12000: 11994: 11988: 11982: 11976: 11970: 11964: 11957: 11955: 11949: 11948: 11945: 11944: 11942: 11941: 11935: 11928: 11926: 11922: 11921: 11919: 11918: 11912: 11906: 11900: 11894: 11888: 11882: 11876: 11870: 11864: 11858: 11852: 11846: 11840: 11834: 11828: 11822: 11816: 11810: 11803: 11801: 11794: 11785: 11781: 11780: 11777: 11776: 11774: 11773: 11767: 11765: 11761: 11760: 11758: 11757: 11745: 11740: 11728: 11716: 11711: 11699: 11687: 11681: 11675: 11671: 11670: 11668: 11667: 11661: 11655: 11649: 11642: 11640: 11636: 11635: 11633: 11632: 11626: 11619: 11617: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11609: 11602: 11600: 11596: 11595: 11593: 11592: 11585: 11583: 11579: 11578: 11571: 11570: 11563: 11556: 11548: 11539: 11538: 11536: 11535: 11530: 11524: 11522: 11518: 11517: 11515: 11514: 11509: 11508: 11507: 11502: 11500:cinematography 11492: 11487: 11482: 11481: 11480: 11470: 11469: 11468: 11457: 11455: 11451: 11450: 11448: 11447: 11446: 11445: 11435: 11430: 11425: 11420: 11419: 11418: 11413: 11403: 11398: 11397: 11396: 11391: 11381: 11375: 11373: 11367: 11366: 11364: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11347: 11346: 11339:Digital signal 11336: 11331: 11326: 11321: 11316: 11314:Digital signal 11310: 11308: 11304: 11303: 11301: 11300: 11294: 11288: 11282: 11276: 11270: 11264: 11258: 11252: 11246: 11241: 11235: 11229: 11223: 11218: 11212: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11140: 11138: 11132: 11131: 11124: 11123: 11116: 11109: 11101: 11092: 11091: 11089: 11088: 11083: 11078: 11072: 11070: 11066: 11065: 11062: 11061: 11059: 11058: 11053: 11048: 11043: 11038: 11033: 11028: 11023: 11016: 11014: 11010: 11009: 11007: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10991: 10986: 10981: 10975: 10973: 10966: 10960: 10959: 10957: 10956: 10954:Expansion card 10951: 10946: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10934: 10924: 10923: 10922: 10912: 10911: 10910: 10905: 10891: 10881: 10880: 10879: 10874: 10864: 10859: 10858: 10857: 10855:Microprocessor 10846: 10844: 10838: 10837: 10835: 10834: 10833: 10832: 10827: 10817: 10816: 10815: 10810: 10805: 10795: 10790: 10784: 10782: 10774: 10773: 10771: 10770: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10754: 10753: 10743: 10738: 10737: 10736: 10725: 10723: 10721:Output devices 10717: 10716: 10713: 10712: 10710: 10709: 10708: 10707: 10697: 10696: 10695: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10674: 10673: 10663: 10658: 10652: 10650: 10646: 10645: 10643: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10625:Pointing stick 10622: 10617: 10616: 10615: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10589: 10587: 10578: 10572: 10571: 10560: 10559: 10552: 10545: 10537: 10529: 10528: 10518: 10504: 10503:External links 10501: 10499: 10498: 10492: 10479: 10470: 10443: 10403: 10379: 10353:Randell, Brian 10349: 10340: 10316:Dongarra, Jack 10308: 10282:(3): 455–483. 10271: 10265: 10252: 10246: 10233: 10227: 10212: 10201: 10188: 10173: 10167: 10150: 10113: 10077: 10068: 10050: 10035: 10029: 9990: 9977: 9959: 9948: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9930: 9916: 9896: 9870: 9849: 9839: 9817: 9784: 9754: 9740: 9720: 9706: 9686: 9672: 9652: 9638: 9618: 9604: 9584: 9570: 9550: 9528: 9508: 9489: 9469: 9457: 9450: 9432: 9425: 9401: 9394: 9370: 9355: 9343: 9336: 9318: 9311: 9293: 9275: 9257: 9239: 9221: 9202: 9171: 9142: 9119: 9112: 9084: 9073:on 13 May 2008 9058: 9044: 9020: 8985: 8953: 8921: 8886: 8816: 8802: 8778: 8764: 8744: 8737: 8707: 8675: 8648: 8613: 8599: 8575: 8561: 8541: 8532: 8511: 8475: 8452: 8420: 8394: 8362: 8329: 8315: 8288: 8271: 8247: 8193: 8160: 8127: 8084: 8050: 8035: 8001:(3): 100–106. 7978: 7974:Lavington 1998 7966: 7952: 7925: 7911: 7905:. p. 14. 7887: 7865: 7838: 7827:on 5 July 2010 7807: 7777: 7750: 7724: 7682: 7643: 7628:. p. 22: 7622:Copeland, Jack 7613: 7594:(1): 230–265. 7578: 7567:on 2 July 2015 7552: 7550:, p. 459. 7540: 7528: 7512: 7481: 7456:Randell, Brian 7447: 7417: 7387: 7356: 7325: 7318: 7289: 7275: 7255: 7240: 7233: 7212: 7175: 7137: 7111: 7104: 7083: 7050: 7043: 7018: 7000: 6966: 6955:on 1 June 2008 6935: 6900: 6887: 6864: 6852: 6839: 6827: 6804: 6791: 6778: 6747: 6717: 6682: 6675: 6653: 6630: 6573: 6518: 6503: 6478: 6451: 6425: 6406: 6362: 6332: 6297: 6240: 6230: 6213: 6148: 6127: 6112: 6094: 6082: 6061: 6031: 6019: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5978: 5974:microprocessor 5970:floating point 5952: 5935: 5906: 5881: 5867: 5858: 5849: 5835: 5822: 5813: 5802:bill of lading 5788: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5690: 5679: 5678: 5657: 5653: 5652: 5627: 5611: 5610: 5577: 5573: 5572: 5547: 5532: 5529: 5502: 5499: 5451: 5450: 