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beliefs persist over time. While individuals will rely on copying high frequency behaviors under various conditions, this reliance increases when an individual is exposed to ambiguous environmental or social information. Conformist transmission can maintain between-group variation by reducing within-group variation, but it also facilitates the rapid spread of novel ideas, which increases between-group variation. Taken together, reduced within-group variation and increased between-group variation lead to the cultural divergence between groups that is the driving force of cultural group selection.
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environment. In a study comparing human children and young chimpanzees, it was shown that, when given a demonstration on how to retrieve a reward from a box, chimps copy relevant behaviour, while ignoring irrelevant behaviour, to solve the task. Meanwhile, human children will faithfully imitate both relevant and irrelevant behaviour to solve the same task. While this may seem like a negative quality, it is what allows for reliable, high-fidelity transmission of cultural information, and produces stable behavioural equilibria within cultural groups.
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models. Individual can determine the rank of potential models by how much deference they are shown by the rest of the group. Deference is shown to high-prestige individuals to gain the opportunity to copy their successful models. We can see evidence for this bias in how new technologies, or economic practices spread to different groups according to how quick "opinion leaders" adopt them.
128:. This involves following the gaze of an adult or using them as social reference points. Put simply, they become aware of the adult's attention and behaviour towards objects in the environment. In this sense, the child is beginning to understand people as goal-oriented intentional agents. This is vitally important for learning through imitation and, eventually, language acquisition.
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allows one to communicate various perspectives and shift attention to one aspect of the world over another. In learning a language, a child is inheriting a vast set of linguistic symbols that have been passed down many generations. What is inherited then is the methods of shifting attention and perspective that were historically of importance to the people of that culture.
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there must exist, between groups, cultural differences that when transmitted across time affect the persistence or proliferation of the groups. Cultural norms that provide these advantages will, in turn, lead to the displacement, absorption or even extinction of other, less successful cultural groups. However,
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Without between-group variation, cultural group selection could not occur, as there would be no group differentiation to select for. While processes such as cultural drift, epidemics, and natural disasters increase between-group variation, migration and genetic mixing decrease between-group variation
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While cultural norms are often beneficial to the individuals who hold them, they need not be. Norms can spread by cultural group selection when they are practiced within successful groups, and norms are more likely to spread from groups that are successful. But, for cultural group selection to occur,
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Demographic swamping occurs when one or more cultural groups reproduces individuals faster than other groups in the region because of stable, culturally transmitted ideas or practices. This is the slowest kind of cultural groups selection as it depends on natural selection of between-group cultural
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are a perfect example of how robust this effect is and its replication across many cultures shows that this behaviour is very common. Henrich suggests that normative conformity may have evolved to respond to the spread of punishing behaviour toward non-conformists. By appearing similar to the group,
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transmission is the tendency to copy those individuals who are similar in language, appearance, social standing and other behavioral and cultural traits. In the context of prestige-biased transmission, self-similarity means that individuals will preferentially imitate those high-prestige individuals
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Direct intergroup competition is the process by which cultural groups compete with each other over resources by engaging in warfare and raiding. The cultural practices and behaviour that gives an advantage to one group over another will proliferate at the expense of those who cannot compete. There
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Prestige-biased transmission is the tendency the copy those members of the group that are more successful. Preferentially copying successful members of the group allows individuals to avoid costly trial-and-error learning by imitating the better-than-average skills of the more prestigious cultural
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games, it was found that standards of fairness and inclination to punish were correlated with both participation in world religions and market integration. This indicates how many of the behaviours necessary for complex societies are the result of cultural exposure rather than any evolution of our
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In prestige-biased group selection, when individuals have opportunities to copy people from nearby groups, they will preferentially imitate the members of groups that are more cooperative than their own. Since cooperative groups have a higher average payoff than non-cooperative groups, members of
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Through imitatively learning, the child comprehends that linguistic symbols are intended to focus attention to some specific aspect of the shared experience. In doing this, the child must be able to take the perspective of the speaker. Due to the intersubjectivity of linguistic symbols, language
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uses real-world historical, archaeological and anthropological data to test hypotheses from cultural group selection theory and other competing explanations. The
