567:
545:
982:
143:
825:
593:
289:
298:
1053:. A jury of experts was impaneled to examine the resulting translations and assess their accuracy. In all essential points, the translations produced by the four scholars were found to be in close agreement with one another. There were, of course, some slight discrepancies. The inexperienced Talbot had made a number of mistakes, and Oppert's translation contained a few doubtful passages which the jury politely ascribed to his unfamiliarity with the English language. But Hincks' and Rawlinson's versions corresponded remarkably closely in many respects. The jury declared itself satisfied, and the decipherment of Akkadian cuneiform was adjudged a
363:
354:
601:
1411:... (Glasgow, Scotland: James MacLehose and Sons, 1905), vol. 9, pp. 190–196. On pp. 192–193, Figueroa describes the cuneiform at Persepolis: "The Letters themselves are neither Chaldæan, nor Hebrew, nor Greek, nor Arabic, nor of any other Nation, which was ever found of old, or at this day, to be extant. They are all three-cornered, but somewhat long, of the forme of a Pyramide, or such a little Obeliske, as I have set in the margine: so that in nothing doe they differ one from another, but in their placing and situation, yet so conformed that they are wondrous plaine distinct and perspicuous."
19:
990:
1073:
inscriptions, literary productions, and legal documents. The primary challenge was posed by the characteristic use of old
Sumerian non-phonetic logograms in other languages that had different pronunciations for the same symbols. Until the exact phonetic reading of many names was determined through parallel passages or explanatory lists, scholars remained in doubt or had recourse to conjectural or provisional readings. However, in many cases, there are variant readings, the same name being written phonetically (in whole or in part) in one instance and logographically in another.
343:
158:
885:
566:
544:
1349:"Peu esloigné de là estoit la sepulture de la Royne, qui estoit fort peu differente. L'escriture qui donnoit cognoissance par qui, pourquoy, & en quel temps cest grande masse avoit esté bastie est fort distincte en plusieurs endroits du bastiment: mais il n'y a personne qui y entende rien, parce que les carracteres ne sont Persiens, Arabes, Armeniens ny Hebreux, qui sont les langages aujourd'hui en usage en ces quartiers là, ... "
761:
386:
1351:(Not far from there was the sepulchre of the queen, which wasn't much different. The writing that announced by whom, why, and at what time this great mass had been built, is very distinct in several locations in the building: but there wasn't anyone who understood it, because the characters were neither Persian, Arabic, Armenian, nor Hebrew, which are the languages in use today in those quarters ... )
951:. Before his article could be published, however, the works of Lassen and Burnouf reached him, necessitating a revision of his article and the postponement of its publication. Then came other causes of delay. In 1847, the first part of the Rawlinson's Memoir was published; the second part did not appear until 1849. The task of deciphering Old Persian cuneiform texts was virtually accomplished.
1704:"Ich will auf der Tabelle XXXI, noch eine, oder vielmehr vier Inschriften H, I, K, L beyfügen, die ich etwa in der Mitte an der Hauptmauer nach Süden, alle neben einander, angetroffen habe. Der Stein worauf sie stehen, ist 26 Fuß lang, und 6 Fuß hoch, und dieser ist ganz damit bedeckt. Man kann also daraus die Größe der Buchstaben beurtheilen. Auch hier sind drey verschiedene Alphabete."
1706:(I want to include in Plate XXXI another, or rather four inscriptions H, I, K, L, which I found approximately in the middle of the main wall to the south , all side by side. The stone on which they appear, is 26 feet long and 6 feet high, and it's completely covered with them. One can thus judge therefrom the size of the letters. Also here, are three different alphabets.)
261:, reported seeing at Persepolis carved on the wall "a dozen lines of strange characters...consisting of figures, obelisk, triangular, and pyramidal" and thought they resembled Greek. In the 1677 edition he reproduced some and thought they were 'legible and intelligible' and therefore decipherable. He also guessed, correctly, that they represented not letters or
657:
kings and therefore should not have this attribute in the inscriptions, Grotefend correctly guessed the identity of the rulers. In
Persian history around the time period the inscriptions were expected to be made, there were only two instances where a ruler came to power without being a previous king's son: they were
857:. He and Burnouf had been in frequent correspondence, and his claim to have independently detected the names of the satrapies, and thereby to have fixed the values of the Persian characters, was consequently fiercely attacked. According to Sayce, whatever his obligations to Burnouf may have been, Lassen's
1505:
From pages 145–146: "In part of this great roome (not farre from the portall) in a mirrour of polisht marble, wee noted above a dozen lynes of strange characters, very faire and apparent to the eye, but so mysticall, so odly framed, as no
Hierogliphick, no other deep conceit can be more difficultly
1009:
have never been fully published; Hincks described how he sought the proper names already legible in the deciphered
Persian while Rawlinson never said anything at all, leading some to speculate that he was secretly copying Hincks. They were greatly helped by the excavations of the French naturalist
1072:
In the early days of cuneiform decipherment, the reading of proper names presented the greatest difficulties. However, there is now a better understanding of the principles behind the formation and the pronunciation of the thousands of names found in historical records, business documents, votive
747:
By this method, Grotefend had correctly identified each king in the inscriptions, but his identification of the value of individual letters was still quite defective, for want of a better understanding of the Old
Persian language itself. Grotefend only identified correctly eight letters among the
656:
By looking at the length of the character sequences in the
Niebuhr inscriptions 1 & 2, comparing with the names and genealogy of the Achaemenid kings as known from the Greeks, and taking into account the fact that according to this genealogy the father of two of the Achaemenid rulers were not
1064:, the oldest language with a script, was also deciphered through the analysis of ancient Akkadian-Sumerian dictionaries and bilingual tablets, as Sumerian long remained a literary language in Mesopotamia, which was often re-copied, translated and commented in numerous Babylonian tablets.