5445: 5436: 5427: 5421: 5412: 5394: 5391: 5362: 5359: 5323:Human computer 5321:Main article: 5318: 5315: 5302:World Wide Web 5251: 5248: 5196:Main article: 5193: 5190: 5179: 5178:Program design 5176: 5150:Main article: 5147: 5144: 5108:Main article: 5105: 5102: 5074:Main article: 5071: 5068: 5029:Harvard Mark I 5011: 5008: 4836: 4752: 4749: 4708: 4705: 4702: 4701: 4676: 4672:Commonly used 4669: 4668: 4615: 4611:Commonly used 4608: 4607: 4594: 4590:Commonly used 4587: 4586: 4565: 4550: 4547: 4544: 4543: 4518: 4514: 4513: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4414: 4410: 4409: 4407:Computer music 4395:Audio playback 4388: 4382: 4381: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4335: 4331: 4330: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4279: 4274: 4267: 4266: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4221: 4211: 4209:User interface 4205: 4204: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4155: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4112: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4083: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4063: 4062: 4055:Classic Mac OS 4052: 4046: 4045: 4024: 4018: 4017: 3968: 3962: 3961: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3916: 3907: 3848:Main article: 3845: 3842: 3806:supercomputers 3787:Main article: 3784: 3781: 3760:Main article: 3757: 3754: 3691:Main article: 3688: 3685: 3681:cache memories 3652: 3651: 3645: 3615:binary numbers 3601:memory cells). 3587:magnetic cores 3565: 3562: 3496:floating point 3475:Main article: 3472: 3469: 3464:microprocessor 3461:chip called a 3449:Microprocessor 3440: 3437: 3429:microsequencer 3416: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3306: 3305:Output devices 3303: 3302: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3249:Digital camera 3246: 3235: 3232: 3186: 3185: 3172: 3164: 3163: 3146: 3143: 3141:Computer buses 3137: 3136: 3119: 3115: 3114: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3067: 3064: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3007: 3006: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2982: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2907: 2900: 2899: 2893:Motorola 68000 2882: 2875: 2874: 2861: 2852: 2851: 2826: 2819: 2818: 2809: 2802: 2801: 2792: 2789: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2728:IBM System/360 2717: 2712: 2698: 2697: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2616: 2613: 2612:(vacuum tubes) 2607: 2606: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2551: 2548: 2536:Main article: 2533: 2530: 2501:Microprocessor 2484: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2474: 2471:System-on-chip 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2432: 2431: 2430: 2429: 2424: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2320: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2283: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2258: 2248: 2247: 2246: 2234: 2226: 2225: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2206: 2197: 2192: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2146: 2139: 2136: 2125: 2122: 2082: 2079: 2025:microprocessor 1960:planar process 1883:Microprocessor 1879:Planar process 1864: 1861: 1678: 1675: 1609:in England by 1542:Main article: 1539: 1536: 1516:stored program 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1473:stored program 1447:was the first 1403:Bletchley Park 1395:Bletchley Park 1336: 1333: 1291:of about 5–10 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1146:, invented by 1117:Main article: 1114: 1111: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1054: 1050: 1017: 1014: 917: 910: 909: 908: 900: 893: 892: 891: 890: 889: 879: 878:First computer 876: 810:Giovanni Plana 785:In the 1770s, 720: 1000 AD 650: 100 BCE 607:ancient Greece 592:counting house 511: 508: 489: 486: 481:Turing machine 447:human computer 411:human computer 402: 399: 363:microprocessor 357:, typically a 332:microprocessor 266:mobile devices 162: 161: 151: 141: 131: 121: 118:IBM System 360 111: 103: 101: 100: 91: 90: 82: 81: 80: 71: 70: 62: 61: 60: 51: 50: 42: 41: 40: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12879: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12854: 12852: 12836: 12832: 12829: 12827: 12824: 12822: 12819: 12817: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12792: 12789: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12774: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12764: 12761: 12760: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12746: 12744: 12741: 12739: 12736: 12734: 12731: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12719: 12716: 12714: 