Collaborative for Information and Analysis; the International Institute of Social History; and the Database of Religious History also
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Normative conformity is the act of changing one's visible behaviour, simply to appear to match the majority, and without actually internalizing the groups opinions. This differs from conformist transmission since normative conformity does not consider frequency of a behaviour as an indicator of
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Conformist transmission refers to the psychological bias to preferentially imitate high frequency behaviors in the cultural group. This homogenizes the social group and reinforces widely held cultural norms. This explains why individuals within a social group hold the same beliefs and why these
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increase within-group variation. Variation is only maintained when cultural groups have mechanisms that prevent the norms of outside groups from invading the cultural group. These âmechanismsâ are those uniquely human psychological traits and behaviours that encourage imitation, conformity, and
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Cultural group selection theory can provide insight into human cooperation and is therefore a useful framework for generating hypothesis related to cultural evolution. These theories, however, must be tested using empirical data: a task addressed by several large-scale projects in the field of
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For cultural knowledge and behaviour to persist across multiple generations, humans need to have the capacity to acquire, retain, and transmit cultural information. While many species engage in social learning, humans consistently rely upon it for behavioural cues and information about the
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in acquiring behaviours. These instincts allow for the acquisition and persistence of culture. Through cultural group selection, culturally specific cooperative behaviour can evolve to support large societies. For example, in a study that spanned a variety of cultures, testing behaviour in
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Non-conformists threaten to increase within-group variation by introducing deviant behaviours to the group and must receive costly punishment to maintain a homogenous social group. As a consequence of being punished, non-conformists will be less successful than other members of the group.
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one can gain the advantages of in-group membership, while also avoiding punishment. A curious byproduct of normative conformity is that it can contribute to the conformity transmission of norms that the transmitter does not hold, because they were mistakenly attributed by the imitator.
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can explain the behaviour of small social groups common in many species, it is unable to explain the large complex societies of unrelated, anonymous individuals that we see in the human species. However, one of the major distinctions between humans and other species is our reliance on
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study found that 14-month-old children will, after seeing an adult do it, bend at the waist and press a panel with their head to turn on a light, instead of using their hands. According to
Tomasello, imitative learning is necessary for learning the symbolic conventions of language.
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By about 1 year of age, children begin to learn by imitation. At this point, children are capable of discriminating intentional actions from unintentional ones, and will attempt to accurately copy those intentional actions to accomplish tasks they've seen adults do. Because of
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are many possible traits that could contribute to a group's success, such as technological development, social and political organization, economic development, nationalism, etc. According to Joseph Soltis, it would take 500â1000 years for group selection to happen this way.
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who are similar to them. From the perspective of an imitator, this trait is adaptive. By only imitating those high-prestige individuals who are similar, the imitator avoids adopting traits or behaviors that are not compatible with his or her knowledge or social environment.
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models suggest that if individuals are able to migrate between groups (which is common in small-scale societies), differences between groups should be difficult to maintain. Research in psychology reveals that humans have a particular set of traits, which include
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Prestige-biased transmission would suggest that non-conformist behaviors would, therefore, not spread through the population. Papers on the topic suggest that this kind of punishment is prevalent across many different societies.
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These two social biases act together in reducing within-group variation. Additionally, prestige-biased transmission increases between-group variation by contributing to the spread of novel ideas.
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of how cultural traits evolve according to the competitive advantage they bestow upon a group. This multidisciplinary approach to the question of human culture engages research from the fields of
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variation operating on a scale of millennia. It has been suggested that this is how early agriculturalist displaced hunter-gatherer societies.
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Cultural group selection gives a compelling explanation for how large-scale complex societies have formed. While altruistic behaviour such as
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Mostern, Ruth; Bain, Daniel J.; Manning, Patrick; Zadorozhny, Vladimir (2013-02-20).
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Joseph Henrich describes the three mechanisms through which this process occurs:
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cooperative groups will be considered more prestigious and worthy of imitation.
