394:
electrification relative to traffic volume on long rail lines, high resource costs of early Soviet electrical power generation, and the urgent need to repair wartime damage to rail and power systems throughout eastern Europe. In the mid-1950s the Soviet Union embarked upon a hybrid dieselization/electrification program, with electrification concentrated on shorter lines. Both dieselization and electrification proceeded slowly; the last steam locomotives retired in 1975. At that time about 48% of freight tonnage was hauled by diesel locomotives. In 1990, about 30% of passenger traffic and 37% of freight tonnage was hauled by diesel. Post-Soviet electrification was slowed by the economic collapse of the 1990s. Electrification was completed on the
31:
142:
their operating and support costs were much lower and unit availability between inspection repair and maintenance stops were much higher. Diesels also had fueling requirements fulfilled by tank cars on sidings, in contrast to the more frequent and complex fueling and watering infrastructure required for steam engines. Also, diesels use much less fuel and no manpower when idling, something steam locomotives often do. Diesels can be parked running for days unattended, whereas steam engines must be constantly tended to if not completely shut down. Bringing a steam engine boiler up to
490:
423:(JNR). Japan also has large coal deposits as a natural resource. By 1970, most, if not all steam locomotives had been relegated to freight work, and by the time that complete dieselisation occurred, the remaining steam locomotives were used for branch line work and shunting duties and later were put out of use completely..
579:
In terms of road transport, diesel gained popularity first with commercial hauliers, throughout the later 20th century, and then with passenger car users, particularly from the 1970s onwards, once diesel engines became more refined and also more readily available in passenger cars. Diesel had by this
357:
made coal-fired steam more attractive, especially near the east coast. After the peak of the petroleum crisis and as wartime production of diesel engines hit its stride, increasing production of freight diesel locomotives was permitted. By the war's end, pent-up demand to replace dated and worn-out
312:
of mainline diesel freight locomotive was on the market in 1940. Dieselization was especially attractive to western railroads, for whom the watering requirements of steam locomotives were a problem in vast stretches of the western interior. Coal-country railroads were generally reluctant to embrace
196:
in 1947, but unlike elsewhere in the developed world, the transition away from steam was delayed during the early postwar years. The delay was driven by two economic considerations: the lower initial cost of steam locomotives for immediate replacement of the large number of locomotives worn out from
276:
and output flexibility; the desire of railways to find more cost-efficient locomotion for passenger service at the height of the Great
Depression; and design innovations in rail equipment that reduced weight, making the contemporary diesel engines, which were low-powered by today's standards, viable
150:
Diesels also had advantages in service flexibility. They are more scalable to power requirements, owing to the control systems that allowed multiple units to be controlled by one operator. "Double header" steam power required a crew for each locomotive. The range of efficient operation for diesels
374:
Due to the advantages of diesel locomotives, railroads in North
America had retired 90% of their steam locomotives by the mid-1950s. Also, major cities and their railyards became unhappy neighbors in post-war America. People were no longer content to endure the large amounts of soot and smoke that
220:
Steam continued on the London
Underground until 1971, as London Transport considered steam to be cheaper than diesel shunters. After 1971, diesel hydraulics and battery electrics took over shunting duties on the LU. Steam continued on many industrial railways in the UK mainly with the National Coal
141:
Weighing against the cost of, and inertia against, replacing the large investment that railways had in existing steam power were the dramatic increases in flexibility and efficiency with diesel. Diesels could and did have a significantly higher initial price per unit-horsepower delivered; however,
108:
of 50% and over 100,000 horsepower. First steps towards conversions using diesel engines as means of propulsion (on smaller ships) were already undertaken by the 1920s. The market share of steam-powered ships ("steam ships") peaked around 1925 (a few sailing ships remained in service). By the early
617:
Lightweight diesel engines suited for road vehicles were introduced in the late 1930s. They were soon used in bus coaches, heavy trucks, tractors, and construction equipment. The postwar era saw rapid replacement of gasoline with diesel for heavy trucks and buses, with engines provided mostly by
378:
Steam engines lasted well into the late 1950s on major
American railroads, and in isolated cases into the middle 1960s on small common carrier roads. The last steam locomotive fleet in everyday use (i.e. not a restored fleet) was retired in the late 1970s. Now they are only found in historical and
336:
during the 1950s. Mechanical coal stokers, in use since the 1920s, and use of bunker oil as an alternative fuel, facilitated the practical use of steam for the highest power requirements. But the limits of steam technology were rapidly being reached. The new locomotives were mechanically complex
162:
Dieselization could be accomplished without any major changes to rail infrastructure, presenting lower initial capital costs than electrification. However, in situations where volume is sufficient to amortize the capital costs of electrification, the greater efficiency and speed available with
176:
Relatively short trackage between destinations and high traffic volumes in Europe favoured electrification to replace steam. Many lines are electrified, though some low volume secondary lines and switching service remain unelectrified. Most countries used diesels as an interim solution during
361:
The market share of steam locomotives dropped from 30% in 1945 to 2% in 1948. The drop was most precipitous in passenger service, where modernization of equipment was imperative for image and cost reasons as railroads faced increasingly stiff competition from airplanes and the automobile.