12711: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12690: 12688: 12684: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12653: 12650: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12598: 12595: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12563:Clothes dryer 12561: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12550: 12548: 12542: 12536: 12533: 12531: 12528: 12526: 12523: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12486: 12483: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12467: 12465: 12459: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12442:Semiconductor 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12403: 12400: 12399: 12397: 12393: 12389: 12382: 12377: 12375: 12370: 12368: 12363: 12362: 12359: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12325: 12322: 12318: 12315: 12314: 12313: 12310: 12309: 12307: 12303: 12296: 12293: 12292: 12290: 12286: 12278: 12274: 12270: 12263: 12260: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12251: 12245: 12241: 12239: 12236: 12235: 12233: 12231: 12227: 12220: 12217: 12214: 12211: 12210: 12208: 12206: 12202: 12195: 12192: 12191: 12189: 12187: 12183: 12175: 12170: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12147: 12145: 12141: 12135: 12132: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12096: 12093: 12084: 12079: 12077: 12072: 12070: 12065: 12064: 12061: 12055: 12052: 12048: 12041: 12038: 12035: 12032: 12029: 12026: 12023: 12020: 12019: 12017: 12015: 12011: 12004: 12001: 11998: 11995: 11992: 11989: 11986: 11983: 11980: 11977: 11974: 11971: 11968: 11965: 11962: 11959: 11958: 11956: 11954: 11950: 11939: 11936: 11933: 11930: 11929: 11927: 11923: 11916: 11913: 11910: 11907: 11904: 11901: 11898: 11895: 11892: 11889: 11886: 11883: 11880: 11877: 11874: 11871: 11868: 11865: 11862: 11859: 11856: 11853: 11850: 11847: 11844: 11841: 11838: 11835: 11832: 11829: 11826: 11823: 11820: 11817: 11814: 11811: 11808: 11805: 11804: 11802: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11789: 11786: 11784:United States 11782: 11772: 11769: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11754: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11737: 11732: 11729: 11725: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11708: 11703: 11700: 11696: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11682: 11679: 11676: 11672: 11665: 11662: 11659: 11656: 11653: 11650: 11647: 11644: 11643: 11641: 11637: 11630: 11627: 11624: 11621: 11620: 11618: 11614: 11607: 11604: 11603: 11601: 11597: 11590: 11587: 11586: 11584: 11580: 11576: 11569: 11564: 11562: 11557: 11555: 11550: 11549: 11546: 11534: 11531: 11529: 11528:Metastability 11526: 11525: 11523: 11521:Design issues 11519: 11513: 11510: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11495:Digital video 11493: 11491: 11488: 11486: 11483: 11479: 11476: 11475: 11474: 11473:Digital audio 11471: 11467: 11464: 11463: 11462: 11459: 11458: 11456: 11452: 11444: 11441: 11440: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11408: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11386: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11372: 11368: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11345: 11342: 11341: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11322: 11320: 11317: 11315: 11312: 11311: 11309: 11305: 11298: 11295: 11292: 11289: 11286: 11283: 11280: 11277: 11274: 11271: 11268: 11265: 11262: 11259: 11256: 11253: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11239: 11236: 11233: 11230: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11216: 11213: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11141: 11139: 11137: 11133: 11129: 11122: 11117: 11115: 11110: 11108: 11103: 11102: 11099: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11077: 11074: 11073: 11071: 11067: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11026:Parallel port 11024: 11021: 11018: 11017: 11015: 11011: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10976: 10974: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10961: 10955: 10952: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10929: 10928: 10925: 10921: 10918: 10917: 10916: 10913: 10909: 10906: 10903: 10899: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10886: 10885: 10882: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10869: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10856: 10853: 10852: 10851: 10848: 10847: 10845: 10843: 10842:Computer case 10839: 10831: 10828: 10826: 10823: 10822: 10821: 10818: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10804: 10801: 10800: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10789: 10786: 10785: 10783: 10781: 10775: 