Cultural racism - Knowledge

460:

Rattansi asked the question whether cultural racism could be seen to stretch the notion of racism "to a point where it becomes too wide to be useful as anything but a rhetorical ploy?" He suggested that beliefs which insist that group identification require the adoption of cultural traits such as specific dress, language, custom, and religion might better be termed ethnicism or ethnocentrism and that when these also incorporate hostility to foreigners they may be described as bordering on xenophobia. He does however acknowledge that "it is possible to talk of ‘cultural racism’ despite the fact that strictly speaking modern ideas of race have always had one or other biological foundation." The critique "misses the point that generalizations, stereotypes, and other forms of cultural essentialism rest and draw upon a wider reservoir of concepts that are in circulation in popular and public culture. Thus, the racist elements of any particular proposition can only be judged by understanding the general context of public and private discourses in which ethnicity, national identifications, and race coexist in blurred and overlapping forms without clear demarcations."

829: 579:

economic tension and unemployment. Based on fieldwork in the country during 1995, she argued that cultural racism had encouraged anti-immigration sentiment throughout Danish society and generated "various forms of racist practice", including housing quotas that restrict the number of ethnic minorities to around 10%. Furthermore, Dinesh D'Souza spoke about racism being so deeply embedded in "Western consciousness" that it cannot be eradicated, as it is now seen as a 'norm' in western behaviours due to cultural teachings being passed down through generations. However, he mainly based his argument on ethnocentrism being mistaken for racism in Western societies which he believed we often misinterpreted as being racist, his thesis was that early European racists were misunderstood as their views was a way of them trying to "make sense of the diverse world" in other words, they did not understand the culture as it did not match their own, as a result they tried to implement their own.

717: 634: 349:", and in this way produced a "racism without races". Balibar described this racism as having as its dominant theme not biological heredity, "but the insurmountability of cultural differences, a racism which, at first sight, does not postulate the superiority of certain groups or peoples in relation to others but 'only' the harmfulness of abolishing frontiers, the incompatibility of lifestyles and traditions". He nevertheless thought that cultural racism's claims that different cultures are equal was "more apparent than real" and that when put into practice, cultural racist ideas reveal that they inherently rely on a belief that some cultures are superior to others. 708: 22: 386:

racism relies on a belief that separate cultural groups are so different that they "cannot get along". In addition, he argued that cultural racist views hold that any widespread poverty or unemployment faced by an ethnic minority arises from that minority's own "cultural values and behavior" rather than from broader systems of discrimination within the society it inhabits. In this way, Grosfoguel argued, cultural racism encompasses attempts by dominant communities to claim that marginalised communities are at fault for their own problems.

202: 915:

adopted in Europe had been a "relativistic" one that emphasised diversity and difference between ethnic groups – the same basic message promoted by cultural racism. He thus thought that such programs "exacerbate rather than eliminate racism". Flecha expressed the view that to combat cultural racism, anti-racists should instead utilise a "dialogic" approach which encourages different ethnic groups to live alongside each other according to rules that they have all agreed upon through a "free and egalitarian dialogue".

541: 958:

multiculturalism and anti-racism. As practical proposals, she suggested teaching pupils about non-standard vernacular languages other than Standard English and explaining to them how the latter "became (and remains) the language of power". She also suggested getting pupils to discuss how images in popular media reflect prejudicial assumptions about different ethnic groups and to examine historical events and works of literature from a range of different cultural perspectives.

776:, an ethno-nationalist think-thank founded in 1968 to influence established right-wing political parties and diffuse ND ideas within the society at large, advised its members "to abandon an outdated language" by 1969. Nouvelle Droite thinkers progressively shifted from theories of biological racism toward the claim that different ethno-cultural groups should be kept separate in order to preserve their historical and cultural differences, a concept they name 4107: 109:, a term that had been used to describe discrimination on the grounds of perceived biological race since the early 20th century. They argued that while biological racism had become increasingly unpopular in Western societies during the second half of the 20th century, it had been replaced by a new, cultural racism that relied on a belief in intrinsic and insurmountable cultural differences instead. They noted that this change was being promoted by 4127: 353:

latter phenomenon differed from its predecessor by talking about "ethnicity/culture" rather than "race", by promoting notions of "difference" in place of "inequality", and by presenting itself as a champion of "heterophilia", the love of difference, rather than "heterophobia", the fear of difference. In this, he argued that it engaged in what he called "mixophobia", the fear of cultural mixing, and linked in closely with

825:, an Islamophobic street protest organisation founded in London in 2009, have labelled it culturally racist. Anthias suggested that it was appropriate to talk of "anti-Muslim racism" because the latter involved attributing the Muslim population "with fixed, unchanging and negative characteristics" and then subjecting them "to relations of inferiorization and exclusion", traits that she associated with the term "racism". 949:. It would also include teaching students methodologies that would alert them to how different media reinforce existing forms of authority. Specifically, he urged teachers to provide their students with the "analytic tools" through which they could learn to challenge accounts that perpetuated ethnocentric discourses and thus "racism, sexism and colonialism". More broadly, he urged leftist activists not to abandon 4117: 499:

culturally-defined group as a biological entity. Thus, Miles and Brown argued, Baker's "new racism" relied on a definition of racism which eliminated any distinctions between that concept and others such as nationalism and sexism. The sociologist Floya Anthias critiqued early ideas of the "neo-racism" for failing to provide explanations for prejudices and discrimination towards groups like the

447:

emphasising cultural differences because of growing social disapproval of biological racism and that it represents a switch in tactics rather than a fundamental change in underlying racist belief. The third argument is the "racism-without-race" approach. This holds that categories like "migrants" and "Muslims" have—despite not representing biologically united groups—undergone a process of "

133:. The second is that beliefs in biological and cultural difference are often interlinked and that biological racists use claims of cultural difference to promote their ideas in contexts where biological racism is considered socially unacceptable. The third argument is that the idea of cultural racism recognizes that in many societies, groups like immigrants and Muslims have undergone 323:

identity. By these means cultural racism treats the 'other culture' as a threat that might contaminate the dominant culture and its internal coherence. Such a view is clearly based on the assumption that certain groups are the genuine carriers of the national culture and the exclusive heirs of their history while others are potential slayers of its 'purity'.

562:

members of a superior race, but of a superior culture, referred to as "European culture", "Western culture", or "the West". He proposed that culturally racist ideas were developed in the wake of the Second World War by Western academics who were tasked with rationalising the white Western dominance both of communities of colour in Western nations and the

345:, arguing that while older, biological racisms were employed when European countries were engaged in colonising other parts of the world, the new racism was linked to the rise of non-European migration into Europe in the decades following the Second World War. He argued that "neo-racism" replaced "the notion of race" with "the category of 614:, a prominent figure in establishing the apartheid system, had argued in favour of separating racial groups on the grounds of cultural difference. The idea of cultural racism has also been used to explain phenomena in the United States. Grosfoguel argued that cultural racism replaced biological racism in the U.S. amid the 1960s 919:

conflict. Proponents of cultural racism therefore argue that attempts at integrating different ethnic and cultural groups itself leads to prejudice and discrimination. In doing this they seek to portray their own views as the "true anti-racism", as opposed to the views of those activists who call themselves "anti-racists".

419:. In Jones' view, when individuals reject a belief in biological race, notions regarding the relative cultural inferiority and superiority of different groups can remain, and that "cultural racism remains as a residue of expunged biological racism." Offering a very different definition, the scholar of 914:

During the 1980 and 1990s, both Balibar and Taguieff expressed the view that established approaches to anti-racist activism were designed to tackle biological racism and thus were destabilized when confronted with cultural racism. In 1999, Flecha argued that the main approach to anti-racist education

578:

through which they justify the exclusion of various ethnic or cultural 'others', while at the same time ignoring socio-economic inequalities between different ethnic groups. Using Denmark as an example, she argued that a "culturally racist discourse" had emerged during the 1980s, a time of heightened

573:

Wren argued that cultural racism had manifested in a largely similar way throughout Europe, but with specific variations in different places according to the established ideas of national identity and the form and timing of immigration. She argued that Western societies used the discourse of cultural

307:

rejected the idea that there are biologically distinct races, arguing that "race" is a culturally constructed concept created through racist practices. These academic theorists argued that the hostility to migrants evident in Western Europe during the latter decades of the twentieth century should be

929:

chools may be one of the few public institutions that have the potential to counteract a culturally racist ideology t is also imperative that we confront cultural racism in our schools and classrooms so that our society eventually might overcome notions of White supremacy and become more inclusive

661:

acknowledged the presence of racial and ethnic diversity in the U.S., but presented it as a threat to national unity. Drawing on Giroux's work, the scholar of critical pedagogy Rebecca Powell suggested that both the conservative and liberal wings of U.S. politics reflected a culturally racist stance

364:

Karen Wren defined cultural racism as "a theory of human nature where humans are considered equal, but where cultural differences make it natural for nation states to form closed communities, as relations between different cultures are essentially hostile". She added that cultural racism stereotypes

918:

Wollenberg commented that those radical right-wing groups which emphasise cultural difference had converted "multiculturalist anti-racism into a tool of racism". According to Balibar, the cultural racist position argues that when ethnic groups co-exist in the same location it "naturally" results in

485:

and so on into the concept of racism, irrespective of justifications, does the concept not run the risk of losing in historical precision and pertinence what it gains in universality?" They suggested that in attempting to develop a concept of "racism" that could be applied universally, exponents of

459:

Several academics have critiqued the use of cultural racism to describe prejudices and discrimination on the basis of cultural difference. Those who reserve the term racism for biological racism for instance do not believe that cultural racism is a useful or appropriate concept. The sociologist Ali

434:

Theorists have put forward three main arguments as to why they deem the term "racism" appropriate for hostility and prejudice on the basis of cultural differences. The first is the argument that a belief in fundamental cultural differences between human groups can lead to the same harmful acts as a

120:

Three main arguments as to why beliefs in intrinsic and insurmountable cultural differences should be considered racist have been put forward. One is that hostility on a cultural basis can result in the same discriminatory and harmful practices as belief in intrinsic biological differences, such as

498:

Baker's notion of the "new racism" was critiqued by the sociologists Robert Miles and Malcolm Brown. They thought it problematic because it relied on defining racism not as a system based on the belief in the superiority and inferiority of different groups, but as encompassing any ideas that saw a

385:

Ramón Grosfoguel noted that "cultural racism assumes that the metropolitan culture is different from ethnic minorities' culture" while simultaneously taking on the view that minorities fail to "understand the cultural norms" that are dominant in a given country. Grosfoguel also noted that cultural

352:

Drawing on developments in French culture during the 1980s, Taguieff drew a distinction between "imperialist/colonialist racism", which he also called the "racism of assimilation", and "differentialist/mixophobic racism", which he also termed "the racism of exclusion". Taguieff suggested that this

561:

argued that in Western contexts, cultural racism replaces the biological concept of the "white race" with that of the "European" as a cultural entity. This argument was subsequently supported by Wren. Blaut argued that cultural racism had encouraged many white Westerners to view themselves not as

333:

Not all scholars that have used the concept of "cultural racism" have done so in the same way. The scholars Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Peter Chua defined "cultural racism" as "a form of racism (that is, a structurally unequal practice) that relies on cultural differences rather than on biological

840:

scholar Arun Kundnani suggested some difference between cultural racism and Islamophobia. He noted that while cultural racism perceived "the body as the essential location of racial identity", specifically through its "forms of dress, rituals, languages and so on", Islamophobia "seems to locate

689:

In 1992, Blaut argued that while most academics totally rejected biological racism, cultural racism was widespread within academia. Similarly, in 2000 Powell suggested that cultural racism underpinned many of the policies and decisions made by U.S. educational institutions, although often on an

677:

living in Israel. After the Ethiopian Jews began migrating to Israel in the 1980s, various young members were sent to boarding school with the intention of assimilating them into mainstream Israeli culture and distancing them from their parental culture. The newcomers found that many Israelis,

322:

An important characteristic of the so-called 'new racism', 'cultural racism' or 'differential racism' is the fact that it essentialises ethnicity and religion, and traps people in supposedly immutable reference categories, as if they are incapable of adapting to a new reality or changing their

803:

In Denmark, a far-right group called the Den Danske Forening (The Danish Society) was launched in 1986, presenting arguments about cultural incompatibility aimed largely at refugees entering the country. Its discourse presented Denmark as a culturally homogenous and Christian nation that was

446:

The second argument is that ideas of biological and cultural difference are intimately linked. Various scholars have argued that racist discourses often emphasise both biological and cultural difference at the same time. Others have argued that racist groups have often moved toward publicly

398:

defined cultural racism as "societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of White culture (e.g., language, traditions, appearance) are superior to those of non-White cultures". She identified it as one of three forms of racism, alongside personal racism and

940:

Arguing from his position as a scholar of critical pedagogy, Giroux proposed using both "a representational pedagogy and a pedagogy of representation" to address cultural racism. This would include encouraging students to read accounts of race relations which challenge those written by

957:

Similarly, Powell argued that schools were the best place to counteract "cultural racism", in that it was here that teachers could expose children to the underlying ideas on which cultural assumptions are based. She added that in the U.S., schools should commit themselves to promoting

686:, did not regard them as real Jews. When some white Israeli parents removed their children from schools with a high percentage of Ethiopian children, they denied accusations of racism, with one stating: "It's only a matter of cultural differences, we have nothing against blacks". 157:

for both. According to this view, incorporating cultural prejudices into the concept of racism expands the latter too much and weakens its utility. Among scholars who have used the concept of cultural racism, there have been debates as to its scope. Some scholars have argued that

213:. Balibar characterised it as a concept plagued by "extreme tension" as well as "extreme confusion". This academic usage is complicated by the fact that the word is also common in popular discourse, often as a term of "political abuse"; many of those who term themselves " 953:

in the face of U.S. cultural racism, but instead called on them to "not only construct a new politics of difference but extend and deepen the possibilities of critical cultural work by reasserting the primacy of the pedagogical as a form of cultural politics".

808:

expressed ideas about cultural incompatibility between Muslims and other Europeans, as opposed to biologically racist ideas. In his view, Muslims represented a cultural threat to Europe, but he placed no emphasis on their perceived biological difference.

465:

an a combination of religious and other cultural antipathy be described as 'racist'? Is this not to rob the idea of racism of any analytical specificity and open the floodgates to a conceptual inflation that simply undermines the legitimacy of the idea?

377:

do not belong, is "essential" to cultural racism. She noted that "cultural racism relies on the closure of culture by territory and the idea that 'foreigners' should not share the 'national' resources, particularly if they are under threat of scarcity."

974:

Translation of the quote: "Ethnomasochism provokes systematic 'defences', a hybridization of races and cosmopolitanism. It fundamentally deprives Europeans of their ethnic identity, to give it back to others. It can undoubtedly be called auto-racism."

338:, Chua defined cultural racism as "the institutional domination and sense of racial‐ethnic superiority of one social group over others, justified by and based on allusively constructed markers, instead of outdated biologically ascribed distinctions". 511:

culture had often been depicted positively in British youth culture. In addition, she suggested that, despite its emphasis on culture, early work on "neo-racism" still betrayed its focus on biological differences by devoting its attention to

590:

for instance was considered a cultural racist for comments in which she expressed concern about Britain becoming "swamped by people with a different culture". The term has also been used in Turkey. In 2016, Germany's European Commissioner

490:

people in the Netherlands during the 2010s, Siebers and Dennissen argued that these individuals' experiences were very different both from those encountered by Dutch Jews in the first half of the 20th century and colonial subjects in the

302:

From the 1980s onward, there was considerable debate—particularly in Britain, France, and the United States—about the relationship between biological racism and prejudices rooted in cultural difference. By this point, most scholars of

841:

identity not so much in a racialised body but in a set of fixed religious beliefs and practices". The sociologist Ali Rattansi argued that while many forms of Islamophobia did exhibit racism, for instance by conflating Muslims with

732:

The scholar of English Daniel Wollenberg stated that in the latter part of the 20th century and early decades of the 21st, many in the European far-right began to distance themselves from the biological racism that characterised

476:

Similarly, Siebers and Dennissen questioned whether bringing "together the exclusion/oppression of groups as different as current migrants in Europe, Afro-Americans and Latinos in the US, Jews in the Holocaust and in the Spanish

162:

should be considered a form of cultural racism. Others have disagreed, arguing that while cultural racism pertains to visible symbols of difference like clothing, cuisine, and language, Islamophobia primarily pertains to

312:. They therefore argued that while historic forms of racism were rooted in ideas of biological difference, the new "racism" was rooted in beliefs about different groups being culturally incompatible with each other. 864:, proposed that Islamophobia be defined in British law as being "a type of racism that targets expressions of Muslimness or perceived Muslimness". This generated concerns that such a definition would criminalise 152:

The utility of the concept has been debated. Some scholars have argued that prejudices and hostility based on culture are sufficiently different from biological racism that it is not appropriate to use the term

656:

were "reappropriating progressive critiques of race, ethnicity and identity and using them to promote rather than dispel a politics of cultural racism". For Giroux, the conservative administration of President

725:

In Western Europe, far-right politicians like Jean-Marie Le Pen (left) and Nick Griffin (right) downplayed their parties' biologically racist positions to argue for the incompatibility of different cultural

874:, David Green referred to it as "a backdoor blasphemy law" that would protect conservative variants of Islam from criticism, including criticism from other Muslims. The British anti-racism campaigner 426:

used the term "cultural racism" to define "the racism deeply embedded in the culture and thus always in circulation. Cultural racism keeps our racist socialization alive and continually reinforced."