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suggests the following three adaptations are necessary for human culture:
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319: â Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
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Rogers, E.M., 1995. Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press, New York.
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331: â Study of self-replicating units of culture
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758:International Institute of Social History. 2016.
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189:Prestige-biased and self-similarity transmission
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124:At around 9â12 months infants begin engaging in
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295:quantitative history. For instance, the
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695:"Seshat Global History Database - Data"
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408:. Chaplin, CT: Beresta Books, 67-94.
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606:. New York: Penguin Group, 1-11.
313: â Theory of human behavior
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2705:Computer-mediated communication
1865:Extended evolutionary synthesis
1054:Gene-centered view of evolution
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281:Prestige-biased group selection
22:is an explanatory model within
2982:Empathisingâsystemising theory
2285:female intrasexual competition
2222:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1993:Hologenome theory of evolution
1860:History of molecular evolution
1086:Evolutionarily stable strategy
975:Last universal common ancestor
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248:according to their respective
1:
3463:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
3342:Standard social science model
2395:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
1787:Renaissance and Enlightenment
667:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
622:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
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272:Direct intergroup competition
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209:Punishment of non-conformists
105:Human adaptations for culture
3190:Missing heritability problem
2782:Social aspects of television
2405:Evolution of nervous systems
2373:Computational theory of mind
1998:Missing heritability problem
1625:Gamete differentiation/sexes
7:
3436:Evolutionary biology portal
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225:Asch conformity experiments
16:Model of cultural evolution
10:
3535:
3397:Evolutionary psychologists
3270:TriversâWillard hypothesis
3185:Humanâanimal communication
2897:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
2747:Imprinted brain hypothesis
2715:Humanâcomputer interaction
1630:Life cycles/nuclear phases
1182:TriversâWillard hypothesis
256:relative to other groups.
3476:10.1017/S0140525X1400106X
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3317:Environmental determinism
3288:Cultural selection theory
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3175:Evolutionary epistemology
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3509:Evolutionary game theory
3210:Cultural group selection
3094:Biocultural anthropology
2787:Societal impacts of cars
2720:Media naturalness theory
2410:Fight-or-flight response
1981:Cultural group selection
1845:The eclipse of Darwinism
1817:On the Origin of Species
1792:Transmutation of species
317:Evolutionary game theory
40:evolutionary game theory
20:Cultural group selection
3410:Evolutionary psychology
3374:Sociocultural evolution
3215:Dual inheritance theory
2672:Personality development
2133:Theoretical foundations
2110:Evolutionary psychology
1986:Dual inheritance theory
1825:History of paleontology
311:Dual inheritance theory
180:Conformist transmission
3332:Social constructionism
3327:Psychological nativism
3302:Biological determinism
3250:Recent human evolution
3245:Punctuated equilibrium
3068:Behavioral epigenetics
3063:evolutionary economics
3032:Variability hypothesis
2977:Emotional intelligence
2710:Engineering psychology
2400:Evolution of the brain
1674:Punctuated equilibrium
995:Non-adaptive radiation
943:Evolutionary arms race
602:Turchin, Peter. 2007.
404:Turchin, Peter. 2018.