10769: 10768:Graphics card 10766: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10752: 10749: 10748: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10735: 10732: 10731: 10730: 10727: 10726: 10724: 10722: 10718: 10706: 10703: 10702: 10701: 10698: 10694: 10691: 10690: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10672: 10669: 10668: 10667: 10666:Graphics card 10664: 10662: 10661:Image scanner 10659: 10657: 10654: 10653: 10651: 10647: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10614: 10611: 10610: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10590: 10588: 10586: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10576:Input devices 10573: 10569: 10566: 10558: 10553: 10551: 10546: 10544: 10539: 10538: 10535: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10516: 10511: 10507: 10506: 10495: 10489: 10485: 10480: 10476: 10471: 10466: 10461: 10457: 10453: 10449: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10428: 10424: 10420: 10416: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10392: 10388: 10384: 10380: 10365: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10341: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10289: 10285: 10281: 10277: 10272: 10268: 10262: 10258: 10253: 10249: 10243: 10239: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10220: 10219: 10213: 10209: 10208: 10202: 10191: 10185: 10181: 10180: 10174: 10170: 10164: 10159: 10158: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10135: 10131: 10127: 10123: 10119: 10114: 10099: 10095: 10088: 10087: 10082: 10078: 10074: 10069: 10057: 10053: 10047: 10043: 10042: 10036: 10032: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10004: 10000: 9999:Physics Today 9996: 9991: 9984: 9980: 9974: 9967: 9966: 9960: 9956: 9955: 9949: 9945: 9940: 9939: 9919: 9913: 9909: 9908: 9900: 9884: 9880: 9874: 9865: 9860: 9853: 9846: 9842: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9821: 9805: 9801: 9800: 9795: 9788: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9758: 9743: 9737: 9733: 9732: 9724: 9709: 9703: 9699: 9698: 9690: 9675: 9669: 9665: 9664: 9656: 9641: 9635: 9631: 9630: 9622: 9607: 9601: 9597: 9596: 9588: 9573: 9567: 9563: 9562: 9554: 9547: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9521: 9520: 9512: 9496: 9492: 9486: 9482: 9481: 9473: 9466: 9461: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9436: 9428: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9413: 9405: 9397: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9382: 9374: 9366: 9359: 9352: 9347: 9339: 9333: 9329: 9322: 9314: 9308: 9304: 9297: 9289: 9285: 9279: 9271: 9267: 9261: 9253: 9249: 9243: 9235: 9231: 9225: 9217: 9213: 9206: 9190: 9186: 9182: 9175: 9159: 9155: 9149: 9147: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9123: 9115: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9096: 9088: 9072: 9068: 9062: 9047: 9041: 9038:. p. 2. 9037: 9033: 9032: 9024: 9008: 9004: 9003: 8998: 8992: 8990: 8973: 8969: 8968: 8963: 8957: 8941: 8937: 8936: 8931: 8925: 8909: 8905: 8904: 8899: 8893: 8891: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8830: 8823: 8821: 8805: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8782: 8767: 8761: 8757: 8756: 8748: 8740: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8721: 8720: 8711: 8695: 8691: 8690: 8685: 8679: 8666: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8636: 8632: 8631: 8626: 8620: 8618: 8602: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8587: 8579: 8564: 8558: 8554: 8553: 8545: 8536: 8529: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8515: 8496: 8489: 8485: 8479: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8461: 8456: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8431: 8424: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8382: 8378: 8377: 8372: 8371:"Dawon Kahng" 8366: 8350: 8346: 8345: 8340: 8333: 8318: 8312: 8308: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8292: 8285: 8274: 8268: 8264: 8260: 8259: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8200: 8198: 8181: 8177: 8176: 8171: 8164: 8148: 8144: 8143: 8138: 8131: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8088: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8054: 8046: 8039: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7992: 7985: 7983: 7975: 7970: 7955: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7940: 7932: 7930: 7914: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7899: 7891: 7872: 7868: 7862: 7858: 7851: 7850: 7842: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7811: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7781: 7765: 7761: 7754: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7686: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7654: 7647: 7640: 7639:Brian Randell 7636: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7582: 7566: 7562: 7556: 7549: 7544: 7538:, p. 39. 