299:, the idea that the human species sub-divided into biologically distinct races began to decline. At this, anti-racists declared that the scientific validity behind racism had been discredited. 690:"unconscious level". She argued that the U.S. curriculum was based on the premise that "White cultural knowledge" was superior to that of other ethnic groups, hence why it was taught in 2944: 2145: 495:. Accordingly, they argued that concepts of "cultural essentialism" and "cultural fundamentalism" were far better ways of explaining hostility to migrants than that of "racism". 175:

The concept of "cultural racism" has been given various names, particularly as it was being developed by academic theorists in the 1980s and early 1990s. The British scholar of

902:

government rejected it, stating that the definition required "further careful consideration" and had "not been broadly accepted". Various British Muslims and groups like the

232:

employed it to describe themselves and their belief in the inherent superiority of the French people over other groups. The earliest recorded use of the term "racism" in the

394:

As a concept developed in Europe, "cultural racism" has had less of an impact in the United States. Referring specifically to the situation in the U.S., the psychologist

800:

and his "moderniser" faction—also began downplaying its espousal of biological racism in favour of claims about the cultural incompatibility of different ethnic groups.

570:

was developed to promote the culturally racist idea that the Western powers were wealthier and more economically developed because they were more culturally advanced.

80:

groups. This includes the idea that some cultures are superior to others or in more extreme cases that various cultures are fundamentally incompatible and should not

2119: 194:, used the term "differentialist racism", while a similar term used in the literature has been "the racism of cultural difference". The Spanish sociologist 3898: 3307:

Meer, Nasar; Modood, Tariq (2009). "Islamophobia as Cultural Racism? Martin Amis and the Racialization of Muslims". In S. Sayyid; Abdoolkarim Vali (eds.).

507:

population. She also argued that the framework failed to take into account positive images of ethnic and cultural minorities, for instance in the way that

832:

Various scholars who have studied the English Defence League (demonstration pictured) have argued that its Islamophobia can be called "cultural racism".

610:, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, in South Africa during the latter 1940s. He noted that the Dutch-born South African politician 2895:

Jones, James M. (1999). "Cultural Racism: The Intersection of Race and Culture in Intergroup Conflict". In Deborah A. Prentice; Dale T. Miller (eds.).

637:

The Clash of Civilizations theory put forward by American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington has been described as a stimulus to cultural racism.

443:

or exclusion and extermination. As the academics Hans Siebers and Marjolein H. J. Dennissen noted, this claim has yet to be empirically demonstrated.

308:

regarded as "racism" but recognised that it was different from historical phenomena commonly called "racism", such as racial antisemitism or European

4050: 2202: 264: 3176:

Siebers, Hans; Dennissen, Marjolein H. J. (2015). "Is it Cultural Racism? Discursive Exclusion and Oppression of Migrants in the Netherlands".

1749: 486:

the "cultural racism" idea risked undermining the "historicity and contextuality" of specific prejudices. In analysing the prejudices faced by

821:, or prejudice and discrimination toward Muslims, have labelled it a form of cultural racism. For instance, a range of academics studying the 2815:

Giroux, Henry A. (1993). "Living Dangerously: Identity Politics and the New Cultural Racism: Towards a Critical Pedagogy of Representation".

630:, has also been cited as a stimulus to cultural racism for its argument that the world is divided up into mutually exclusive cultural blocs. 3850: 2855:

Grosfoguel, Ramón (1999). "Introduction: "Cultural Racism" and Colonial Caribbean Migrants in Core Zones of the Capitalist World-Economy".

662:

in that both treated European American culture as normative. She argued that while European American liberals acknowledge the existence of

3833: 694:, the literature studied was largely Eurocentric, and history lessons focused on the doings of Europeans and people of European descent. 2228: 2153: 622:, with various European Americans taking the view that they were not truly American because they spoke Spanish rather than English. The 603:

remained the Turkish President. In response, Turkey's European Union Affairs Minister Omer Celik accused Germany of "cultural racism".

3011:

McCulloch, Tom (2006). "The Nouvelle Droite in the 1980s and 1990s: Ideology and Entryism, the Relationship with the Front National".

141:, those calling for the eradication of cultural racism in Western countries have largely argued that this should be done by promoting 4156: 4020: 2176: 3736: 547:'s 1978 claim that Britain was being "swamped by people with a different culture" has been cited as an example of cultural racism. 3756: 3354: 2203:"Proposed new definition of Islamophobia could see teachers forced to allow full-face veils in classrooms, warns Trevor Phillips" 2439:

Alessio, Dominic; Meredith, Kristen (2014). "Blackshirts for the Twenty–First Century? Fascism and the English Defence League".

415:

had long persisted in U.S. culture, and that this was often connected to beliefs that said groups were biologically inferior to

4092: 137:, coming to be seen as distinct social groups separate from the majority on the basis of their cultural traits. Influenced by 3116: 2988: 2845: 2784: 408: 334:

markers of racial superiority or inferiority. The cultural differences can be real, imagined, or constructed". Elsewhere, in

263:

The popularisation of the term "racism" in Western countries came later, when "racism" was increasingly used to describe the

878:

also argued that it was inappropriate for the UK government to view Islamophobia as racism. Martin Hewitt, the chair of the

88:, which refers to prejudices and discrimination rooted in perceived biological differences between ethnic or racial groups. 3505: 2728: 606:

The sociologist Xolela Mangcu argued that cultural racism could be seen as a contributing factor in the construction of

205:Étienne Balibar's concept of "neo-racism" was an early formulation of what later became widely termed "cultural racism". 3316: 3260: 3068: 3049: 2904: 2885: 2717: 2506: 879: 2979:

Kundnani, Arun (2017). "Islamophobia as Ideology of US Empire". In Narzanin Massoumi; Tom Mills; David Miller (eds.).

673:

The scholar Uri Ben-Eliezer argued that the concept of cultural racism was useful for understanding the experience of

3937: 3920: 3382: 757: 653: 2998:

Mangcu, Xolela (2017). "Cultural Racism in South Africa and the United States: Notes Toward an Anti-Racist Vision".

2611:

Allen, Chris (2011). "Opposing Islamification or Promoting Islamophobia? Understanding the English Defence League".

4130: 3886: 3855: 3751: 525: 2051: 3838: 942: 745: 716: 4010: 3867: 103:. These theorists argued that the hostility to immigrants then evident in Western countries should be labelled 2794:

Flecha, Ramón (1999). "Modern and Postmodern Racism in Europe: Dialogic Approach and Anti-Racist Pedagogies".

240:". According to Taguieff, up until the 1980s, the term "racism" was typically used to describe "essentially a 2729:

The English Defence League: Challenging our Country and our Values of Social Inclusion, Fairness and Equality

853: 741:

groups and instead emphasised "culture and heritage" as the "key factors in constructing communal identity".

236:

dates from 1902, and for the first half of the 20th century the word was used interchangeably with the term "

2945:"The Ideology and Discourse of the English Defence League: 'Not Racist, Not Violent, Just No Longer Silent'" 670:

betrays an underlying belief in the superiority of European American culture over that of non-white groups.

4080: 3942: 3932: 3925: 3729: 946: 753: 487: 3957: 3773: 3347: 2553:

Ben-Eliezer, Uri (2004). "Becoming a Black Jew: Cultural Racism and Anti-Racism in Contemporary Israel".

1711: 516:—however defined—and neglecting the experiences of lighter-skinned ethnic minorities in Britain, such as 280: 77: 2699: 3714: 3270:

Wollenberg, Daniel (2014). "Defending the West: Cultural Racism and Pan-Europeanism on the Far-Right".

404: 91:

The concept of cultural racism was developed in the 1980s and 1990s by West European scholars such as

4030: 3874: 903: 2489:

Balibar, Étienne (1991). "Is there a Neo-Racism?". In Étienne Balibar; Immanuel Wallerstein (eds.).

3647: 633: 164: 3248: 2516:

Balibar, Étienne (2008). "Racism Revisited: Sources, Relevance, and Aporias of a Modern Concept".

451:" in that they have come to be regarded as unitary groups on the basis of shared cultural traits. 287:

race inhabiting Northern Europe. The term was further popularised in the 1950s and 1960s amid the

191: 100: 4120: 4040: 3845: 3785: 3763: 3490: 899: 788:. After observing the electoral gains of Le Pen's party, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, a UK 781: 420: 142: 600: 4005: 3908: 3828: 3657: 3598: 3500: 3397: 3340: 895: 822: 805: 793: 623: 436: 122: 3078:

Powell, Rebecca (2000). "Overcoming Cultural Racism: The Promise of Multicultural Education".