393:
Soviet leadership in the 1920s and 1930s had originally envisioned railway electrification as a key component of their industrialization, but by World War II only a small portion of their rail lines were electrified. Their project faced many challenges, including the high initial costs of
439:(The last star), #10560, built in June 1970. The last meter gauge steam locomotive was a YG class built in 1972. Steam was largely replaced in the 1980s. The last scheduled steam operation was on 6 December 1995 on broad gauge. Last steam operation on narrow/meter gauge ended in 1999.
307:
GM diesel engines in 1938 increased power and reliability. GM's sales contracts included training, financing, and maintenance from GM to lower the hurdles in converting from steam to diesel. Dieselization of passenger service gained momentum as the decade drew to a close and the
352:
US entry into World War II interrupted dieselization. The US Navy gained priority for diesel engines, curtailing their availability for railway use. No production of passenger locomotives was permitted by the War
Production Board between September 1942 and February 1945. The
609:" taxi has long been powered by a diesel engine. The high reliability, ease of driveability and high fuel efficiency of such an engine allows the taxis to carry many people for a lower cost than might otherwise be incurred through the use of conventional petrol engines.
244:
and adjacent towns. Mainline passenger railroads in New York had already been electrified, or their electrification had been planned regardless of the
Kaufman Act. Electrification of numerous freight yards was uneconomical, and railroads turned to diesels. The first
151:
under different speeds and grades is much greater than with steam locomotives, which tended to be purpose-built for specific situations. A high speed Hudson steam locomotive is good for only one situation, high speeds on level grades.
197:
wartime service, and a projected rise in the cost of petroleum relative to coal, a plentiful domestic resource. Nationalisation of the railways took place in 1948; diesel locomotives were first introduced on a wide scale following the
366:
continued to champion steam, running steam passenger locomotives until 1959 and acquiring the last
American steam locomotives built, a piston locomotive built in their own shop in 1953 and a steam turbine-electric locomotive built by
464:
China had produced diesel-hydraulic and diesel-electric locomotives on an experimental and limited production basis since 1958 but dieselization did not start in earnest until 1985, when production was increased on a standardized
201:
of 1955. Poor reliability among the first diesel locomotives used in the
Modernisation Plan caused it to be implemented at a slower pace while the problems with the locomotives were worked out during the second half of the 1950s.
146:
is often regarded as both an art and science, requiring much training and experience. A diesel is much simpler to start and shut down. Diesels simply required significantly less time and labor to operate and maintain.
154:
Initially, diesel locomotives were less powerful than the typical steam locomotives. Between the late 1930s and the late 1950s the power available with diesel locomotive engines roughly doubled, although the
163:
electrification are significant advantages and electrified systems are favored throughout most of the developed world, with the most salient exceptions being North
America, the British Isles, and Australia.
469:
model locomotive. Mainline steam locomotives were produced until 1988 and industrial steam locomotives were produced until 1999, the last commercial steam locomotives produced in the world. The
213:" (number 92220). Steam traction was withdrawn on British Railways in 1968 and largely replaced with diesel traction (with electrification on a minority of lines). Steam was finally eliminated on
473:
ended in 2005, however steam locomotives remain in limited use and production as of 2022, primarily in service with coal mines. Since the 1990s, China has emphasized electrification; as of 2004,
543:. The JMC class entered service in 1955 while the GE-built diesel locomotives entered service in 1956. On August 15, 1956, the MRR's steam locomotives ended their last regular services in
261:'s yards on Manhattan. Both worked into the late 1950s and survive in museums to date. The advantages of diesel-electric switch engines gained them a widespread market during the 1930s.