604:
Relying on deductions only, and without knowing the actual script or language, Grotefend obtained a near-perfect translation of the Xerxes inscription (here shown in Old
Persian, Elamite and Babylonian): "Xerxes the strong King, King of Kings, son of Darius the King, ruler of the world"
1118:
It seems that various parts of
Rawlinson's paper formed Vol X of this journal. The final part III comprised chapters IV (Analysis of the Persian Inscriptions of Behistunand) and V (Copies and Translations of the Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions of Persepolis, Hamadan, and Van), pp.
1531:
or Short-writing we familiarly practise: ... Nevertheless, by the posture and tendency of some of the
Characters (which consist of several magnitudes) it may be supposed that this writing was rather from the left hand to the right, ... " Page 142 shows an illustration of some
2192:
Précis du système hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens, ou
Recherches sur les éléments premiers de cette écriture sacrée, sur leurs diverses combinaisons, et sur les rapports de ce système avec les autres méthodes graphiques égyptiennes. Planches / . Par Champollion le
250:. The copies he made, the first that reached circulation within Europe, were not quite accurate, but Della Valle understood that the writing had to be read from left to right, following the direction of wedges. However, he did not attempt to decipher the scripts.
60:
The rediscovery and publication of cuneiform took place in the early 17th century, and early conclusions were drawn such as the writing direction and that the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are three different languages (with two different scripts). In 1620,
1510:. And though it have small concordance with the Hebrew, Greek, or Latine letter, yet questionless to the Inventer it was well knowne; and peradventure may conceale some excellent matter, though to this day wrapt up in the dim leafes of envious obscuritie."
77:
made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures.
809:, who accompanied Champollion, was able to confirm that the corresponding words in the cuneiform script were indeed the words which Grotefend had identified as meaning "king" and "Xerxes" through guesswork. The findings were published by Saint-Martin in
1506:
fancied, more adverse to the intellect. These consisting of Figures, obelisk, triangular, and pyramidall, yet in such Simmetry and order as cannot well be called barbarous. Some resemblance, I thought some words had of the Antick Greek, shadowing out
861:...contributions to the decipherment of the inscriptions were numerous and important. He succeeded in fixing the true values of nearly all the letters in the Persian alphabet, in translating the texts, and in proving that the language of them was not
412:, was soon perceived as being the simplest of the three types of cuneiform scripts that had been encountered, and because of this was understood as a prime candidate for decipherment (the two other, older and more complicated scripts were
821:, who would expand on Grotefend's work and further advance the decipherment of cuneiforms. In effect the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs was thus decisive in confirming the first steps of the decipherment of the cuneiform script.
142:
1097:
managed to make accurate records of cuneiform writing with a three-dimensional scan and model capable of appreciating the depth of the impression left by the stylus in the clay and the distance between the symbols and the wedges. The
748:
thirty signs he had collated. However groundbreaking, this inductive method failed to convince academics, and the official recognition of his work was denied for nearly a generation. Although Grotefend's Memoir was presented to the
981:
1366:(1550–1624), sent a letter to the Marquesse of Bedmar, discussing various subjects regarding Persia, including his observations on the cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis. This letter was originally printed in 1620:
828:
Equivalence between the hieroglyphs and cuneiform signs for "Xerxes", established by Champollion. Here the cuneiform script is mirror-inverted (it should be "𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠𐏐", "Xerxes",), probably a typographical
629:
kings), a king's name is often followed by "great king, king of kings" and the name of the king's father. This understanding of the structure of monumental inscriptions in Old Persian was based on the work of
57:. Niebuhr's publication was used by Grotefend in 1802 to make the first breakthrough – the realization that Niebuhr had published three different languages side by side and the recognition of the word "king".
1081:
Computer-based methods are being developed to digitise tablets and help decipher texts. In 2023 it was shown that automatic high-quality translation of Cuneiform languages like Akkadian can be achieved using
109:
contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from
1405:"Chap. XI. Letter from Don Garcia Silva Figueroa Embassador from Philip the Third King of Spain, to the Persian, Written at Spahan, or Hispahan Anno 1619 to the Marquese Bedmar Touching Matters of Persia,"
275:
Proper attempts at deciphering Old Persian cuneiform started with faithful copies of cuneiform inscriptions, which first became available in 1711 when duplicates of Darius's inscriptions were published by
2020:
English translation: Grotefend, G.F., "Appendix II: On the cuneiform character, and particularly the inscriptions at Persepolis" in: Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig, with David Alphonso Talboys, trans.,
554:) highlighted, repeated three times. Inscription now known to mean "Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, who built this Palace". Today known as
389:
This Old Persian cuneiform sign sequence, because of its numerous occurrences in inscriptions, was correctly guessed by Münter as being the word for "King". This word is now known to be pronounced
1384:"Letter from Don Garcia Silva Figueroa Embassador from Philip the Third King of Spain, to the Persian, Written at Spahan, or Hispahan Anno 1619 to the Marquese Bedmar Touching Matters of Persia,"
480:
made the first study of the inscriptions of Persepolis copied by Niebuhr. He discovered that series of characters in the Persian inscriptions were divided from one another by an oblique wedge (
947:
Rawlinson successfully completed the decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform. In 1837, he finished his copy of the Behistun inscription, and sent a translation of its opening paragraphs to the
420:). Niebuhr realized that there were only 42 characters in the simpler category of inscriptions, which he named "Class I", and affirmed that this must therefore be an alphabetic script.
2542:
65:
dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621,
793:, who had just deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs, was able to read the Egyptian dedication of a quadrilingual hieroglyph-cuneiform inscription on an alabaster vase in the
752:
on September 4, 1802, the academy refused to publish it; it was subsequently published in Heeren's work in 1815, but was overlooked by most researchers at the time.