98:Third-party punishment
3504:Cultural anthropology
3359:Multilineal evolution
3322:Nature versus nurture
3281:Theoretical positions
3129:Functional psychology
3124:Evolutionary medicine
3099:Biological psychiatry
2807:Texting while driving
2797:Leadâcrime hypothesis
2657:Cognitive development
2642:Caregiver deprivation
2153:Gene selection theory
1966:Evolutionary medicine
1840:Mendelian inheritance
1548:Biological complexity
1536:Programmed cell death
1228:Phenotypic plasticity
948:Evolutionary pressure
938:Evidence of evolution
836:Timeline of evolution
32:behavioural economics
3312:Cultural determinism
3119:Evolutionary biology
3104:Cognitive psychology
3052:Academic disciplines
2700:Cognitive ergonomics
2667:Language acquisition
2647:Childhood attachment
2460:Wason selection task
2354:Behavioral modernity
2143:Cognitive revolution
2126:Evolutionary thought
1940:Teleology in biology
1835:Blending inheritance
1213:Genetic assimilation
1076:Artificial selection
815:Evolutionary biology
263:Demographic swamping
218:Normative conformity
36:evolutionary biology
3379:Unilineal evolution
3144:Population genetics
2929:Sexy son hypothesis
2867:Hormonal motivation
2847:Concealed ovulation
2388:Dual process theory
2259:Parental investment
2003:Molecular evolution
1961:Ecological genetics
1830:Transitional fossil
1620:Sexual reproduction
1460:endomembrane system
1389:pollinator-mediated
1345:dolphins and whales
1123:Parental investment
737:10.5195/jwhi.2013.2
699:seshatdatabank.info
3337:Social determinism
3220:Fisher's principle
3180:Great ape language
3170:Cultural evolution
3139:Philosophy of mind
2972:Division of labour
2934:Westermarck effect
2882:Mating preferences
2792:Distracted driving
2526:Literary criticism
2383:Domain specificity
2363:modularity of mind
1976:Cultural evolution
1091:Fisher's principle
1020:Handicap principle
1010:Parallel evolution
874:Adaptive radiation
760:Annual Report 2016
290:Testing the theory
238:Donald T. Campbell
139:imitative learning
132:Imitative learning
24:cultural evolution
3445:
3444:
3423:Psychology portal
3387:
3386:
3230:Hologenome theory
3200:Unit of selection
3195:Primate cognition
3109:Cognitive science
3040:
3039:
2911:Sexual attraction
2887:Mating strategies
2652:Cinderella effect
2582:Moral foundations
2486:Visual perception
2378:Domain generality
2347:Facial expression
2295:Sexual dimorphism
2254:Natural selection
2200:Hamiltonian spite
2076:
2075:
1692:Uniformitarianism
1645:Sex-determination
1150:Sexual dimorphism
1145:Natural selection
1049:Unit of selection
1015:Signalling theory
169:in-group biases.
114:Michael Tomasello
3526:
3489:
3488:
3478:
3453:
3432:
3419:
3406:
3405:
3049:
3048:
3045:Related subjects
2832:Adult attachment
2359:Cognitive module
2315:
2314:
2302:Social selection
2276:Costly signaling
2271:Sexual selection
2158:Modern synthesis
2103:
2096:
2089:
2080:
2079:
2066:
2056:
2055:
1855:Modern synthesis
1615:Multicellularity
1610:Mosaic evolution
1495:auditory ossicle
1177:Social selection
1160:Flowering plants
1155:Sexual selection
808:
801:
794:
785:
784:
776:
769:
763:
756:
750:
749:
739:
715:
709:
708:
706:
705:
691:
685:
684:
682:
662:
656:
655:
637:
613:
607:
600:
594:
591:
585:
582:
576:
573:
567:
564:
558:
555:
549:
546:
540:
537:
531:
528:
522:
518:
512:
509:
503:
500:
494:
491:
485:
482:
476:
473:
467:
464:
453:
450:
444:
441:
435:
432:
423:
420:
409:
402:
396:
393:
374:
371:
362:
359:
350:
347:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3383:
3369:Neoevolutionism
3276:
3260:Species complex
3225:Group selection
3163:Research topics
3158:
3134:Neuropsychology
3036:
3022:Substance abuse
2944:Sex differences
2938:
2852:Coolidge effect
2813:
2725:Neuroergonomics
2690:
2681:
2605:
2507:
2441:Folk psychology
2322:
2306:
2176:
2169:
2112:
2107:
2077:
2072:
2044:
1971:Group selection
1944:
1869:
1773:
1700:
1662:Tempo and modes
1656:
1511:
1415:
1232:
1191:
1067:
1060:
1037:Species complex
850:
841:History of life
817:
812:
780:
779:
775:85 (2): 312-47.