2498: 828: 4060: 3952: 3947: 3862: 3823: 3630: 3625: 3059:

Mukhopadhyay, Carol C.; Chua, Peter (2008). "Cultural Racism". In John Hartwell Moore (ed.).

993: 945:

commentators, who he thought concealed their underlying ideology and the existence of racial

667: 618:. Clare Sheridan stated that cultural racism was an applicable concept to the experiences of 615: 288: 190:

favoured "neo-racism", and later "cultural-differential racism". Another French philosopher,

2490: 4015: 3881: 3525: 3462: 3432: 3417: 3402: 2678: 663: 627: 400: 304: 2468:

Anthias, Floya (1995). "Cultural Racism or Racist Culture? Rethinking Racist Exclusions".

882:, warned that implementing that definition could exacerbate community tensions and hamper 8: 4035: 3790: 3669: 3422: 649: 2807: 2682: 4065: 4045: 3704: 3635: 3603: 3570: 3560: 3442: 3287: 3236: 3203: 3164: 3156: 3095: 3028: 2967: 2931: 2864: 2763: 2690: 2657: 2628: 2599: 2570: 2541: 2533: 2456: 865: 592: 558: 553: 416: 366: 229: 209:

The term "racism" is one of the most controversial and ambiguous words used within the

110: 187: 96: 34: 3724: 3689: 3679: 3640: 3580: 3530: 3452: 3437: 3407: 3312: 3291: 3256: 3228: 3207: 3168: 3112: 3099: 3064: 3045: 3032: 2984: 2971: 2900: 2881: 2841: 2780: 2713: 2661: 2632: 2603: 2574: 2545: 2502: 2491: 2460: 950: 891: 883: 785: 765: 658: 642: 619: 587: 544: 508: 492: 412: 138: 85: 2935: 1750:"Turkey accuses Germany of 'cultural racism' over comments about country joining EU" 3818: 3795: 3778: 3768: 3746: 3709: 3699: 3684: 3674: 3593: 3588: 3565: 3555: 3279: 3220: 3193: 3185: 3148: 3087: 3020: 2959: 2923: 2824: 2803: 2705: 2686: 2649: 2620: 2591: 2562: 2525: 2477: 2448: 845:

and presenting them as being uniformly barbaric, in his view Islamophobia was "not

691: 611: 529: 292: 233: 180: 81: 30: 3215:

Taguieff, Pierre-André (1993). "Origines et métamorphoses de la Nouvelle Droite".

2914:

Wren, Karen (2001). "Cultural Racism: Something Rotten in the State of Denmark?".

2709: 2258: 4151: 4110: 4075: 3967: 3800: 3719: 3694: 3662: 3652: 3620: 3615: 3510: 3467: 3457: 3447: 3412: 3377: 2624: 2529: 2452: 887: 875: 769: 225: 210: 114: 38: 3091: 3024: 2566: 2117: 1041: 586:

anti-immigrant sentiment expressed in 1980s Britain. The British Prime Minister

195: 4087: 3741: 3610: 777: 683: 674: 596: 423: 342: 68:, is a concept that has been applied to prejudices and discrimination based on 42: 16:

Alleged type of racism that discriminates people for being culturally different

2927: 2828: 2735: 2653: 2481: 4145: 3903: 3550: 3515: 3427: 3387: 3232: 3189: 2595: 870: 861: 837: 567: 504: 500: 448: 183: 176: 134: 92: 3139:

Sheridan, Clare (2003). "Cultural Racism and the Construction of Identity".

2963: 1013: 33:, the idea that people of different cultures can reside in the same state (" 4070: 3915: 2640:

Bar-On, Tamir (2001). "The Ambiguities of the Nouvelle Droite, 1968-1999".

2120:

Islamophobia Defined: The Inquiry into a Working Definition of Islamophobia

818: 797: 761: 749: 645: 517: 513: 370: 291:'s campaign to end racial inequalities in the United States. Following the 268: 159: 804:

threatened by largely Muslim migrants. In Norway, the far-right terrorist

3995: 3962: 3540: 3520: 3283: 857: 738: 583: 563: 395: 389: 374: 354: 309: 295:, when Nazi Germany was defeated and biologists developed the science of 284: 214: 146: 21: 2868: 2767: 2537: 3891: 3545: 3535: 3472: 3240: 3198: 3160: 734: 595:

stated that it was unlikely that Turkey would be permitted to join the

521: 440: 365:

ethnic groups, treats cultures as fixed entities, and rejects ideas of

361: 217:" use the term "racism" in a highly generalised and indeterminate way. 201: 126: 784:(FN) party, which was then growing in support under the leadership of 4055: 3990: 3495: 1980: 707: 679: 607: 382: 237: 73: 3224: 3152: 4025: 1558: 1534: 1229: 575: 296: 130: 2277: 1996: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1244: 752:(1954–62), along with the electoral defeat of far-right candidate 45:; this stance is described by some theorists as "cultural racism". 3985: 3126:

Rodat, Simona (2017). "Cultural Racism: A Conceptual Framework".

789: 69: 26: 2146:"A new definition of Islamophobia could be a recipe for trouble" 744:

The previous political failures of the domestic terrorist group

3363: 2878:

Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research, and Practice

1546: 1276: 1241: 1217: 582:

Wren compared anti-immigrant sentiment in 1990s Denmark to the

540: 272: 105: 271:

during the 1930s and 1940s. These policies were rooted in the

4000: 2897:

Cultural Divides: Understanding and Overcoming Group Conflict

1429: 849:

racist", instead coming in both racist and non-racist forms.

842: 773: 369:. Wren argued that nationalism, and the idea that there is a 341:

Balibar linked what he called "neo-racism" to the process of

2981:

What is Islamophobia? Racism, Social Movements and the State

2899:. New York City: Russell Sage Foundation. pp. 465–490. 2259:"Government rejects Islamophobia definition ahead of debate" 2029: 2027: 1808: 1806: 1623: 1621: 1419: 1417: 898:

adopted the all-party parliamentary group's definition, the

2952:

The British Journal of Politics and International Relations

1791: 1570: 276: 186:

termed it the "new racism", whereas the French philosopher

3325:

Wacquant LJD (1997) For an analytic of racial domination.

1893: 1881: 1869: 1857: 1524: 1522: 1509: 1507: 1264: 626:

theory, put forward in the 1990s by the American theorist

407:

noted that a belief in the "cultural inferiority" both of

403:. Again using a U.S.-centric definition, the psychologist 3332: 3255:. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. 2582:

Bowser, Benjamin P. (2017). "Racism: Origin and Theory".

2293: 2118:

All Party Parliamentary Group on British Muslims (2018).

2087: 2024: 1920: 1803: 1779: 1618: 1414: 1148: 283:

that was separate from what the Nazis believed to be the

2317: 1677: 1312: 1310: 1308: 1207: 1205: 1180: 1178: 1165: 1163: 1066: 1064: 780:. During the 1980s, this tactic was adopted by France's 2838:

New British Fascism: Rise of the British National Party

2418: 2416: 2365: 2177:"It's wrong to treat British Muslims as a racial group" 2099: 2012: 1655: 1653: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1519: 1504: 1480: 1136: 1112: 906:

expressed disappointment at the government's decision.

535: 2669:

Blaut, J. M. (1992). "The Theory of Cultural Racism".

2229:"Terror police warn against new rules on Islamophobia" 2075: 2039: 1910: 1908: 1823: 1821: 1606: 1594: 1582: 1446: 1444: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1387: 1385: 1346: 1124: 1100: 1029: 2305: 1952: 1767: 1370: 1358: 1334: 1322: 1305: 1202: 1190: 1175: 1160: 1061: 435:

belief in fundamental biological differences, namely

165:

hostility on the basis of someone's religious beliefs

3272:

Postmedieval: A Journal of Medieval Cultural Studies

2413: 2401: 2377: 2353: 2341: 2329: 1845: 1833: 1650: 1633: 1492: 1468: 1456: 1076: 3044:(second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. 2389: 1905: 1818: 1729: 1689: 1665: 1441: 1397: 1382: 1088: 935:— Scholar of critical pedagogy Rebecca Powell, 2000 812: 648:argued that cultural racism was evident across the 2470:International Journal of Human Resource Management 4051:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States 3253:The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles 2942: 2701:The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Theory 2069: 796:—which had recently come under the leadership of 336:The Wiley‐Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Theory 4143: 3175: 3058: 1564: 1552: 1540: 1293: 1287: 1258: 1235: 1223: 1023: 1007: 503:, who shared a common culture with the dominant 429: 2734:(Report). London: Faith Matters. Archived from 2438: 2065: 481:, slaves and indigenous peoples in the Spanish 1747: 3348: 566:. He argued that the sociological concept of 2943:Kassimeris, George; Jackson, Leonie (2015). 390:Alternative definitions of "cultural racism" 2552: 1899: 1887: 1875: 1863: 1270: 909: 856:on British Muslims, chaired by politicians 198:instead used the term "postmodern racism". 3355: 3341: 3306: 3269: 3039: 2854: 2704:. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–3. 2253: 2251: 2249: 2033: 1926: 1812: 1785: 1576: 1435: 1423: 1118: 1051: 999: 37:will not pass!"), along with a quote from 4021:Interminority racism in the United States 3197: 3010: 2493:Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities 1990: 1974: 684:ultra-orthodox interpretations of Judaism 3247: 3214: 3138: 3106: 2978: 2754:DiAngelo, Robin (2012). ""New" Racism". 2753: 2671:Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography 2287: 2200: 2174: 2105: 2093: 2045: 1970: 1942: 1938: 1797: 1627: 1528: 1513: 1486: 1376: 1364: 1352: 1211: 1196: 1169: 1130: 1070: 1019: 1003: 827: 632: 554:Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography 539: 200: 20: 2983:. London: Pluto Press. pp. 35–48. 2835: 2698:Chua, Peter (2017). "Cultural racism". 2515: 2488: 2467: 2323: 2283: 2246: 2226: 2081: 2006: 1612: 1600: 1588: 1340: 1328: 1316: 1142: 1106: 1047: 1035: 4144: 4093:Sociology of race and ethnic relations 3077: 3040:Miles, Robert; Brown, Malcolm (2003). 2997: 2814: 2793: 2774: 2726: 2639: 2581: 2422: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2371: 2359: 2347: 2335: 2311: 2299: 2057: 2002: 1986: 1958: 1946: 1914: 1851: 1839: 1827: 1773: 1184: 1154: 1082: 930:and accepting of our human diversity. 697: 3336: 3125: 2894: 2875: 2668: 2610: 2175:Phillips, Trevor (20 December 2018). 2143: 2061: 1706: 1704: 1659: 1644: 1498: 1474: 1462: 1450: 1094: 1055: 82:co-exist in the same society or state 4116: 2913: 2777:Understanding British Party Politics 2697: 2018: 1735: 1695: 1683: 1671: 1408: 1391: 1299: 922: 536:Cultural racism in Western countries 279:constituted a biologically distinct 3506:Discrimination based on nationality 3111:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2808:10.17763/haer.69.2.3346055q431g2u03 2201:Maidment, Jack (20 December 2018). 1716:American Enterprise Institute - AEI 968: 652:in the United States. In his view, 641:In the early 1990s, the scholar of 13: 3300: 3217:Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire 2840:. London and New York: Routledge. 2691:10.1111/j.1467-8330.1992.tb00448.x 1701: 328:—Sociologist Uri Ben-Eliezer, 2004 260:for the domination of the earth". 149:through schools and universities. 14: 4168: 3327:Political Power and Social Theory 3109:Racism: A Very Short Introduction 1748:Samuel Osborne (31 August 2016). 758:1965 French presidential election 4157:Definition of racism controversy 4125: 4115: 4106: 4105: 2227:Kennedy, Dominic (15 May 2019). 2144:Green, David (19 January 2019). 813:Islamophobia and cultural racism 715: 706: 228:by the late 19th century, where 4126: 3061:Encyclopedia of Race and Racism 2857:Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 2431: 2220: 2194: 2168: 2137: 2111: 1964: 1932: 1741: 880:National Police Chiefs' Council 817:Some scholars who have studied 471:—Sociologist Ali Rattansi, 2007 86:biological or scientific racism 4011:Go back to where you came from 3000:Brown Journal of World Affairs 315: 1: 3309:Thinking Through Islamophobia 2916:Social and Cultural Geography 2710:10.1002/9781118430873.est0079 2070:Kassimeris & Jackson 2015 982: 854:all-party parliamentary group 430:Cultural prejudices as racism 113:movements such as the French 2836:Goodwin, Matthew J. (2011). 2625:10.1080/0031322X.2011.585014 2530:10.1632/pmla.2008.123.5.1630 2453:10.1080/13504630.2013.843058 1565:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1553:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1541:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1288:Mukhopadhyay & Chua 2008 1259:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1236:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1224:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1024:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 1008:Siebers & Dennissen 2015 987: 754:Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour 454: 7: 3092:10.1207/S15327892MCP0203_03 3025:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200099 2779:. Cambridge: Polity Press. 2567:10.1080/1350463042000227371 2066:Alessio & Meredith 2014 1712:"Is Racism a Western Idea?" 760:, led to the adoption of a 10: 4173: 3362: 3080:Multicultural Perspectives 3063:. Gale. pp. 377–383. 2796:Harvard Educational Review 2497:. London: Verso. pp. 746:Organisation Armée Secrète 170: 84:. In this it differs from 4101: 3978: 3811: 3579: 3481: 3370: 2928:10.1080/14649360120047788 2829:10.1080/09502389300490021 2654:10.1080/10848770120051349 2482:10.1080/03085149500000011 904:Muslim Council of Britain 666:, their encouragement of 275:government's belief that 29:expressing opposition to 3190:10.1177/0011392114552504 2775:Driver, Stephen (2011). 2596:10.1177/0021934717702135 2584:Journal of Black Studies 961: 910:Opposing cultural racism 668:cultural assimilationism 574:difference as a form of 4041:Psychometrics of racism 3491:Anti-miscegenation laws 2964:10.1111/1467-856X.12036 421:multicultural education 143:multicultural education 4006:Ethnic plastic surgery 3501:Biological determinism 3249:Taguieff, Pierre-André 3141:Law and History Review 3107:Rattansi, Ali (2007). 2727:Copsey, Nigel (2010). 1577:Miles & Brown 2003 1119:Miles & Brown 2003 1052:Miles & Brown 2003 932: 833: 823:English Defence League 806:Anders Behring Breivik 794:British National Party 638: 624:Clash of Civilizations 551:In a 1992 article for 548: 468: 325: 206: 66:differentialist racism 46: 3926:In Jewish communities 3904:Hispanic & Latino 2880:. New York: Praeger. 2876:Helms, Janet (1993). 2613:Patterns of Prejudice 2064:, pp. 291, 293; 927: 831: 768:' within the nascent 636: 616:civil rights movement 543: 463: 320: 289:civil rights movement 204: 192:Pierre-André Taguieff 101:Pierre-André Taguieff 24: 4016:Herrenvolk democracy 3311:. London: C. Hurst. 3284:10.1057/pmed.2014.19 1686:, pp. 150, 152. 664:institutional racism 628:Samuel P. Huntington 601:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 401:institutional racism 305:critical race theory 265:antisemitic policies 72:differences between 4036:Perpetual foreigner 2683:1992Antip..24..289B 2642:The European Legacy 2302:, pp. 151–152. 2207:The Daily Telegraph 2156:on 21 November 2019 2021:, pp. 153–155. 1800:, pp. 208–209. 1567:, pp. 482–483. 1543:, pp. 472–473. 1438:, pp. 412–413. 1238:, pp. 471–472. 1157:, pp. 572–573. 