7537: 7532: 7525: 7524: 7516: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7485: 7469: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7451: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7421: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7391: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7360: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7329: 7321: 7315: 7311: 7307: 7300: 7298: 7296: 7294: 7278: 7276:0-472-08104-7 7272: 7268: 7267: 7259: 7251: 7244: 7236: 7230: 7226: 7219: 7217: 7197: 7193: 7186: 7183:Rojas, Raúl. 7179: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7141: 7125: 7121: 7115: 7107: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7087: 7071: 7067: 7066: 7061: 7054: 7046: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7022: 7014: 7010: 7004: 6997: 6985: 6981: 6980:thoughtco.com 6977: 6970: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6943:Zuse, Horst. 6939: 6923: 6919: 6918: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6897: 6891: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6875: 6868: 6861: 6856: 6849: 6843: 6836: 6831: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6815: 6808: 6801: 6795: 6788: 6782: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6751: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6721: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6686: 6678: 6672: 6667: 6666: 6657: 6649: 6646:(in French). 6645: 6641: 6634: 6626: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6577: 6569: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6544:: 1055–1063. 6543: 6539: 6535: 6534: 6529: 6522: 6515: 6514: 6507: 6499: 6492: 6488: 6482: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6458: 6456: 6439: 6435: 6429: 6422: 6419: 6415: 6410: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6336: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6301: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6244: 6234: 6227: 6223: 6217: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6152: 6145: 6141: 6138: 6137: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6113:0-333-49130-0 6109: 6105: 6098: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6065: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6035: 6028: 6023: 6017:, p. 23. 6016: 6011: 6007: 5994: 5990: 5989: 5982: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5910: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5892:like the DEC 5891: 5890:minicomputers 5885: 5877: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5846: 5839: 5832: 5826: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5799: 5796:According to 5793: 5789: 5778: 5775: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620:Organizations 5616: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5541: 5536: 5528: 5526: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5498: 5496: 5492: 5491:supercomputer 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5453:Of all these 5449: 5446: 5444: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5434:Stack machine 5431: 5428: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5371:DNA computers 5368: 5358: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5345:, nor even a 5344: 5340: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5257: 5247: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5189: 5186: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5153: 5143: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5111: 5101: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5077: 5064: 5060: 5055: 5051: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5036: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5007: 4834: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4820: 4814: 4812: 4808: 4807:conditionally 4804: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4748: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4679:Bourne script 4677: 4675: 4671: 4670: 4667: 4666:Object Pascal 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4559: 4554: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4453: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4412: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4380: 4376: 4375:Video editing 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4265: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4222: 4219: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4142: 