316:
Competition from diesel spurred a round of development in steam locomotive technology. High style, high speed "steamliners" produced during the second half of the 1930s became the
337:
and extremely specialized. Locomotive size became an issue, as steam engines became so big in the 1940s that the cylinder and boiler dimensions were pushing the limits that the
634:). Rising gasoline prices during the 1970s spurred interest in diesel for passenger cars, although it soon faded in popularity for private vehicles other than pickup trucks.
415:
The majority of Japan's rail network had been electrified in the post-war years. In spite of this, more desolate railway lines, particularly on the northern island of
341:
would allow. The fuel and water requirements of high-powered steam locomotives became an issue. Steam turbine-electric locomotive power was developed in 1938 by
419:
continued to use surplus steam locomotives well into the mid-1970s. This was due to the limits and problems created by the then-nationalized rail network,
1245:
299:"City" trains. During the second half of the decade, diesel locomotives with sufficient power for full-size passenger trains were developed and put into
1265:
1235:
379:
sightseeing roles, where the steam engine is often a major draw, especially to museums or tourist railroads trying to recreate a historic atmosphere.
773:
375:
coal burning steam engines produced. Early diesels, while dirty by today's standards, were a gigantic improvement in air pollution over steam.
269:
80:
or vehicle with one that is diesel-powered; the term commonly describes the generational replacement between the 1930s to 1970s of railway
100:
for marine applications was introduced in 1908 and remains in use today. It is the most efficient prime mover to date, models such as the
388:
924:"Exergy, Power and Work in the U. S. Economy 1900–1998, Insead's Center For the Management of Environmental Resources, 2002/52/EPS/CMER"
474:
1214:
963:
The
Economic Growth Engine: How Energy and Work Drive Material Prosperity (The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis)
1180:
177:
postwar reconstruction and electrification. Some countries, most notably Switzerland, have electrified their whole network. The
493:
The first trains assembled in the Philippines, the MC class of 1932 pioneered the use of gasoline and diesel fuel in the country.
210:
431:
Diesel and electric locomotives started slowly replacing steam in 1950s. The last broad gauge (5' 6") steam locomotive built by
224:
Ireland chose dieselisation over electrification and as of 2015, the railways in Ireland (with the exception of the electrified
345:. GE abandoned the project in 1943 after unsatisfactory results during trials with three railroads and subsequent efforts by
970:
1324:
193:
1341:
1191:
505:
in the 1930s. The first to be installed with diesel power were the MC class railcars that entered service in 1932. These
1122:
Marx, Thomas G. (1976), "Technological Change and the Theory of the Firm: The American Locomotive Industry, 1920–1955",
1371:
1112:
1308:
858:
757:
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to Murmansk in 2005. Since 2008, diesel-hauled freight tonnage has been less than 15% of the total freight tonnage.
72:, as occurred on a large scale with trucks, buses, farm tractors, trains, and building construction machinery after
1287:
548:
250:
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17:
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with steam turbine-electric locomotion during the late 1940s and early 1950s were similarly unsuccessful.
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61:
43:
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locomotive), a process which began in the 1930s and is now substantially complete around the world.
478:
447:
368:
346:
189:
97:
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for mainline passenger service. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of lightweight diesel-powered
159:
still exceeded the power of the most powerful diesel locomotives from the late twentieth century.
944:
The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport
804:
The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport
317:
30:
866:
643:
395:
273:
185:
143:
1376:
1081:. The International Committee for the Conservation of Industrial Heritage. 22 November 2020
942:
802:
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540:
35:
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8:
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Dieselization got a boost from three developments of the early 1930s: the development by
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81:
39:
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547:. Contemporary efforts towards electrification has started in the 1990s, with the
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627:
536:
524:
313:
diesel, a competitor to one of their main hauling markets, well into the 1940s.
665:
631:
623:
594:) in particular developed reputations for passenger-car diesel engines, whilst
562:
continued to operate steam locomotives. As of 2020, at least one sugar mill in
287:
265:
77:
57:) is the process of equipping vehicles with a diesel engine or diesel engines.
1365:
1276:
682:
587:
563:
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The state-owned Manila Railroad Company (MRR) began its experimentation with
399:
338:
292:
241:
965:. Edward Elgar Publishing; Reprint edition (October 31, 2010). p. 105.