698:Among the far-right 230:French nationalists 52:, sometimes called 4066:Racial integration 4046:Race and sexuality 3851:Japanese Americans 3571:Racial segregation 3561:Racial nationalism 900:Conservative Party 866:criticism of Islam 852:In 2018, the UK's 834: 639: 593:Guenther Oettinger 559:James Morris Blaut 549: 417:European Americans 367:cultural hybridity 224:" was used in the 207: 47: 4139: 4138: 3887:African Americans 3834:Chinese Americans 3531:Ethnic stereotype 3178:Current Sociology 3118:978-0-19-280590-4 2990:978-0-7453-9957-7 2847:978-0-415-46500-7 2786:978-0-7456-4078-5 2555:Social Identities 2441:Social Identities 2374:, pp. 20–21. 2326:, pp. 22–23. 2096:, pp. 38–39. 1630:, pp. 96–97. 1579:, pp. 63–64. 951:identity politics 923:Through education 896:Liberal Democrats 884:counter-terrorist 786:Jean-Marie Le Pen 766:cultural hegemony 659:George H. W. Bush 643:critical pedagogy 620:Mexican Americans 588:Margaret Thatcher 557:, the geographer 545:Margaret Thatcher 509:British Caribbean 493:Dutch East Indies 413:African Americans 139:critical pedagogy 62:postmodern racism 4164: 4129: 4128: 4119: 4118: 4109: 4108: 3963:Racial supremacy 3921:Jewish Americans 3899:Native Americans 3868:Zainichi Koreans 3856:Japanese Koreans 3839:Zainichi Chinese 3812:Racism by target 3589:Global apartheid 3581:Racism by region 3566:Racial profiling 3556:Racial hierarchy 3357: 3350: 3343: 3334: 3333: 3322: 3295: 3266: 3244: 3211: 3201: 3172: 3135: 3122: 3103: 3074: 3055: 3036: 3007: 2994: 2975: 2949: 2939: 2910: 2891: 2872: 2851: 2832: 2817:Cultural Studies 2811: 2790: 2771: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2741:on 14 April 2019 2740: 2733: 2723: 2694: 2665: 2636: 2607: 2578: 2549: 2524:(5): 1630–1639. 2512: 2496: 2485: 2464: 2426: 2420: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2345: 2339: 2333: 2327: 2321: 2315: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2291: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2255: 2244: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2198: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2152:. Archived from 2141: 2135: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2124: 2115: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2091: 2085: 2079: 2073: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2022: 2016: 2010: 2000: 1994: 1984: 1978: 1973:, pp. 6–7; 1968: 1962: 1956: 1950: 1945:, pp. 6–7; 1941:, pp. 6–8; 1936: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1903: 1900:Ben-Eliezer 2004 1897: 1891: 1888:Ben-Eliezer 2004 1885: 1879: 1876:Ben-Eliezer 2004 1873: 1867: 1864:Ben-Eliezer 2004 1861: 1855: 1849: 1843: 1837: 1831: 1825: 1816: 1810: 1801: 1795: 1789: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1708: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1648: 1642: 1631: 1625: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1517: 1511: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1484: 1478: 1472: 1466: 1460: 1454: 1448: 1439: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1412: 1406: 1395: 1389: 1380: 1374: 1368: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1344: 1338: 1332: 1326: 1320: 1314: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1285: 1274: 1271:Ben-Eliezer 2004 1268: 1262: 1256: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1215: 1209: 1200: 1194: 1188: 1182: 1173: 1167: 1158: 1152: 1146: 1140: 1134: 1128: 1122: 1116: 1110: 1104: 1098: 1092: 1086: 1080: 1074: 1068: 1059: 1045: 1039: 1033: 1027: 1017: 1011: 997: 976: 972: 936: 886:efforts against 719: 710: 692:Standard English 612:Hendrik Verwoerd 472: 409:Native Americans 329: 293:Second World War 258:eternal conflict 254:biological terms 234:English language 181:cultural studies 31:multiculturalism 4172: 4171: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4161: 4142: 4141: 4140: 4135: 4097: 4076:Racism in sport 3974: 3968:White supremacy 3807: 3575: 3511:Ethnic conflict 3483: 3477: 3371:Types of racism 3366: 3361: 3319: 3303: 3301:Further reading 3298: 3263: 3225:10.2307/3770354 3153:10.2307/3595073 3119: 3071: 3052: 3013:French Politics 2991: 2947: 2907: 2888: 2848: 2787: 2744: 2742: 2738: 2731: 2720: 2509: 2434: 2429: 2421: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2394: 2390: 2382: 2378: 2370: 2366: 2358: 2354: 2346: 2342: 2334: 2330: 2322: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2294: 2282: 2278: 2268: 2266: 2257: 2256: 2247: 2237: 2235: 2225: 2221: 2211: 2209: 2199: 2195: 2185: 2183: 2173: 2169: 2159: 2157: 2142: 2138: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2080: 2076: 2068:, p. 111; 2056: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2034:Wollenberg 2014 2032: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2005:, p. 142; 2001: 1997: 1989:, p. 335; 1985: 1981: 1969: 1965: 1957: 1953: 1937: 1933: 1927:Wollenberg 2014 1925: 1921: 1913: 1906: 1898: 1894: 1886: 1882: 1874: 1870: 1862: 1858: 1850: 1846: 1838: 1834: 1826: 1819: 1813:Wollenberg 2014 1811: 1804: 1796: 1792: 1786:Grosfoguel 1999 1784: 1780: 1772: 1768: 1758: 1756: 1754:The Independent 1746: 1742: 1734: 1730: 1720: 1718: 1710: 1709: 1702: 1694: 1690: 1682: 1678: 1670: 1666: 1658: 1651: 1643: 1634: 1626: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1551: 1547: 1539: 1535: 1527: 1520: 1512: 1505: 1497: 1493: 1485: 1481: 1473: 1469: 1461: 1457: 1449: 1442: 1436:Grosfoguel 1999 1434: 1430: 1424:Grosfoguel 1999 1422: 1415: 1407: 1398: 1390: 1383: 1375: 1371: 1363: 1359: 1351: 1347: 1339: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1315: 1306: 1298: 1294: 1286: 1277: 1269: 1265: 1257: 1242: 1234: 1230: 1222: 1218: 1210: 1203: 1195: 1191: 1183: 1176: 1168: 1161: 1153: 1149: 1145:, p. 1633. 1141: 1137: 1129: 1125: 1117: 1113: 1109:, p. 1631. 1105: 1101: 1093: 1089: 1081: 1077: 1069: 1062: 1046: 1042: 1038:, p. 1635. 1034: 1030: 1018: 1014: 1002:, p. 412; 1000:Grosfoguel 1999 998: 994: 990: 985: 980: 979: 973: 969: 964: 947:power relations 938: 934: 925: 912: 888:Salafi jihadism 876:Trevor Phillips 815: 778:ethno-pluralism 770:Nouvelle Droite 730: 729: 728: 727: 722: 721: 720: 712: 711: 700: 682:who adhered to 650:political right 538: 474: 470: 457: 432: 392: 331: 327: 318: 242:theory of races 226:French language 211:social sciences 188:Étienne Balibar 173: 115:Nouvelle Droite 97:Étienne Balibar 50:Cultural racism 39:Nouvelle Droite 17: 12: 11: 5: 4170: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4137: 4136: 4134: 4133: 4123: 4113: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4088:Reverse racism 4085: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4061:Racial figleaf 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3982: 3980: 3979:Related topics 3976: 3975: 3973: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3938:Middle Eastern 3935: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3923: 3913: 3912: 3911: 3901: 3896: 3895: 3894: 3889: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3871: 3870: 3860: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3843: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3821: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3805: 3804: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3783: 3782: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3761: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3734: 3733: 3732: 3730:United Kingdom 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3672: 3667: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3645: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3608: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3591: 3585: 3583: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3487: 3485: 3482:Manifestations 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3367: 3360: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3323: 3318:978-1850659907 3317: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3296: 3278:(3): 308–319. 3267: 3262:978-0816623730 3261: 3245: 3212: 3184:(3): 470–489. 3173: 3147:(1): 207–209. 3136: 3123: 3117: 3104: 3075: 3070:978-0028661162 3069: 3056: 3051:978-0415296779 3050: 3037: 3019:(2): 158–178. 