1162:
The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun: Decyphered and Tr.; with a Memoir on Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions in General, and on that of Behistun in Particular
961:, began to decipher the other cuneiform scripts in the Behistun Inscription. The decipherment of Old Persian was thus notably instrumental to the decipherment of
488:) was recurring in the inscriptions, and that they had a few recurring terminations of three to four letters. However, Tychsen mistakenly attributed the texts to
681:. Within the inscriptions, the father and son of the king had different groups of symbols for names so Grotefend correctly guessed that this king must have been
576:) highlighted, repeated four times. Inscription now known to mean "Xerxes the Great King, King of Kings, son of Darius the King, an Achaemenian". Today known as
514:) must correspond to the word "King", and that repetitions of this sequence must mean "King of Kings". He correctly guessed that the sequence must be pronounced
578:
556:
1461:
948:
1978:
Vol. 2: Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity. / By A.H.L. Heeren. Tr. from the German
1931:
Vol. 2: Historical researches into the politics, intercourse, and trade of the principal nations of antiquity. / By A.H.L. Heeren. Tr. from the German
665:, both of whom became emperor by revolt. The deciding factors between these two choices were the names of their fathers and sons. Darius's father was
242:, who had sojourned in Mesopotamia between 1616 and 1621, brought to Europe copies of characters he had seen in Persepolis and inscribed bricks from
2530:
2206:
749:
1317:
Relaçam em que se tratam as guerras e grandes vitórias que alcançou o grande Rey de Persia Xá Abbas, do grão Turco Mahometo, e seu Filho Amethe
2361:
846:
of Darius. With this clue in his hand, he identified and published an alphabet of thirty letters, most of which he had correctly deciphered.
1334:
Relation des grandes guerres et victoires obtenues par le roy de Perse Cha Abbas contre les empereurs de Turquie Mahomet et Achmet son fils,
220:
explored ancient ruins in the Middle East and came back with news of a very odd writing he had found carved on the stones in the temples of
1449:
Pallis, Svend Aage (1954) "Early exploration in Mesopotamia, with a list of the Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform texts published before 1851,"
510:
kings. He suggested that the long word appearing with high frequency and without any variation towards the beginning of each inscription (
1386:
1340:
1323:
1296:
1099:
1033:
By 1851, Hincks and Rawlinson could read 200 Akkadian signs. They were soon joined by two other decipherers: young German-born scholar
2400:(London, England: J. W. Parker and Son, 1857). For a description of the "experiment" in the translation of cuneiform, see pp. 3–7.
582:, the text of fourteen inscriptions in three languages (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian) from the Palace of Xerxes in Persepolis.
824:
2421:
2173:
2060:
1956:
1862:
1770:
1740:
1675:
1621:
1585:
1553:
1434:
1275:
1220:
1187:
985:
Sumerian was the last and most ancient language to be deciphered. Sale of a number of fields, probably from Isin, c. 2600 BC.
1102:
was trained on 3D models of 1,977 cuneiform tablets, with detailed annotations of 21,000 cuneiform signs and 4,700 wedges.
592:
2442:
2099:"Extrait d'un mémoire relatif aux antiques inscriptions de Persépolis lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres"
1041:. In 1857, the four men met in London and took part in a famous experiment to test the accuracy of their decipherments.
26:. Initially published in 1815. Grotefend only identified correctly eight letters among the thirty signs he had collated.
1094:
811:
Extrait d'un mémoire relatif aux antiques inscriptions de Persépolis lu à l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres
288:
688:
These connections allowed Grotefend to figure out the cuneiform characters that are part of Darius, Darius's father
199:
2474:
909:
498:
Bishop of Copenhagen improved over the work of Tychsen, and proved that the inscriptions must belong to the age of
122:
2567:
2562:
2303:
1694:(Account of travels to Arabia and other surrounding lands), vol. 2 (Kopenhagen, Denmark: Nicolaus Möller, 1778),
642:
450:
408:("Account of travels to Arabia and other surrounding lands"). The set of characters that would later be known as
1371:
Garciae Silva Figueroa ... de Rebus Persarum epistola v. Kal. an. M.DC.XIX Spahani exarata ad Marchionem Bedmari
1527:
From p. 141: " ... albeit I rather incline to the first , and that they comprehended words or syllables, as in
733:
689:
666:
2124:
1804:
1789:
609:, right column). The modern translation is: "Xerxes the Great King, King of Kings, son of Darius the King, an
230:, a professor of theology, noted in 1602 the strange writing he had seen during his travels a year earlier in
180:
in the early 17th century. Pietro Della Valle's inscription, today known as XPb, is from the Palace of Xerxes.
1502:
1481:
1458:
372:
315:
173:
46:
1903:
1878:
1424:
587:
404:
brought very complete and accurate copies of the inscriptions at Persepolis to Europe, published in 1767 in
297:
2473:
Gutherz, Gai; Gordin, Shai; Sáenz, Luis; Levy, Omer; Berant, Jonathan (2023-05-02). Kearns, Michael (ed.).
1087:
2028:
Grotefend's determinations of the values of several characters in cuneiform are also briefly mentioned in
1030:, a royal archive containing tens of thousands of baked clay tablets covered with cuneiform inscriptions.
2572:
1083:
997:. Louvre Museum AO 5477. The top column is in Sumerian, the bottom column is its translation in Akkadian.
465:
had a rather stereotyped structure on the model: "Name of the King, the Great King, the King of Iran and
1363:
379:, and modern photos of the originals, today known as DPa and XPe, from the Palaces of Darius and Xerxes.
148:
62:
2577:
1976:
1929:
1049:, gave each of them a copy of a recently discovered inscription from the reign of the Assyrian emperor
913:
1404:
708:, as known from the Greeks. This identification was correct, although the actual Persian spelling was
272:
first called the inscriptions "cuneiform", but deemed that they were no more than decorative friezes.
70:
2437:
Bogacz, Bartosz; Mara, Hubert (2022), "Digital Assyriology — Advances in Visual Cuneiform Analysis",
2029:
2025:
2022:
Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity
1819:
1815:(2) : 291–348. On p. 339, Münter presents the Old Persian word for "king" written in cuneiform.