4138: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4080: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4019: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3995:Windows Vista 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3960: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3919:UNIX System V 3917: 3915: 3911: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3876:digital media 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3780: 3778: 3772: 3770: 3763: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3684: 3682: 3677: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3533: 3532:Boolean logic 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508:Boolean logic 3505: 3501: 3498:to represent 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3468: 3466: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3446: 3436: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3422: 3413: 3410: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3374: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3310: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3259:Image scanner 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3241: 3240: 3234:Input devices 3231: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3116: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3098: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3082:image scanner 3079: 3075: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3036: 3033: 3030: 3027: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3011:DNA computing 3009: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2964:Home computer 2961: 2958: 2955: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2908: 2906:microcomputer 2905: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2881:microcomputer 2880: 2877: 2876: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2859:microcomputer 2857: 2854: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2841:Motorola 6809 2838: 2837:Motorola 6800 2834: 2830: 2827: 2825:microcomputer 2824: 2821: 2820: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2808:microcomputer 2807: 2804: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2752:IBM System/36 2749: 2748:IBM System/32 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2576:Jacquard loom 2574: 2571: 2570: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2441:Plug computer 2439: 2437: 2434: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2338:Rugged laptop 2336: 2334: 2333:Gaming laptop 2331: 2329: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2321: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2281:All-in-one PC 2279: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2256:Tower desktop 2254: 2253: 2252: 2249: 2244: 2243:Home computer 2241: 2240: 2238: 2237:Microcomputer 2235: 2233: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2190:Supercomputer 2188: 2187: 2185: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2135: 2131: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2078: 2076: 2075:circuit board 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2041:Stanley Mazor 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1870: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1787:Harwell CADET 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1756: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1684: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1632: 1631:random-access 1628: 1627:Williams tube 1624: 1620: 1619:Geoff Tootill 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1477: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1363:. In the US, 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1345:Tommy Flowers 1342: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1199:By 1938, the 1187: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1175:James Thomson 1172: 1168: 1167:Vannevar Bush 1164: 1159: 1157: 1156:James Thomson 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1074: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1052: 1048: 1039: 1035: 1027: 1022: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1006:Henry Babbage 1002: 996: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 969:Jacquard loom 966: 962: 961:punched cards 958: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 921: 914: 904: 897: 884: 875: 873: 869: 865: 861: 856: 854: 853:Vannevar Bush 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 750: 745: 741: 739: 734: 732: 728: 723: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 691:computer and 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 653: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 612: 608: 604: 599: 595: 593: 589: 585: 581: 573: 563: 558: 554: 