770:
766:
757:
753:
716:
712:
703:
701:
693:
692:
688:
663:
659:
614:
610:
601:
597:
592:
588:
583:
579:
574:
570:
565:
561:
556:
552:
547:
543:
538:
534:
529:
525:
519:
515:
510:
506:
501:
497:
492:
488:
483:
479:
474:
470:
465:
456:
451:
447:
442:
438:
433:
426:
421:
412:
403:
399:
394:
377:
372:
365:
360:
353:
348:
344:
339:
334:
323:Group selection
306:
292:
283:
274:
265:
234:
220:
211:
199:self-similarity
191:
182:
161:
152:
143:Andrew Meltzoff
134:
126:joint attention
122:
120:Joint attention
107:
85:social learning
17:
12:
11:
5:
3532:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3491:
3490:
3447:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3426:
3413:
3400:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3290:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3074:
3065:
3055:
3053:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2913:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2823:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2752:Mind-blindness
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2696:
2694:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2626:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2552:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2517:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2447:
2445:theory of mind
2438:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2328:
2326:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2278:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2212:Baldwin effect
2209:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2187:
2181:
2179:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2091:
2083:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2060:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1883:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1811:Charles Darwin
1808:
1807:
1806:
1794:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1749:Non-ecological
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1710:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1666:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1522:
1520:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1500:nervous system
1497:
1492:
1487:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1426:
1424:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1330:
1320:
1310:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1266:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1249:
1243:
1241:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1072:
1070:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1046:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1034:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1012:
1007:
1002:
1000:Origin of life
997:
992:
987:
985:Microevolution
982:
980:Macroevolution
977:
972:
967:
966:
965:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
918:Common descent
915:
914:
913:
903:
898:
896:Baldwin effect
893:
892:
891:
886:
876:
871:
866:
860:
858:
852:
851:
849:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
822:
819:
818:
811:
810:
803:
796:
788:
778:
777:
764:
751:
710:
686:
657:
608:
595:
586:
577:
568:
559:
550:
541:
532:
523:
513:
504:
495:
486:
477:
468:
454:
445:
436:
424:
410:
397:
375:
363:
351:
341:
340:
338:
335:
333:
332:
326:
320:
314:
307:
305:
302:
291:
288:
282:
279:
273:
270:
264:
261:
233:
230:
219:
216:
210:
207:
190:
187:
181:
178:
174:Joseph Henrich
160:
157:
151:
148:
133:
130:
121:
118:
106:
103:
56:game theoretic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3531:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3438:
3437:
3431:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3418:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3364:Neo-Darwinism
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3349:Functionalism
3347:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3307:Connectionism
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3297:indeterminism
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3017:Schizophrenia
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3002:Mental health
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2877:Mate guarding
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2837:Age disparity
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2767:Schizophrenia
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2692:Mental health
2688:
2687:Human factors
2684:
2678:
2677:Socialization
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2637:paternal bond
2634:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2501:NaĂŻve physics
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2467:Motor control
2465:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2425:Ophidiophobia
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2415:Arachnophobia
2413:
2412:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2342:Display rules
2340:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2244:Kin selection
2242:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Adaptationism
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2099:
2097:
2092:
2090:
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2033:
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2028:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2013:Phylogenetics
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
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1996:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1982:
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1951:
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1941:
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1931:
1929:
1926:
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1918:
1917:
1916:Structuralism
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