822:
580:
point long been a popular choice for taxi operators and agricultural users.
554:
While steam power largely left passenger service by the late 1950s, several
236:
The small initial market for diesels was created by the State of New York's
989:
206:
73:
1314:
687:
506:
502:
278:
246:
237:
69:
1223:
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the World's Steam Passenger Locomotives.
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555:
300:
109:
1950s diesel engine-powered "motor ships" held over 50% of the market.
870:
595:
509:
254:
1135:
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416:
354:
65:
117:
In rail transport, dieselisation refers to the replacement of the
619:
583:
559:
513:
304:
296:
885:
Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
329:
309:
156:
544:
527:
Salvador Villa ordered the dieselisation of the MRR network.
27:
Conversion to diesel fuel in vehicles, especially locomotives
178:
1105:
Guide to North American Steam Locomotives, Revised Edition
240:
of 1923, which prohibited operating steam locomotives in
136:
1009:
Reports of the General Manager, Manila Railroad Company
950:. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. p. 124.
990:"[IRFCA] Indian Railways FAQ - Steam in India"
810:. Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. p. 87.
221:
Board And British Steel Corporation until the 1980s.
179:
most powerful electric locomotives in western Europe
76:. Alternatively it can involve replacing the entire
745:
272:subsidiary of diesel engines with vastly improved
1342:Sydney & Louisburg Railway Historical Society
1363:
188:introduced diesel railcars in the 1930s and the
166:
257:. The second was delivered in the same year to
1336:Routledge Atlas History of American Railroads.
1260:Smorgasbord of Steam (Lazy Susan Style) Part 3
921:
922:Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L. W.; Warr, B. (2002).
903:
671:
1250:Mucho Bueno Sabor --- Mexicano del Pacifico.
748:An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology
217:in 1970 and entirely replaced with diesel.
891:
516:engines. A set managed to survive with the
389:Railway electrification in the Soviet Union
330:exceeded the power of any diesel ever built
253:at its 138th Street waterfront terminal in
876:
475:18,900 km of China's 74,200 km rail system
157:most powerful steam locomotives ever built
960:
737:
566:still operates a steam locomotive fleet.
249:switcher was put in operation in 1925 by
488:
477:were electrified. Planning for China's
382:
190:first British mainline diesel locomotive
29:
1275:
1270:Valle de Mexico --- Valley of Memories.
984:
982:
940:
800:
14:
1364:
1168:The Pennsylvania Railroad 1940s-1950s.
1007:"1933 Report of the General Manager".
961:Ayres, Robert; Warr, Banjamin (2010).
882:
743:
598:developed some significant motors for
358:railway equipment was overwhelming.
137:Advantages of diesel in rail transport
1107:(2nd ed.). Kalmbach Publishing.
1102:
909:
1121:
979:
897:
649:
332:, although their power was edged by
194:London, Midland and Scottish Railway
1211:from Green Bay & Western Lines.
1188:from Green Bay & Western Lines.
535:while a Japanese consortium led by
228:) remain entirely diesel operated.
24:
1159:
842:
833:
776:Annual Report for Fiscal Year 1929
91:
25:
1388:
1216:Great Western Railway Locomotives
1181:Dates in Canadian Railway History
1027:"The Passing of the Steam Engine"
859:National Museum of Transportation
569:
112:
612:
471:last mainline service with steam
435:was a WG class locomotive named
334:gas turbine-electric locomotives
318:speed kings of passenger service
231:
1096:
1071:
1045:
1019:
1000:
954:
934:
915:
512:were fitted with 96-horsepower
481:system began during the 1990s.
68:fuel with an engine powered by
1300:The American diesel locomotive
851:
815:
794:
778:- Federal Maritime Commission"
766:
711:
693:
551:being its latest incarnation.
484:
251:Central Railroad of New Jersey
205:The last steam locomotive for
13:
1:
1079:"HAWAIIAN-PHILIPPINE COMPANY"
783:. p. 104. Archived from
705:
450:have retained steam service.
326:articulated steam locomotives
209:was built in 1960 and named "
167:Timeline by geographic region
88:, and associated facilities.
1331:from Allahabad Rail Fanning.
1315:Steam Locomotive Information
549:North–South Commuter Railway
518:Philippine National Railways
460:List of locomotives in China
444:Darjeeling Himalayan railway
60:It can involve replacing an
7:
931:<Fig. 11 in Appendix>
637:
574:
533:diesel-electric locomotives
355:petroleum crisis of 1942–43
259:Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
10:
1393:
1325:Steam Locmotives [
1240:Ferrocarril Interoceanico.