3008: 2995: 2989: 2976: 2958:(1): 171–188. 2940: 2922:(2): 141–162. 2911: 2906:978-0871546890 2905: 2892: 2887:978-0275946128 2886: 2873: 2863:(4): 409–434. 2852: 2846: 2833: 2812: 2802:(2): 150–171. 2791: 2785: 2772: 2751: 2724: 2719:978-1118430866 2718: 2695: 2677:(4): 289–299. 2666: 2648:(3): 333–351. 2637: 2619:(4): 279–294. 2608: 2590:(6): 572–590. 2579: 2561:(2): 245–266. 2550: 2513: 2508:978-0860915423 2507: 2486: 2476:(2): 279–301. 2465: 2447:(1): 104–118. 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2427: 2412: 2400: 2388: 2376: 2364: 2352: 2340: 2328: 2316: 2314:, p. 151. 2304: 2292: 2286:, p. 21; 2276: 2245: 2219: 2193: 2167: 2136: 2110: 2108:, p. 111. 2098: 2086: 2084:, p. 294. 2074: 2072:, p. 172. 2050: 2038: 2036:, p. 313. 2023: 2011: 1995: 1993:, p. 165. 1991:McCulloch 2006 1979: 1975:McCulloch 2006 1963: 1961:, p. 339. 1951: 1949:, p. 339; 1931: 1929:, p. 312. 1919: 1904: 1902:, p. 256. 1892: 1890:, p. 252. 1880: 1878:, p. 251. 1868: 1866:, p. 246. 1856: 1844: 1832: 1817: 1815:, p. 316. 1802: 1790: 1788:, p. 413. 1778: 1776:, p. 243. 1766: 1740: 1738:, p. 147. 1728: 1700: 1698:, p. 146. 1688: 1676: 1674:, p. 145. 1664: 1662:, p. 293. 1649: 1647:, p. 290. 1632: 1617: 1615:, p. 292. 1605: 1603:, p. 290. 1593: 1591:, p. 289. 1581: 1569: 1557: 1555:, p. 473. 1545: 1533: 1531:, p. 105. 1518: 1516:, p. 104. 1503: 1501:, p. 136. 1491: 1489:, p. 113. 1479: 1477:, p. 468. 1467: 1465:, p. 465. 1455: 1440: 1428: 1426:, p. 412. 1413: 1411:, p. 144. 1396: 1394:, p. 143. 1381: 1369: 1357: 1345: 1333: 1321: 1304: 1292: 1290:, p. 377. 1275: 1273:, p. 249. 1263: 1261:, p. 472. 1240: 1228: 1226:, p. 471. 1216: 1201: 1189: 1187:, p. 573. 1174: 1159: 1147: 1135: 1123: 1111: 1099: 1097:, p. 138. 1087: 1085:, p. 150. 1075: 1060: 1058:, p. 136. 1054:, p. 64; 1050:, p. 21; 1040: 1028: 1026:, p. 471. 1022:, p. 95; 1012: 1010:, p. 471. 1006:, p. 95; 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 978: 977: 966: 965: 963: 960: 926: 924: 921: 911: 908: 814: 811: 782:National Front 762:meta-political 724: 723: 714: 713: 705: 704: 703: 702: 701: 699: 696: 675:Ethiopian Jews 597:European Union 537: 534: 488:Moroccan-Dutch 462: 456: 453: 431: 428: 424:Robin DiAngelo 405:James M. Jones 391: 388: 343:decolonization 319: 317: 314: 172: 169: 43:Guillaume Faye 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4169: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4132: 4124: 4122: 4114: 4112: 4104: 4103: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3969: 3966: 3965: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3958:Wine industry 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3917: 3914: 3910: 3907: 3906: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3884: 3883: 3880: 3876: 3873: 3869: 3866: 3865: 3864: 3861: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3786:South America 3784: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3774:United States 3772: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3765: 3764:North America 3762: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3609: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3551:Racialization 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3516:Ethnic hatred 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3488: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3433:Laissez-faire 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3418:Institutional 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3403:Environmental 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3358: 3353: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3339: 3338: 3335: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3304: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3006:(2): 239–252. 3005: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2756:Counterpoints 2752: 2737: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2702: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2494: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2436: 2425:, p. 12. 2424: 2419: 2417: 2410:, p. 11. 2409: 2404: 2397: 2392: 2386:, p. 22. 2385: 2380: 2373: 2368: 2362:, p. 20. 2361: 2356: 2350:, p. 24. 2349: 2344: 2338:, p. 13. 2337: 2332: 2325: 2320: 2313: 2308: 2301: 2296: 2289: 2288:Taguieff 2001 2285: 2280: 2265:. 15 May 2019 2264: 2260: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2234: 2230: 2223: 2208: 2204: 2197: 2182: 2178: 2171: 2155: 2151: 2150:The Spectator 2147: 2140: 2121: 2114: 2107: 2106:Rattansi 2007 2102: 2095: 2094:Kundnani 2017 2090: 2083: 2078: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2060:, p. 5; 2059: 2054: 2048:, p. 38. 2047: 2046:Kundnani 2017 2042: 2035: 2030: 2028: 2020: 2015: 2009:, p. 68. 2008: 2004: 1999: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1977:, p. 165 1976: 1972: 1971:Taguieff 2001 1967: 1960: 1955: 1948: 1944: 1943:Taguieff 2001 1940: 1939:Taguieff 1993 1935: 1928: 1923: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1901: 1896: 1889: 1884: 1877: 1872: 1865: 1860: 1854:, p. 10. 1853: 1848: 1842:, p. 10. 1841: 1836: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1799: 1798:Sheridan 2003 1794: 1787: 1782: 1775: 1770: 1755: 1751: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1697: 1692: 1685: 1680: 1673: 1668: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1646: 1641: 1639: 1637: 1629: 1628:Rattansi 2007 1624: 1622: 1614: 1609: 1602: 1597: 1590: 1585: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1561: 1554: 1549: 1542: 1537: 1530: 1529:Rattansi 2007 1525: 1523: 1515: 1514:Rattansi 2007 1510: 1508: 1500: 1495: 1488: 1487:DiAngelo 2012 1483: 1476: 1471: 1464: 1459: 1453:, p. 49. 1452: 1447: 1445: 1437: 1432: 1425: 1420: 1418: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1378: 1377:Taguieff 2001 1373: 1366: 1365:Taguieff 2001 1361: 1355:, p. 21. 1354: 1353:Taguieff 2001 1349: 1343:, p. 24. 1342: 1337: 1331:, p. 20. 1330: 1325: 1319:, p. 21. 1318: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1301: 1296: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1272: 1267: 1260: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1237: 1232: 1225: 1220: 1213: 1212:Rattansi 2007 1208: 1206: 1198: 1197:Rattansi 2007 1193: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1171: 1170:Taguieff 2001 1166: 1164: 1156: 1151: 1144: 1139: 1133:, p. 39. 1132: 1131:Taguieff 2001 1127: 1120: 1115: 1108: 1103: 1096: 1091: 1084: 1079: 1073:, p. 95. 1072: 1071:Rattansi 2007 1067: 1065: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1037: 1032: 1025: 1021: 1020:Rattansi 2007 1016: 1009: 1005: 1004:Rattansi 2007 1001: 996: 992: 971: 967: 959: 955: 952: 948: 944: 937: 931: 920: 916: 907: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 872: 871:The Spectator 868:. Writing in 867: 863: 862:Wes Streeting 859: 855: 850: 848: 844: 839: 838:media studies 830: 826: 824: 820: 810: 807: 801: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 764:strategy of ' 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 718: 709: 695: 693: 687: 685: 681: 676: 671: 669: 665: 660: 655: 654:conservatives 651: 647: 644: 635: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 602: 598: 594: 589: 585: 580: 577: 571: 569: 568:modernization 565: 560: 556: 555: 546: 542: 533: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 510: 506: 505:White British 502: 501:Black British 496: 494: 489: 484: 480: 473: 467: 461: 452: 450: 449:racialization 444: 442: 438: 427: 425: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 397: 387: 384: 379: 376: 372: 368: 363: 358: 356: 350: 348: 344: 339: 337: 330: 324: 313: 311: 306: 300: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 261: 259: 255: 252:, defined in 251: 247: 244:, the latter 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 218: 216: 212: 203: 199: 197: 193: 189: 185: 184:Martin Barker 182: 178: 177:media studies 168: 166: 161: 156: 150: 148: 144: 140: 136: 135:racialization 132: 131:extermination 128: 124: 118: 116: 112: 108: 107: 102: 98: 94: 93:Martin Barker 89: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 23: 19: 4081:in Australia 4071:Racial quota 3715:Soviet Union 3658:Saudi Arabia 3599:South Africa 3526:Ethnic slurs 3521:Ethnic jokes 3423:Internalized 3392: 3329:11: 221–234. 