552: 551:counting rods 548: 544: 540: 536: 529: 525: 521: 516: 505: 499: 495: 485: 483: 482: 477: 469: 465: 461: 460: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 439: 434: 430: 426: 422: 421: 412: 407: 398: 396: 392: 389:, etc.), and 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 351: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 314: 313:semiconductor 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 277: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 234: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 185:sequences of 184: 180: 176: 172: 159: 155: 154:Supercomputer 152: 149: 145: 142: 140:with monitor) 139: 135: 132: 129: 125: 122: 119: 115: 112: 109: 105: 104: 95: 86: 75: 66: 55: 46: 37: 33: 19: 12686:Applications 12667:Water heater 12642:Refrigerator 12622:Mobile phone 12567: 12525:Piezotronics 11674:Soviet Union 11454:Applications 10932:Power MOSFET 10915:Power supply 10884:Data storage 10820:Flash memory 10798:Optical disc 10780:data storage 10564: 10530: 10483: 10474: 10455: 10451: 10414: 10410: 10399:the original 10394: 10390: 10371:. Retrieved 10364:the original 10344: 10332:. Retrieved 10328:the original 10279: 10275: 10256: 10237: 10217: 10206: 10193:. Retrieved 10178: 10156: 10124:(2): 86–91. 10121: 10117: 10105:. Retrieved 10085: 10072: 10060:. Retrieved 10040: 10002: 9998: 9964: 9953: 9943: 9921:. Retrieved 9906: 9899: 9887:. Retrieved 9873: 9852: 9844: 9826: 9820: 9808:. Retrieved 9804:the original 9797: 9787: 9775:. Retrieved 9766: 9757: 9745:. Retrieved 9730: 9723: 9711:. Retrieved 9696: 9689: 9677:. Retrieved 9662: 9655: 9643:. Retrieved 9628: 9621: 9609:. Retrieved 9594: 9587: 9575:. Retrieved 9560: 9553: 9545: 9538:. Retrieved 9518: 9511: 9499:. Retrieved 9479: 9472: 9460: 9441: 9435: 9411: 9404: 9380: 9373: 9364: 9358: 9346: 9327: 9321: 9302: 9296: 9287: 9278: 9269: 9260: 9251: 9242: 9233: 9224: 9216:the original 9205: 9193:. Retrieved 9185:Ars Technica 9184: 9174: 9162:. Retrieved 9134: 9122: 9094: 9087: 9075:. Retrieved 9071:the original 9061: 9049:. Retrieved 9030: 9023: 9011:. Retrieved 9000: 8976:. Retrieved 8965: 8956: 8944:. Retrieved 8933: 8924: 8912:. Retrieved 8901: 8877:. Retrieved 8842:(1): 55–61. 8839: 8835: 8807:. Retrieved 8788: 8781: 8769:. Retrieved 8754: 8747: 8718: 8710: 8698:. Retrieved 8687: 8678: 8656:Robert Noyce 8651: 8639:. Retrieved 8628: 8604:. Retrieved 8585: 8578: 8566:. Retrieved 8551: 8544: 8535: 8519: 8514: 8502:. Retrieved 8478: 8470: 8455: 8443:. Retrieved 8439:the original 8429: 8423: 8411:. Retrieved 8397: 8385:. Retrieved 8374: 8365: 8353:. Retrieved 8349:the original 8342: 8332: 8320:. Retrieved 8301: 8291: 8283: 8276:. Retrieved 8257: 8250: 8212:(2): 48–59. 8209: 8205: 8184:. Retrieved 8173: 8163: 8151:. Retrieved 8140: 8130: 8100:(1): 43–48. 8097: 8093: 8087: 8075:. Retrieved 8062: 8053: 8044: 8038: 8023:. Retrieved 8019:the original 7998: 7994: 7969: 7957:. Retrieved 7938: 7916:. Retrieved 7897: 7890: 7878:. Retrieved 7871:the original 7848: 7841: 7829:. Retrieved 7825:the original 7810: 7798:. Retrieved 7794:the original 7780: 7768:. Retrieved 7764:the original 7753: 7741:. Retrieved 7737:the original 7727: 7715:. Retrieved 7711:the original 7698: 7695:Resurrection 7694: 7685: 7673:. Retrieved 7669:the original 7657:Resurrection 7656: 7646: 7629: 7625: 7616: 7591: 7587: 7581: 7569:. Retrieved 7565:the original 7555: 7543: 7531: 7521: 7515: 7503:. Retrieved 7495:The Guardian 7494: 7484: 7472:. Retrieved 7463: 7450: 7438:. Retrieved 7434:the original 7429: 7420: 7408:. Retrieved 7399: 7390: 7378:. Retrieved 7370:The Guardian 7369: 7359: 7347:. Retrieved 7338: 7328: 7305: 7280:. Retrieved 7265: 7258: 7249: 7243: 7224: 7205:28 September 7203:. Retrieved 7192:fu-berlin.de 7191: 7178: 7156:(3): 51–54. 7153: 7149: 7140: 7128:. Retrieved 7124:the original 7114: 7095: 7092:Zuse, Konrad 7086: 7074:. Retrieved 7070:the original 7063: 7053: 7034: 7030: 7027:Zuse, Konrad 7021: 7013:ComputerHope 7012: 7003: 6995: 6988:. Retrieved 6979: 6969: 6957:. Retrieved 6953:the original 6948: 6938: 6926:. Retrieved 6916: 6890: 6872: 6867: 6860:Bromley 1990 6855: 6847: 6846:B. Randell. 6842: 6835:Randell 1982 6830: 6812: 6807: 6794: 6786: 6781: 6769:. Retrieved 6760: 6750: 6738:. Retrieved 6734:the original 6730:Online stuff 6729: 6720: 6708:. Retrieved 6704:the original 6699: 6685: 6664: 6656: 6647: 6643: 6633: 6592: 6586: 6576: 6537: 6531: 6521: 6511: 6506: 6497: 6481: 6473: 6461:Ray Girvan, 6442:. Retrieved 6438:the original 6428: 6420: 6417: 6409: 6397:. Retrieved 6388:(1): 63–70. 6385: 6381: 6371:Őren, Tuncer 6365: 6351:(1): 22–52. 6348: 6344: 6335: 6310: 6306: 6300: 6257: 6253: 6243: 6233: 6221: 6216: 6165: 6161: 6151: 6135: 6130: 6103: 6097: 6073: 6064: 6052:. Retrieved 6043: 6034: 6029:, p. 6. 