723:Collins English dictionary
672:Energy policy and politics
457:
421:Japanese National Railways
386:
181:pull Swedish ore trains.
62:internal combustion engine
44:Carmarthen railway station
1372:Rail transport operations
1262:, Tiefa Coal Group. 2005.
1230:North American Railroads.
1053:"Dragons of Sugar Island"
656:Advanced steam technology
328:built in the early 1940s
270:Winton Engine Corporation
226:Dublin Area Rapid Transit
215:Northern Ireland Railways
171:
1357:Grosset and Dunlop. 1973
1355:Twilight of World Steam.
1319:Great Western "Dinkies".
1294:; last updated Feb 2006.
941:GrĂĽbler, Arnulf (1990).
801:GrĂĽbler, Arnulf (1990).
453:
448:Nilgiri mountain railway
442:Two heritage lines, the
426:
410:
369:Baldwin Locomotive Works
347:Baldwin Locomotive Works
98:two-stroke diesel engine
1297:Solomon, Brian (2000).
1124:Business History Review
867:B&O Railroad Museum
539:provided the JMC class
479:China's high speed rail
405:
102:Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C
1221:Hollingsworth, Brian;
1186:Detailed Diesel Roster
1103:Drury, George (2015).
883:Jerome, Harry (1934).
865:, CNJ No. 1000 at the
825:The Last Days of Steam
644:Aircraft diesel engine
494:
396:Trans-Siberian Railway
281:trainsets such as the
274:power-to-weight ratios
47:
1348:Steam in the Sixties.
1228:Hollingsworth, J.B.;
857:B&O No. 1 at the
752:. London: Routledge.
630:(later a division of
605:In London the famed "
541:diesel multiple units
537:Daiichi Bussan Kaisha
492:
383:Soviet Union – Russia
186:Great Western Railway
144:operating temperature
66:petrol (US: gasoline)
33:
1209:FA-1 Builder's Photo
744:McNeil, Ian (1990).
678:Efficient energy use
36:diesel multiple unit
1175:Steam in the Andes.
1057:www.railstaff.co.uk
1015:. 31 December 1932.
592:Mercedes-Benz 260 D
398:in 2002 and on the
364:Norfolk and Western
123:electric locomotive
1303:. MBI Publishing.
1173:Barton, Bradford;
1059:. 18 December 2015
812:<Fig. 3.1.5>
700:Winter diesel fuel
495:
301:regular production
199:Modernisation Plan
106:thermal efficiency
86:diesel locomotives
48:
1281:Farewell to Steam
972:978-1-84980-435-6
873:- Solomon, p. 36.
650:Alternative fuels
520:until the 1980s.
192:was built by the
127:diesel locomotive
82:steam locomotives
16:(Redirected from
1384:
1292:Chinese Railways
1284:
1203:Steam in Africa.
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1033:. 12 August 1956
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661:Electric vehicle
607:hackney carriage
600:four-wheel drive
590:(since the 1936
529:General Electric
343:General Electric
283:Burlington Route
207:British Railways
119:steam locomotive
40:steam locomotive
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1350:Meredith. 1967.
1338:Routledge, 1999
1166:Ball, Don Jr.;
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1160:Further reading
1136:10.2307/3113572
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184:In Britain the
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1323:
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1316:
1313:
1310:
1309:0-7603-0666-4
1306:
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1274:
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1237:
1234:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1205:Hamlyn. 1981.
1204:
1201:Durrant, A.;
1200:
1197:
1196:Steam in Asia
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1169:
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1164:
1153:
1149:
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1141:
1137:
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1129:
1125:
1120:
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1080:
1074:
1058:
1054:
1048:
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1014:
1010:
1003:
995:
994:www.irfca.org
991:
985:
983:
974:
968:
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957:
946:
945:
937:
925:
918:
912:, p. 258
911:
906:
900:, p. 18.