3326: 3308: 3275: 3271: 3252: 3216: 3181: 3177: 3144: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3108: 3083: 3079: 3060: 3041: 3016: 3012: 3003: 2999: 2980: 2955: 2951: 2919: 2915: 2896: 2877: 2860: 2856: 2837: 2820: 2816: 2799: 2795: 2776: 2759: 2755: 2743:. Retrieved 2736:the original 2700: 2674: 2670: 2645: 2641: 2616: 2612: 2587: 2583: 2558: 2554: 2521: 2517: 2492: 2473: 2469: 2444: 2440: 2432:Bibliography 2403: 2398:, p. 7. 2391: 2379: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2324:Balibar 1991 2319: 2307: 2295: 2290:, p. 3. 2284:Balibar 1991 2279: 2267:. Retrieved 2262: 2236:. Retrieved 2232: 2222: 2210:. Retrieved 2206: 2196: 2184:. Retrieved 2180: 2170: 2158:. Retrieved 2154:the original 2149: 2139: 2127:. Retrieved 2113: 2101: 2089: 2082:Anthias 1995 2077: 2053: 2041: 2014: 2007:Goodwin 2011 1998: 1982: 1966: 1954: 1934: 1922: 1917:, p. 8. 1895: 1883: 1871: 1859: 1847: 1835: 1830:, p. 6. 1793: 1781: 1769: 1757:. Retrieved 1753: 1743: 1731: 1719:. Retrieved 1715: 1691: 1679: 1667: 1613:Anthias 1995 1608: 1601:Anthias 1995 1596: 1589:Anthias 1995 1584: 1572: 1560: 1548: 1536: 1494: 1482: 1470: 1458: 1431: 1379:, p. 5. 1372: 1367:, p. 4. 1360: 1348: 1341:Balibar 1991 1336: 1329:Balibar 1991 1324: 1317:Balibar 1991 1295: 1266: 1231: 1219: 1214:, p. 8. 1199:, p. 4. 1192: 1172:, p. 2. 1150: 1143:Balibar 2008 1138: 1126: 1121:, p. 3. 1114: 1107:Balibar 2008 1102: 1090: 1078: 1048:Balibar 1991 1043: 1036:Balibar 2008 1031: 1015: 995: 970: 956: 939: 933: 928: 917: 913: 892:Labour Party 890:. While the 869: 851: 846: 835: 819:Islamophobia 816: 802: 798:Nick Griffin 750:Algerian War 743: 731: 688: 672: 646:Henry Giroux 640: 605: 581: 572: 552: 550: 514:black people 497: 482: 478: 475: 469: 464: 458: 445: 437:exploitation 433: 393: 380: 371:nation-state 359: 351: 346: 340: 335: 332: 326: 321: 301: 269:Nazi Germany 262: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 221: 219: 215:anti-racists 208: 196:Ramón Flecha 174: 160:Islamophobia 154: 151: 123:exploitation 119: 104: 90: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 48: 25:A poster in 18: 3996:Anti-racism 3737:Middle East 3631:South Korea 3626:North Korea 3541:Hate speech 3463:Substantive 3443:Neocolonial 3219:(40): 4–6. 3199:2066/150318 3086:(3): 8–14. 2823:(1): 1–27. 2762:: 105–132. 2745:31 December 2423:Powell 2000 2408:Powell 2000 2396:Giroux 1993 2384:Giroux 1993 2372:Giroux 1993 2360:Giroux 1993 2348:Giroux 1993 2336:Powell 2000 2312:Flecha 1999 2300:Flecha 1999 2058:Copsey 2010 2003:Driver 2011 1987:Bar-On 2001 1959:Bar-On 2001 1947:Bar-On 2001 1915:Powell 2000 1852:Powell 2000 1840:Giroux 1993 1828:Giroux 1993 1774:Mangcu 2017 1185:Bowser 2017 1155:Bowser 2017 1083:Flecha 1999 858:Anna Soubry 847:necessarily 792:group, the 748:during the 739:neo-fascist 678:especially 584:Thatcherite 564:Third World 479:Reconquista 396:Janet Helms 383:sociologist 355:nationalism 347:immigration 316:Definitions 310:colonialism 267:enacted in 147:anti-racism 4146:Categories 3875:Vietnamese 3648:Arab world 3546:Hate group 3536:Hate crime 3473:Xenophobia 3453:Scientific 3438:Linguistic 3134:: 129–140. 2062:Allen 2011 1721:15 January 1660:Blaut 1992 1645:Blaut 1992 1499:Rodat 2017 1475:Jones 1999 1463:Jones 1999 1451:Helms 1993 1095:Rodat 2017 1056:Rodat 2017 983:References 680:Ashkenazis 441:oppression 375:foreigners 362:geographer 220:The word " 127:oppression 58:new racism 54:neo-racism 35:multiculti 4056:Race card 3991:Alt-right 3791:Argentina 3752:Palestine 3670:Australia 3496:Apartheid 3484:of racism 3292:143444752 3251:(2001) . 3233:0294-1759 3208:143774014 3169:145408448 3100:143991591 3033:144813395 2972:143140361 2662:144359964 2633:144767126 2604:151511329 2575:144421987 2546:143832686 2461:143518291 2233:The Times 2181:The Times 2019:Wren 2001 1736:Wren 2001 1696:Wren 2001 1684:Wren 2001 1672:Wren 2001 1409:Wren 2001 1392:Wren 2001 1300:Chua 2017 988:Citations 608:apartheid 483:Conquista 455:Critiques 373:to which 238:racialism 111:far-right 4111:Category 4026:Lynching 4001:Casteism 3846:Japanese 3705:Portugal 3636:Thailand 3604:Zimbabwe 3468:Symbolic 3458:Societal 3448:Romantic 3413:Gendered 3393:Cultural 3383:Colorism 3378:Aversive 2936:33883381 2869:40241468 2768:42981488 2538:25501966 2263:BBC News 2212:26 April 2186:26 April 2125:(Report) 735:neo-Nazi 576:Othering 530:Cypriots 297:genetics 246:distinct 70:cultural 4121:Commons 4031:Passing 3986:Ableism 3909:Mexican 3829:Chinese 3725:Ukraine 3690:Germany 3680:Denmark 3641:Vietnam 3241:3770354 3161:3595073 2679:Bibcode 1759:2 March 943:liberal 790:fascist 756:in the 726:groups. 522:Romanis 256:and in 250:unequal 222:racisme 171:Concept 41:leader 27:Wroclaw 4152:Racism 3953:Slavic 3948:Romani 3943:Muslim 3916:Jewish 3863:Korean 3824:Asians 3796:Brazil 3779:Mexico 3769:Canada 3757:Turkey 3747:Israel 3710:Russia 3700:Poland 3685:France 3675:Europe 3594:Africa 3428:Patent 3408:Formal 3388:Covert 3364:Racism 3315: 3290: 3259: 3239: 3231: 3206: 3167: 3159: 3115: 3098: 3067: 3048: 3042:Racism 3031: 2987: 2970: 2934: 2903: 2884: 2867: 2844: 2783: 2766: 2716: 2660: 2631: 2602: 2573: 2544: 2536: 2505: 2459: 2269:20 May 2238:20 May 2160:20 May 2129:20 May 772:(ND). 599:while 528:, and 524:, the 285:Nordic 155:racism 106:racism 99:, and 78:racial 74:ethnic 4131:Index 3892:Women 3882:Black 3801:Chile 3720:Spain 3695:Italy 3663:Sudan 3653:Libya 3621:Japan 3616:China 3398:Cyber 3288:S2CID 3237:JSTOR 3204:S2CID 3165:S2CID 3157:JSTOR 3096:S2CID 3029:S2CID 2968:S2CID 2948:(PDF) 2932:S2CID 2865:JSTOR 2764:JSTOR 2739:(PDF) 2732:(PDF) 2658:S2CID 2629:S2CID 2600:S2CID 2571:S2CID 2542:S2CID 2534:JSTOR 2501:–28. 2457:S2CID 2123:(PDF) 962:Notes 843:Arabs 774:GRECE 526:Irish 129:, or 64:, or 3933:LGBT 3819:Arab 3742:Iran 3611:Asia 3313:ISBN 3257:ISBN 3229:ISSN 3113:ISBN 3065:ISBN 3046:ISBN 2985:ISBN 2901:ISBN 2882:ISBN 2842:ISBN 2781:ISBN 2747:2019 2714:ISBN 2518:PMLA 2503:ISBN 2271:2019 2240:2019 2214:2019 2188:2019 2162:2019 2131:2019 1761:2018 1723:2022 894:and 860:and 836:The 737:and 518:Jews 439:and 411:and 381:The 360:The 281:race 277:Jews 273:Nazi 248:and 179:and 145:and 3280:doi 3221:doi 3194:hdl 3186:doi 3149:doi 3128:RSP 3088:doi 3021:doi 2960:doi 2924:doi 2825:doi 2804:doi 2760:398 2706:doi 2687:doi 2650:doi 2621:doi 2592:doi 2563:doi 2526:doi 2522:123 2478:doi 2449:doi 76:or 4148:: 3286:. 3274:. 3235:. 3227:. 3202:. 3192:. 3182:63 3180:. 3163:. 3155:. 3145:21 3143:. 3132:54 3130:. 3094:. 3082:. 3027:. 3015:. 3004:23 3002:. 2966:. 2956:17 2954:. 2950:. 2930:. 2918:. 2861:22 2859:. 2819:. 2800:69 2798:. 2758:. 2712:. 2685:. 2675:24 2673:. 2656:. 2644:. 2627:. 2617:45 2615:. 2598:. 2588:48 2586:. 2569:. 2559:10 2557:. 2540:. 2532:. 2520:. 2499:17 2474:24 2472:. 2455:. 2445:20 2443:. 2415:^ 2261:. 2248:^ 2231:. 2205:. 2179:. 2148:. 2026:^ 1907:^ 1820:^ 1805:^ 1752:. 1714:. 1703:^ 1652:^ 1635:^ 1620:^ 1521:^ 1506:^ 1443:^ 1416:^ 1399:^ 1384:^ 1307:^ 1278:^ 1243:^ 1204:^ 1177:^ 1162:^ 1063:^ 532:. 520:, 357:. 167:. 125:, 117:. 95:, 60:, 56:, 3356:e 3349:t 3342:v 3321:. 3294:. 3282:: 3276:5 3265:. 3243:. 3223:: 3210:. 3196:: 3188:: 3171:. 3151:: 3121:. 3102:. 3090:: 3084:2 3073:. 3054:. 3035:. 3023:: 3017:4 2993:. 2974:. 2962:: 2938:. 2926:: 2920:2 2909:. 2890:. 2871:. 2850:. 2831:. 2827:: 2821:7 2810:. 2806:: 2789:. 2770:. 2749:. 2722:. 2708:: 2693:. 2689:: 2681:: 2664:. 2652:: 2646:6 2635:. 2623:: 2606:. 2594:: 2577:. 2565:: 2548:. 2528:: 2511:. 2484:. 2480:: 2463:. 2451:: 2273:. 2242:. 2216:. 2190:. 2164:. 2133:. 1763:. 1725:. 1302:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.