6022: 6010: 5992: 5986: 5981: 5964:caused some 5955: 5938: 5923:Intel Core 2 5909: 5884: 5870: 5861: 5852: 5838: 5825: 5816: 5792: 5614: 5534: 5504: 5452: 5396: 5364: 5354: 5350: 5332: 5298: 5275: 5236:Grace Hopper 5213: 5198:Software bug 5181: 5155: 5115: 5113: 5086:machine code 5079: 5059:punched card 5037: 5016:machine code 5013: 5010:Machine code 5004: 4946:# update sum 4823: 4815: 4791: 4784: 4737:web browsers 4717:instructions 4710: 4552: 4541:File manager 4467:Serious game 4316:Email client 4277:Office suite 4127:Vulkan (API) 4082:Experimental 3983:Windows 2000 3854: 3853: 3834:cryptography 3822: 3803: 3773: 3765: 3756:Multitasking 3707: 3693:Input/output 3678: 3673:Flash memory 3653: 3636: 3628: 3608: 3604: 3536: 3500:real numbers 3488:square roots 3484:trigonometry 3480: 3462: 3452: 3425: 3421:control flow 3417: 3388: 3377: 3373:control unit 3370: 3355:Control unit 3345:Control unit 3308: 3237: 3196:control unit 3189: 3167:Long range ( 3130:optical disc 3061:input/output 2791:Minicomputer 2739:Minicomputer 2558:Arithmometer 2521: 2519: 2427:Smartglasses 2222:Tower server 2217:Blade server 2200:Minicomputer 2133: 2107: 2103:Grid Compass 2084: 2067:flash memory 2053: 2022: 1997:MOS IC with 1995:silicon-gate 1991:Donald Klein 1968: 1944: 1928:Robert Noyce 1917: 1894: 1814: 1764: 1750:vacuum tubes 1722:John Bardeen 1711: 1640: 1629:, the first 1596: 1589: 1562: 1507: 1501: 1482:John Mauchly 1478: 1465:programmable 1458: 1427: 1400: 1389:, the first 1361:vacuum tubes 1338: 1318: 1274:programmable 1267: 1240:vacuum tubes 1233: 1213:World War II 1198: 1160: 1133: 1103:arithmometer 1033: 1032:In his work 1031: 1009: 997: 977:control flow 967:such as the 946: 928: 857: 830: 807: 784: 753: 735: 731:trigonometry 724: 663:invented by 654: 616: 584:Roman abacus 577: 560:The Chinese 532: 520:Ishango bone 479: 475: 467: 463: 457: 455: 451:computations 442: 436: 428: 424: 418: 416: 369:, typically 352: 311:. The first 301:World War II 278: 235: 206: 177:that can be 170: 168: 36: 12793:electronics 12597:Home cinema 12535:Spintronics 12475:Atomtronics 12388:Electronics 11751: [ 11734: [ 11722: [ 11705: [ 11693: [ 11184:Memory cell 11031:Serial port 11022:(IEEE 1394) 10999:DisplayPort 10989:Thunderbolt 10862:Motherboard 10825:Memory card 10793:Floppy disk 10635:Touchscreen 10334:27 November 10312:Meuer, Hans 10107:27 November 10094:Maynard, MA 9810:17 February 9747:26 November 9713:26 November 9679:26 November 9645:26 November 9611:26 November 9577:26 November 9467:, p. . 9465:TOP500 2006 9139:IEEE Xplore 9102:. pp. 8484:Kilby, Jack 7743:16 November 7410:24 November 7076:15 February 6616:10902/24391 6559:10261/30460 6313:(5): 1–69. 5948:interpreter 5944:interpreted 5931:Intel 80486 5475:calculators 5459:Logic gates 5288:), and the 5098:interpreter 4811:subroutines 4787:RAM machine 4745:programmers 4459:Edutainment 4455:Educational 4433:Text editor 4425:Interpreter 4298:Spreadsheet 4271:Application 4181:File format 4007:Windows 8.1 3746:3D graphics 3732:drives and 3730:floppy disk 3710:peripherals 3611:memory cell 3538:Superscalar 3294:Touchscreen 3228:logic gates 3194:(ALU), the 3145:Short range 3134:teleprinter 3122:Floppy disk 3112:loudspeaker 3029:Spintronics 2885:Intel 80386 2868:Zilog Z8000 2705:transistors 2615:Calculators 2550:Calculators 2405:Handheld PC 2358:Subnotebook 2311:Thin client 2292:, Mini PCs) 2232:Workstation 2110:smartphones 2049:integration 1964:Jean Hoerni 1837:memory cell 1825:Dawon Kahng 1783:drum memory 1771:Tom Kilburn 1677:Transistors 1615:Tom Kilburn 1578:Alan Turing 1574:computation 1520:Von Neumann 1504:Alan Turing 1285:word length 1262:Konrad Zuse 1250:in 1939 in 1248:Konrad Zuse 1224:Konrad Zuse 1222:Replica of 1140:computation 868:polynomials 841:integration 803:Switzerland 657:planisphere 635:Antikythera 543:tally stick 395:touchscreen 375:information 344:Moore's law 316:transistors 270:smartphones 195:computation 12851:Categories 12797:Multimedia 12787:technology 12662:Television 12592:Home robot 12582:Dishwasher 12544:Electronic 12242:See also: 11979:ILLIAC III 11897:MUSASINO-1 11792:IAS family 11575:Mainframes 11533:Runt pulse 11505:television 11199:Logic gate 11144:Transistor 11136:Components 10778:Removable 10763:Sound card 10693:Sound chip 10688:Sound card 10678:Microphone 10568:components 10458:(1): 1–9. 10373:29 October 10195:9 November 10062:24 October 9923:9 November 9889:29 January 9864:cs/9901011 8727:. p. 7831:10 January 7770:4 November 7633:Letter by 7548:Light 1999 7536:Evans 2018 7505:17 October 7474:18 October 7380:14 October 7349:14 October 7308:. 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