813:, thereby vindicating the pioneering work of Grotefend. This time, academics took note, particularly
806:
618:
94:
86:
23:
2148:
1380:, who included it in a collection of letters and other writings concerning travel and exploration:
1038:
924:(522–486 BC), they consisted of identical texts in the three official languages of the empire: Old
1699:
794:
600:
2357:
1027:
484:) and that these must be individual words. He also found that a specific group of seven letters (
332:
362:
353:
2411:
2081:
2008:
1852:
1760:
1730:
1695:
1524:
1383:
1141:
18:
2582:
2163:
2135:
2050:
1946:
1665:
1575:
1337:
1320:
1046:
818:
409:
319:
195:
90:
85:
Actual decipherment did not take place until the beginning of the 19th century, initiated by
39:
2531:"5,000-year-old tablets can now be decoded by artificial intelligence, new research reveals"
2394:
2331:
2190:
2012:
1645:
Kent, R. G.: "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", page 10. American Oriental Society, 1950.
1611:
1543:
1291:
1210:
1160:
1600:
Kent, R. G.: "Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon", page 9. American Oriental Society, 1950.
970:
917:
893:
842:
discovered that the first of the inscriptions published by Niebuhr contained a list of the
477:
417:
118:
79:
1005:, which was a close predecessor of Babylonian. The actual techniques used to decipher the
342:
8:
2098:
1015:
989:
966:
941:
929:
901:
588:
Old Persian cuneiform: deduction of the names of Achaemenid rulers and translation (1802)
101:
in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n.
22:
Old Persian alphabet, and proposed transcription of the Xerxes inscription, according to
2507:
2014:
Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt
1143:
Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt
1011:
596:
Hypothesis for the sentence structure of Persepolitan inscriptions, by Grotefend (1815).
495:
194:, had noticed carved cuneiform inscriptions and were intrigued. Attempts at deciphering
2456:
2285:
2200:
1026:
were, in 1849 and 1851, the remains of two libraries, now mixed up, usually called the
921:
693:
670:
254:
239:
203:
163:
66:
954:
After translating Old Persian, Rawlinson and, working independently of him, the Irish
801:. Champollion found that the Egyptian inscription on the vase was in the name of King
2512:
2494:
2460:
2417:
2339:
2277:
2169:
2103:
2056:
2017:, part 1, section 1, (Göttingen, (Germany): Bandelhoel und Ruprecht, 1815), 563–609.
2009:"Ueber die Erklärung der Keilschriften, und besonders der Inschriften von Persepolis"
1952:
1858:
1766:
1736:
1671:
1617:
1581:
1549:
1430:
1271:
1216:
1183:
1177:
1061:
1050:
1006:
1002:
631:
610:
507:
458:
428:
424:
413:
323:
227:
843:
839:
814:
560:, from the Palace of Darius in Persepolis, above figures of the king and attendants
102:
73:
found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon.
2534:
2502:
2486:
2446:
1486:"Mi da indizio che possa scriversi dalla sinistra alla destra al modo nostro, ... "
1397:(London, England: William Stansby, 1625), vol. 2, book IX, Chap. XI, pp. 1533–1535.
1264:
Egyptology: The Missing Millennium : Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings
962:
925:
897:
850:
705:
682:
658:
650:
626:
432:
217:
106:
105:
identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835.
82:
was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798.
1488:(It indicates to me that it might be written from left to right in our way, ... )
502:
and his successors, which led to the suggestion that the inscriptions were in the
157:
2393:
Rawlinson, Henry; Fox Talbot, William Henry; Hincks, Edward; and Oppert, Julius,
1613:
The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State
1465:
1390:
1344:
1327:
1300:
1212:
The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State
662:
499:
401:
74:
54:
2490:
45:
The first cuneiform inscriptions published in modern times were copied from the
1453:(The Royal Danish Society of Science: Historical-philological Communications),
1377:
1023:
884:
646:
635:
622:
462:
454:
2370:
1451:
Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab: Historisk-filologiske Meddelelser
786:
It was only in 1823 that Grotefend's discovery was confirmed, when the French
2556:
2498:
2366:
2343:
2281:
1034:
958:
955:
937:
712:, but this was unknown at the time. Grotefend similarly equated the sequence
262:
172:
The first cuneiform inscriptions published in modern times, both copied from
126:
755:
621:
conjectured that, based on the known inscriptions of much later rulers (the
2516:
1042:
993:
The first known Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual tablet dates from the reign of
307:
277:
207:
31:
2413:
History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.
1182:. Cambridge Library Collection - Archaeology. Cambridge University Press.
469:, son of N., the Great King, etc...". He published his results in 1793 in
2538:
2332:"The Earliest Contributions to the Decipherment of Sumerian and Akkadian"
936:. The Behistun inscription was to the decipherment of cuneiform what the
889:
798:
790:
787:
778:
766:
678:
503:
441:
269:
98:
2289:
1332:
French translation: Gouvea, Antonio de, with Alexis de Meneses, trans.,
1790:"Undersögelser om de Persepolitanske Inscriptioner. Förste Afhandling."
674:
385:
376:
311:
187:
177:
53:, with the first complete and accurate copy being published in 1778 by
50:
1805:"Undersögelser om de Persepolitanske Inscriptioner. Anden Afhandling."
1616:. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. p. 8.
1215:. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.
833:
724:, which again was right, but the actual Old Persian transcription was
1267:
1022:
from 1842. Among the treasures uncovered by Layard and his successor
1001:
The decipherment of Babylonian ultimately led to the decipherment of
774:
530:
111:
35:
2451:
728:. Finally, he matched the sequence of the father who was not a king
333:
Old Persian cuneiform: deduction of the word for "King" (circa 1800)
866:
802:
770:
760:
721:
526:
129:. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary.
1807:(Investigations of the inscriptions of Persepolis. Second part.),
2475:"Translating Akkadian to English with neural machine translation"
1792:(Investigations of the inscriptions of Persepolis. First part.),
1521:
Some Years Travels into Divers Parts of Africa and Asia the Great
1019:
933:
862:
519:
489:
446:
265:
but words and syllables, and were to be read from left to right.