899:
894:
886:
879:
872:
868:
864:
860:
854:
845:
836:
828:
826:
818:
806:
805:
797:
786:
779:
777:
769:
761:
759:0-415-14792-1
755:
750:
749:
740:
724:
720:
714:
710:
701:
698:
697:
689:
686:
684:
683:Energy policy
681:
679:
676:
675:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
645:
642:
641:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
613:United States
610:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:Mercedes-Benz
585:
581:
567:
565:
564:Negros Island
561:
558:in Luzon and
557:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
523:By 1954, MRR
521:
519:
515:
511:
508:
504:
500:
491:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
461:
451:
449:
445:
440:
438:
434:
424:
422:
418:
403:
401:
400:Kirov Railway
397:
390:
380:
376:
372:
370:
365:
359:
356:
350:
348:
344:
340:
339:loading gauge
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
314:
311:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:Union Pacific
290:
289:
284:
280:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
242:New York City
239:
232:North America
229:
227:
222:
218:
216:
212:
208:
203:
200:
195:
191:
187:
182:
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164:
160:
158:
152:
148:
145:
134:
132:
129:(usually the
128:
124:
120:
110:
107:
103:
99:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
58:
56:
55:dieselization
52:
51:Dieselisation
45:
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Dieselization
1354:
1347:
1335:
1334:Stover, J.;
1326:
1318:
1298:
1291:
1280:
1269:
1259:
1249:
1239:
1229:
1222:
1215:
1202:
1195:
1174:
1167:
1127:
1123:
1104:
1097:Bibliography
1083:. Retrieved
1073:
1061:. Retrieved
1056:
1047:
1035:. Retrieved
1030:
1021:
1012:
1008:
1002:
993:
962:
956:
943:
936:
917:
910:Drury (2015)
905:
893:
884:
878:
853:
844:
835:
824:
817:
803:
796:
785:the original
775:
768:
747:
739:
727:. Retrieved
722:
713:
616:
604:
582:
578:
553:
522:
496:
463:
441:
437:Antim Sitara
436:
430:
414:
392:
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360:
351:
315:
286:
263:
235:
223:
219:
211:Evening Star
204:
183:
175:
161:
153:
149:
140:
116:
95:
74:World War II
59:
54:
50:
49:
1377:Diesel fuel
1353:Ziel, Ron;
1346:Ziel, Ron;
1266:King, Sammy
1256:King, Sammy
1246:King, Sammy
1236:King, Sammy
1130:(1): 5–18,
823:"BBC Four,
694:Diesel fuel
688:Suez Crisis
556:plantations
507:streamlined
503:diesel fuel
485:Philippines
310:first model
279:streamlined
247:ALCO boxcab
238:Kaufman Act
70:diesel fuel
64:powered by
1366:Categories
1283:. Bonanza.
1085:25 January
1063:25 January
1037:22 January
706:References
602:vehicles.
510:railmotors
458:See also:
38:next to a
1152:154642921
1031:This Week
898:Marx 1976
871:Baltimore
863:St. Louis
596:VM Motori
531:provided
371:in 1954.
255:The Bronx
125:with the
1279:(1966).
638:See also
499:gasoline
446:and the
417:Hokkaido
305:Improved
268:and its
104:offer a
1144:3113572
620:Cummins
584:Peugeot
560:Visayas
514:Cummins
297:M-1000x
288:Zephyrs
46:in 2007
34:Modern
1307:
1150:
1142:
1111:
969:
756:
725:. 2021
575:Europe
322:Duplex
172:Europe
1321:2001.
1272:2004.
1252:2007.
1242:2004.
1232:1984.
1225:1982.
1198:2007.
1170:1986.
1148:S2CID
1140:JSTOR
948:(PDF)
927:(PDF)
808:(PDF)
788:(PDF)
781:(PDF)
729:9 May
545:Luzon
454:China
427:India
411:Japan
84:with
78:plant
53:(US:
1305:ISBN
1109:ISBN
1087:2021
1065:2021
1039:2021
967:ISBN
754:ISBN
731:2021
622:and
586:and
501:and
406:Asia
324:and
291:and
96:The
1327:sic
1132:doi
869:in
861:in
467:DF4
433:CLW
295:'s
285:'s
121:or
42:at
1368::
1317::
1290:;
1268:;
1258:;
1248:;
1238:;
1194:;
1146:,
1138:,
1128:50
1126:,
1055:.
1029:.
1013:15
1011:.
992:.
981:^
721:.
320:.
303:.
1311:.
1154:.
1134::
1117:.
1089:.
1067:.
1041:.
996:.
975:.
929:.
887:.
829:.
827:"
774:"
762:.
733:.
20:)
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