247:
607:"Xerxes Rex fortis, Rex regum, Darii Regis Filius, orbis rector"
69:
specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762,
2189:
Champollion, Jean-François (1790-1832) Auteur du texte (1824).
1811:(Writings of the Royal Danish Society of Science), 3rd series,
1796:(Writings of the Royal Danish Society of Science), 3rd series,
994:
638:
466:
436:
231:
221:
214:
2396:
Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I., King of Assyria, B.C. 1150,
2372:
Cracking Ancient Codes: Cuneiform Writing – with Irving Finkel
534:
meaning "power" and "command", and now known to be pronounced
1692:
Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegender Ländern
849:
A month earlier, a friend and pupil of Burnouf's, Professor
572:
Niebuhr inscription 2, with the suggested words for "King" (
550:
Niebuhr inscription 1, with the suggested words for "King" (
896:
permitted the decipherment of two other cuneiform scripts:
235:
191:
492:
kings, and therefore was unable to make further progress.
2083:
Bulletin des sciences historiques, antiquités, philologie
1499:
Some Yeares Travels into Africa & Asia the Great. ...
879:
756:
External confirmation through Egyptian hieroglyphs (1823)
449:, one of the ancient Iranian languages. With this basis,
1376:
It was translated into English and reprinted in 1625 by
976:
318:, today known as DPc, is in three languages: the top is
1821:
Versuch über die keilförmigen Inschriften zu Persepolis
1146:(in German). Bey Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 562.
243:
2472:
1762:
Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder
1732:
Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder
2268:
THUREAU-DANGIN, F. (1911). "Notes Assyriologiques".
1948:
The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character
1577:
The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character
1545:
The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character
855:
The Old Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions of Persepolis
259:
Some Yeares Travels into Africa & Asia the Great
117:
In a final step, the decipherment of the trilingual
1809:
Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabers-Selskabs Skrivter
1794:
Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabers-Selskabs Skrivter
834:
Consolidation of the Old Persian cuneiform alphabet
2168:. Cambridge University Press. p. 13, note 1.
2086:(in French). Treuttel et Würtz. 1825. p. 135.
1523:, 4th ed. (London, England: R. Everingham, 1677),
2024:, vol. 2, (Oxford, England: D.A. Talboys, 1833),
1975:Heeren, A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) (1857).
1928:Heeren, A. H. L. (Arnold Hermann Ludwig) (1857).
1293:Road to Babylon: Development of U.S. Assyriology,
736:, but again with the supposed Persian reading of
2554:
2410:Laet, Sigfried J. de; Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1994).
1400:That English translation was reprinted in 1905:
1319:... (Lisbon, Portugal: Pedro Crasbeeck, 1611),
940:(discovered in 1799) was to the decipherment of
2375:. The Royal Institution. Event occurs at 32:10
2270:Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale
2107:(in French). Société asiatique (France): 65–90.
1857:. University of California Press. p. 129.
1580:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–12.
2267:
2055:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14.
1670:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–14.
1603:
1548:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 9–10.
1480:(Brighton, England: G. Gancia, 1843), vol. 2,
2165:The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions
2052:The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions
1854:Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia
1850:
1667:The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions
1409:Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes,
1336:... (Rouen, France: Nicolas Loyselet, 1646),
1202:
1179:The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions
1155:
1153:
439:, and published in 1771 a translation of the
2096:
1818:Reprinted in German as: Münter, Friederich,
853:of Bonn, had also published his own work on
750:Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
2227:
2225:
2205:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2188:
2097:Saint-Martin, Antoine-Jean (January 1823).
1951:. University of Chicago Press. p. 12.
1478:Viaggi di Pietro della Valle, Il Pellegrino
471:Mémoire sur diverses antiquités de la Perse
461:, and he realized that the inscriptions of
2439:Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage
2436:
1574:Kramer, Samuel Noah (September 17, 2010).
1542:Kramer, Samuel Noah (September 17, 2010).
1457:(6) : 1–58; see p. 10. Available at:
1429:. Cambridge University Press. p. 17.
1150:
892:had been fully deciphered, the trilingual
634:, who had studied Old Persian through the
427:came back from India, where he had learnt
2506:
2450:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1824:(Kopenhagen, Denmark: C. G. Prost, 1802).
1422:
1100:Region Based Convolutional Neural Network
257:, in the 1638 edition of his travel book
2409:
2329:
2222:
2043:
2041:
2039:
1754:
1752:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1426:The Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia
988:
980:
883:
823:
765:The quadrilingual hieroglyph-cuneiform "
759:
599:
591:
384:
17:
2545:from the original on November 28, 2023.
2430:
2162:Sayce, Archibald Henry (27 June 2019).
2122:
1970:
1968:
1758:
1728:
1594:
1373:(Antwerp, (Belgium): 1620), 16 pages. .
1362:In 1619, Spain's ambassador to Persia,
1261:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
2555:
2365:
2076:
2074:
2072:
1974:
1944:
1927:
1829:
1735:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 118 ff.
1641:
1639:
1573:
1541:
1140:Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig (1815).
1139:
880:Decipherment of Elamite and Babylonian
781:was able to read Egyptian hieroglyphs.
310:in the ruins of the Palace of Darius,
2161:
2048:
2036:
1749:
1709:
1663:
1648:
1609:
1562:
1208:
1175:
1076:
977:Decipherment of Akkadian and Sumerian
740:, rather than the actual Old Persian
1965:
1535:
1501:(London, England: R. Bishop, 1638),
1284:
1235:
1037:, and versatile British Orientalist
838:In 1836, the eminent French scholar
2443:Association for Computing Machinery
2069:
2011:in: Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig,
1636:
1423:Hilprecht, Hermann Vollrat (1904).
645:, who had decrypted the monumental
306:Cuneiform inscriptions recorded by
13:
2304:"Site officiel du musée du Louvre"
2125:"EARLY EXPLORATION IN MESOPOTAMIA"
2090:
1765:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 120.
1095:generative artificial intelligence
1014:and English traveler and diplomat
920:in Persia. Carved in the reign of
132:
14:
2594:
2336:Cuneiform Digital Library Journal
1700:the fold-out plate (Tabelle XXXI)
518:, a word of the same root as the
206:, though these early attempts at
1851:André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005).
565:
543:
506:language and probably mentioned
406:Reisebeschreibungen nach Arabien
361:
352:
341:
296:
287:
156:
141:
2523:
2466:
2403:
2387:
2350:
2323:
2314:
2296:
2261:
2252:
2243:
2234:
2213:
2182:
2155:
2111:
2049:Sayce, Archibald Henry (2019).
2047:Pages 10–14, note 1 on page 13
1998:
1985:
1938:
1921:
1896:
1871:
1779:
1759:Mousavi, Ali (April 19, 2012).
1684:
1664:Sayce, Archibald Henry (2019).
1513:
1491:
1470:
1459:Royal Danish Society of Science
1443:
1416:
1165:. J.W. Parker. 1846. p. 6.
1112:
1067:
643:Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy
453:was able to start the study of
451:Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy
38:began with the decipherment of
1356:
1306:
1255:
1169:
1133:
773:confirmed the decipherment of
326:, and the right is Babylonian.
1:
2231:Prichard 1844, pp. 30–31
1126:
1088:convolutional neural networks
865:, but stood to both Zend and
373:Achaemenid royal inscriptions
174:Achaemenid royal inscriptions
47:Achaemenid royal inscriptions
2441:, vol. 15, no. 2,
2121:II, 1823, PI. II, pp. 65—90
1945:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1971).
1403:Figueroa, Don Garcia Silva,
869:in the relation of a sister.
316:Achaemenid royal inscription
186:For centuries, travelers to
7:
2330:Cathcart, Kevin J. (2011).
1702:after p. 152. From p. 150:
1270:. pp. 39–40 & 65.
1084:Natural Language Processing
969:, thanks to the trilingual
397:), and indeed means "King".
210:were largely unsuccessful.
10:
2599:
1299:December 19, 2016, at the
916:army officer, visited the
914:British East India Company
673:, while Cyrus' father was
371:Niebuhr's publications of
224:and on many clay tablets.
2491:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096
1993:Gods, Graves and Scholars
1981:. H.G. Bohn. p. 333.
1934:. H.G. Bohn. p. 332.
1803:Münter, Frederik (1800b)
1788:Münter, Frederik (1800a)
807:Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin
696:. He equated the letters
619:Georg Friedrich Grotefend
213:In the 15th century, the
95:Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin
87:Georg Friedrich Grotefend
24:Georg Friedrich Grotefend
1464:October 6, 2017, at the
1369:Figueroa, Garcia Silva,
1364:García de Silva Figueroa
1303:Brill Archive, 1974 p.5.
1262:El Daly, Okasha (2004).
1105:
1039:William Henry Fox Talbot
423:At about the same time,
200:Arabo-Persian historians
149:García de Silva Figueroa
63:García de Silva Figueroa
1389:March 20, 2018, at the
1343:March 20, 2018, at the
1326:March 20, 2018, at the
1045:, the secretary of the
1028:Library of Ashurbanipal
457:in 1792–93, during the
445:, thereby making known
71:Jean-Jacques Barthélemy
42:between 1802 and 1836.
2568:Methods in archaeology
2563:History of translation
2445:(ACM), pp. 1–22,
2143:Cite journal requires
998:
986:
905:
877:
830:
805:, and the orientalist
783:
614:
597:
398:
204:medieval Islamic world
27:
2416:UNESCO. p. 229.
1729:Mousavi, Ali (2012).
1519:Herbert, Sir Thomas,
1476:Valle, Pietro della,
1395:Purchas His Pilgrimes
1393:in: Purchas, Samuel,
1047:Royal Asiatic Society
992:
984:
949:Royal Asiatic Society
922:King Darius of Persia
918:Behistun Inscriptions
887:
859:
827:
819:Rasmus Christian Rask
795:Cabinet des Médailles
763:
726:wsa-sha-ya-a-ra-sha-a
603:
595:
410:Old Persian cuneiform
388:
320:Old Persian cuneiform
196:Old Persian cuneiform
99:Rasmus Christian Rask
93:. He was followed by
91:Old Persian cuneiform
40:Old Persian cuneiform
21:
2539:10.2312/gch.20231157
2123:AAGE PALLIS, SVEND.
1800:(1) : 253–292.
1610:Potts, D.T. (2016).
1407:in Purchas, Samuel,
1315:Gouvea, Antonio de,
1209:Potts, D.T. (2016).
1176:Sayce, A.H. (2019).
971:Behistun inscription
942:Egyptian hieroglyphs
894:Behistun Inscription
647:Pahlavi inscriptions
623:Pahlavi inscriptions
478:Oluf Gerhard Tychsen
119:Behistun inscription
80:Oluf Gerhard Tychsen
1016:Austen Henry Layard
908:Meanwhile, in 1835
742:vi-i-sha-ta-a-sa-pa
710:da-a-ra-ya-va-u-sha
692:, and Darius's son
516:kh-sha-a-ya-th-i-ya
2573:History of writing
2308:cartelfr.louvre.fr
2007:Grotefend, G. F.,
1690:Niebuhr, Carsten,
1093:In November 2023,
1077:Digital approaches
999:
987:
906:
831:
784:
615:
598:
399:
255:Sir Thomas Herbert
240:Pietro Della Valle
164:Pietro Della Valle
67:Pietro della Valle
28:
2578:Ancient languages
2423:978-92-3-102811-3
2369:(July 24, 2019).
2175:978-1-108-08239-6
2119:Journal asiatique
2104:Journal asiatique
2062:978-1-108-08239-6
1958:978-0-226-45238-8
1864:978-0-520-24731-4
1772:978-1-61451-033-8
1742:978-1-61451-033-8
1677:978-1-108-08239-6
1623:978-1-107-09469-7
1587:978-0-226-45232-6
1555:978-0-226-45232-6
1497:Herbert, Thomas,
1436:978-1-108-02564-5
1277:978-1-84472-063-7
1222:978-1-107-09469-7
1189:978-1-108-08239-6
1051:Tiglath-Pileser I
1007:Akkadian language
769:" in the name of
632:Anquetil-Duperron
459:French Revolution
425:Anquetil-Duperron
324:Elamite cuneiform
246:and the ruins of
228:Antonio de Gouvea
121:was completed by
2590:
2547:
2546:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2510:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2454:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2407:
2401:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2204:
2196:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2146:
2141:
2139:
2131:
2129:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2078:
2067:
2066:
2045:
2034:
2002:
1996:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1890:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1848:
1827:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1726:
1707:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1661:
1646:
1643:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1571:
1560:
1559:
1539:
1533:
1517:
1511:
1508:Ahashuerus Theos
1495:
1489:
1474:
1468:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1420:
1414:
1360:
1354:
1347:From pp. 81–82:
1310:
1304:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1137:
1120:
1116:
1012:Paul Émile Botta
875:
851:Christian Lassen
731:
718:kh-sh-h-e-r-sh-e
715:
699:
683:Darius the Great
677:and his son was
669:and his son was
659:Darius the Great
575:
569:
553:
547:
538:in Old Persian.
513:
496:Friedrich Münter
487:
483:
396:
393:in Old Persian (
365:
356:
345:
300:
291:
218:Giosafat Barbaro
160:
145:
114:for their work.
107:Christian Lassen
89:in his study of
49:in the ruins of
2598:
2597:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2471:
2467:
2452:10.1145/3491239
2435:
2431:
2424:
2408:
2404:
2392:
2388:
2378:
2376:
2362:Wayback Machine
2355:
2351:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2266:
2262:
2258:Rawlinson 1847.
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2198:
2197:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2160:
2156:
2144:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2116:
2112:
2095:
2091:
2080:
2079:
2070:
2063:
2046:
2037:
2030:vol. 1, p. 196.
2003:
1999:
1990:
1986:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1943:
1939:
1926:
1922:
1913:
1911:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1888:
1886:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1849:
1830:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1757:
1750:
1743:
1727:
1710:
1689:
1685:
1678:
1662:
1649:
1644:
1637:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1572:
1563:
1556:
1540:
1536:
1518:
1514:
1496:
1492:
1475:
1471:
1466:Wayback Machine
1448:
1444:
1437:
1421:
1417:
1391:Wayback Machine
1361:
1357:
1345:Wayback Machine
1328:Wayback Machine
1311:
1307:
1301:Wayback Machine
1290:C. Wade Meade,
1289:
1285:
1278:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1236:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1207:
1203:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1174:
1170:
1159:
1158:
1151:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1123:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1079:
1070:
1018:of the city of
979:
910:Henry Rawlinson
882:
876:
873:
836:
782:
758:
729:
713:
697:
663:Cyrus the Great
590:
583:
573:
570:
561:
551:
548:
511:
485:
481:
402:Carsten Niebuhr
394:
383:
382:
381:
380:
368:
367:
366:
358:
357:
348:
347:
346:
335:
330:
329:
328:
327:
303:
302:
301:
293:
292:
234:. In 1625, the
184:
183:
182:
181:
169:
168:
167:
161:
153:
152:
146:
135:
133:Early knowledge
123:Henry Rawlinson
75:Carsten Niebuhr
55:Carsten Niebuhr
12:
11:
5:
2596:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2549:
2548:
2522:
2485:(5): pgad096.
2465:
2429:
2422:
2402:
2386:
2367:Finkel, Irving
2349:
2322:
2313:
2295:
2276:(3): 138–141.
2260:
2251:
2242:
2233:
2221:
2212:
2181:
2174:
2154:
2145:|journal=
2110:
2089:
2068:
2061:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2018:
1997:
1984:
1964:
1957:
1937:
1920:
1895:
1870:
1863:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1816:
1801:
1778:
1771:
1748:
1741:
1708:
1683:
1676:
1647:
1635:
1622:
1602:
1593:
1586:
1561:
1554:
1534:
1512:
1490:
1469:
1442:
1435:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1399:
1398:
1378:Samuel Purchas
1375:
1374:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1330:
1305:
1283:
1276:
1254:
1234:
1221:
1201:
1188:
1168:
1149:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1024:Hormuzd Rassam
978:
975:
881:
878:
871:
840:Eugène Burnouf
835:
832:
815:Eugène Burnouf
764:
757:
754:
738:g-o-sh-t-a-s-p
730:𐎻𐎡𐏁𐎫𐎠𐎿𐎱
714:𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠
702:d-a-r-h-e-u-sh
700:with the name
698:𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁
641:in India, and
589:
586:
585:
584:
574:𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹
571:
564:
562:
552:𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹
549:
542:
512:𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹
486:𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹
463:Naqsh-e Rostam
455:Middle Persian
395:𐎧𐏁𐎠𐎹𐎰𐎡𐎹
370:
369:
360:
359:
351:
350:
349:
340:
339:
338:
337:
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322:, the left is
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103:Eugène Burnouf
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2320:Daniels 1996.
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1994:
1991:Ceram, C.W.,
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1529:Brachyography
1526:
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1484:From p. 253:
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1096:
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1086:methods with
1085:
1074:
1065:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1055:fait accompli
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1035:Julius Oppert
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
996:
991:
983:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
959:Edward Hincks
957:
956:Assyriologist
952:
950:
945:
943:
939:
938:Rosetta Stone
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
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325:
321:
317:
314:in 1674. The
313:
309:
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290:
281:
279:
273:
271:
266:
264:
263:hieroglyphics
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
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237:
233:
229:
225:
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211:
209:
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198:date back to
197:
193:
190:, located in
189:
179:
175:
165:
159:
150:
144:
130:
128:
127:Edward Hincks
124:
120:
115:
113:
108:
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100:
96:
92:
88:
83:
81:
76:
72:
68:
64:
58:
56:
52:
48:
43:
41:
37:
33:
25:
20:
16:
2583:Decipherment
2525:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2438:
2432:
2412:
2405:
2395:
2389:
2377:. Retrieved
2371:
2358:Ghostarchive
2356:Archived at
2352:
2335:
2325:
2316:
2307:
2298:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2254:
2245:
2236:
2219:Burnouf 1836
2215:
2191:
2184:
2164:
2157:
2136:cite journal
2118:
2113:
2102:
2092:
2082:
2051:
2026:pp. 313–360.
2021:
2013:
2000:
1992:
1987:
1977:
1947:
1940:
1930:
1923:
1912:. Retrieved
1910:. 2020-09-24
1907:
1898:
1887:. Retrieved
1885:. 2020-04-16
1882:
1873:
1853:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1797:
1793:
1781:
1761:
1731:
1703:
1691:
1686:
1666:
1627:. Retrieved
1612:
1605:
1596:
1576:
1544:
1537:
1528:
1525:pp. 141–142.
1520:
1515:
1507:
1503:pp. 145–146.
1498:
1493:
1485:
1482:pp. 252–253.
1477:
1472:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1425:
1418:
1408:
1394:
1370:
1358:
1348:
1333:
1316:
1308:
1292:
1286:
1263:
1257:
1226:. Retrieved
1211:
1204:
1193:. Retrieved
1178:
1171:
1161:
1142:
1135:
1114:
1092:
1080:
1071:
1068:Proper names
1059:
1054:
1043:Edwin Norris
1032:
1000:
953:
946:
907:
860:
854:
848:
837:
810:
785:
746:
741:
737:
725:
717:
709:
701:
687:
655:
616:
606:
577:
555:
535:
529:
522:
515:
494:
475:
470:
440:
422:
405:
400:
390:
308:Jean Chardin
278:Jean Chardin
274:
267:
258:
252:
226:
212:
208:decipherment
185:
116:
97:in 1822 and
84:
59:
44:
32:decipherment
29:
15:
2249:Adkins 2003
1698:; see also
1252:Sayce 1908.
890:Old Persian
799:Caylus vase
791:Champollion
788:philologist
779:Champollion
767:Caylus vase
679:Cambyses II
636:Zoroastrian
611:Achaemenian
504:Old Persian
442:Zend Avesta
270:Thomas Hyde
253:Englishman
2557:Categories
2479:PNAS Nexus
1914:2023-03-19
1889:2023-03-19
1629:2023-03-25
1532:cuneiform.
1338:pp. 81–82.
1228:2023-03-25
1195:2023-03-19
1127:References
967:Babylonian
930:Babylonian
902:Babylonian
675:Cambyses I
508:Achaemenid
435:under the
418:Babylonian
377:Persepolis
312:Persepolis
188:Persepolis
178:Persepolis
51:Persepolis
2499:2752-6542
2461:248843112
2344:1540-8779
2282:0373-6032
2201:cite book
1268:Routledge
1060:Finally,
944:in 1822.
844:satrapies
775:Grotefend
734:Hystaspes
690:Hystaspes
667:Hystaspes
536:xšāyaθiya
476:In 1798,
391:xšāyaθiya
238:traveler
36:cuneiform
2543:Archived
2517:37143863
2508:10153418
2379:July 29,
2360:and the
2290:23284567
2193:jeune...
1462:Archived
1387:Archived
1341:Archived
1324:Archived
1297:Archived
1119:187–349.
1062:Sumerian
1003:Akkadian
872:—
867:Sanskrit
803:Xerxes I
771:Xerxes I
651:Sassanid
627:Sassanid
617:By 1802
527:Sanskrit
525:and the
268:In 1700
215:Venetian
112:Ganjnāme
2240:Lassen.
1020:Nineveh
963:Elamite
934:Elamite
926:Persian
898:Elamite
653:kings.
649:of the
639:Avestas
625:of the
531:kṣatra-
523:xšaΘra-
520:Avestan
490:Arsacid
447:Avestan
433:Persian
429:Pahlavi
414:Elamite
248:Babylon
202:of the
2515:
2505:
2497:
2459:
2420:
2342:
2288:
2280:
2172:
2059:
1995:, 1954
1955:
1908:Livius
1883:Livius
1861:
1769:
1739:
1696:p. 150
1674:
1620:
1584:
1552:
1433:
1321:p. 32.
1274:
1219:
1186:
995:Rimush
829:error.
797:, the
722:Xerxes
706:Darius
694:Xerxes
671:Xerxes
467:Aniran
437:Parsis
232:Persia
222:Shiraz
166:(1621)
151:(1620)
2457:S2CID
2338:(1).
2286:JSTOR
2130:: 36.
2128:(PDF)
2004:See:
1904:"XPe"
1879:"DPa"
1785:See:
1312:See:
1106:Notes
888:Once
874:Sayce
777:once
732:with
716:with
500:Cyrus
236:Roman
2513:PMID
2495:ISSN
2418:ISBN
2381:2019
2340:ISSN
2278:ISSN
2207:link
2170:ISBN
2149:help
2057:ISBN
1953:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1767:ISBN
1737:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1618:ISBN
1582:ISBN
1550:ISBN
1431:ISBN
1272:ISBN
1217:ISBN
1184:ISBN
965:and
932:and
912:, a
900:and
863:Zend
817:and
720:for
704:for
661:and
431:and
416:and
192:Iran
125:and
30:The
2535:doi
2503:PMC
2487:doi
2447:doi
2398:...
2117:In
579:XPe
557:DPa
375:in
176:in
34:of
2559::
2541:.
2533:.
2511:.
2501:.
2493:.
2481:.
2477:.
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2364::
2334:.
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2272:.
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2203:}}
2199:{{
2140::
2138:}}
2134:{{
2101:.
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2038:^
1967:^
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1711:^
1650:^
1638:^
1564:^
1455:33
1266:.
1237:^
1152:^
1090:.
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744:.
685:.
613:".
482:𐏐
473:.
280:.
244:Ur
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1961:.
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1813:1
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1439:.
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1231:.
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904:.
605:(
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