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1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:Catastrophism
1889:
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1882:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1866:
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1850:Neo-Darwinism
1848:
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1765:
1764:Reinforcement
1762:
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1709:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1696:Catastrophism
1693:
1690:
1688:
1687:Macromutation
1684:
1683:Micromutation
1681:
1679:
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1616:
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1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:Immune system
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
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1480:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
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1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1450:symbiogenesis
1448:
1447:
1446:
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1428:
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1423:
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1129:
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1121:
1120:
1119:
1118:Kin selection
1116:
1114:
1113:Genetic drift
1111:
1109:
1106:
1102:
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1094:
1092:
1089:
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1047:
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1038:
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1029:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1018:
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1016:
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1008:
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988:
986:
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931:
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926:
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909:
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904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
890:
887:
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870:
867:
865:
862:
861:
859:
857:
853:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
823:
820:
816:
809:
804:
802:
797:
795:
790:
789:
786:
782:
774:
768:
761:
755:
747:
743:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
714:
700:
696:
690:
681:
676:
672:
668:
661:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
631:
627:
623:
619:
612:
605:
599:
590:
581:
572:
563:
554:
545:
536:
527:
517:
508:
499:
490:
481:
472:
463:
461:
459:
449:
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431:
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407:
401:
392:
390:
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370:
368:
358:
356:
346:
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330:
327:
324:
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318:
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309:
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287:
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255:
251:
247:
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239:
229:
226:
215:
206:
203:
200:
195:
186:
177:
175:
172:According to
170:
167:
156:
147:
144:
140:
129:
127:
117:
115:
111:
102:
99:
95:
91:
86:
81:
77:
76:kin selection
72:
70:
69:in-group bias
66:
62:
57:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3466:
3462:
3451:
3434:
3421:
3408:
3395:
3209:
3154:Sociobiology
3012:Neuroscience
2992:Intelligence
2538:Anthropology
2491:Color vision
2476:Multitasking
2455:Flynn effect
2450:Intelligence
2432:Folk biology
2175:Evolutionary
2025:Polymorphism
2008:Astrobiology
1980:
1956:Biogeography
1911:Saltationism
1901:Orthogenesis
1886:Alternatives
1815:
1801:
1734:Cospeciation
1729:Cladogenesis
1678:Saltationism
1635:Mating types
1558:Color vision
1543:Avian flight
1465:mitochondria
1203:Canalisation
1081:Biodiversity
826:Introduction
781:
772:
767:
759:
754:
727:
723:
713:
702:. Retrieved
698:
689:
670:
666:
660:
625:
621:
611:
603:
598:
589:
580:
571:
562:
553:
544:
535:
526:
516:
507:
498:
489:
480:
471:
448:
439:
405:
400:
345:
293:
284:
275:
266:
258:
253:
249:
245:
241:
235:
221:
212:
204:
196:
192:
183:
171:
165:
162:
153:
135:
123:
112:
108:
101:psychology.
73:
52:
28:anthropology
19:
18:
3469:(39): e30.
3293:Determinism
3205:Coevolution
3149:Primatology
2987:Gender role
2892:Orientation
2772:Screen time
2629:Affectional
2611:Development
2290:Mate choice
2217:By-products
2185:Adaptations
2148:Cognitivism
2035:Systematics
1906:Mutationism
1724:Catagenesis
1652:Snake venom
1585:Eusociality
1563:in primates
1553:Cooperation
1481:In animals
1301:butterflies
1274:Cephalopods
1264:Brachiopods
1196:Development
1170:Mate choice
923:Convergence
906:Coevolution
864:Abiogenesis
730:(1): 1â14.
680:10871/24291
223:worth. The
197:Meanwhile,
80:reciprocity
3498:Categories
3240:Population
3235:Lamarckism
3081:behavioral
3059:Behavioral
3007:Narcissism
2952:Aggression
2742:Hypophobia
2732:Depression
2619:Attachment
2601:Universals
2565:Psychology
2543:Biological
2531:Musicology
2521:Aesthetics
2420:Basophobia
2227:Exaptation
2205:Reciprocal
1896:Lamarckism
1874:Philosophy
1797:David Hume
1759:Peripatric
1754:Parapatric
1739:Ecological
1719:Anagenesis
1714:Allopatric
1706:Speciation
1670:Gradualism
1595:Metabolism
1455:chromosome
1445:Eukaryotes
1223:Modularity
1140:Population
1066:Population
1027:Speciation
1005:Panspermia
958:Extinction
953:Exaptation
928:Divergence
901:Cladistics
889:Reciprocal
869:Adaptation
704:2019-01-03
521:1068â1095.
337:References
232:Mechanisms
65:conformity
48:psychology
3514:Selection
3085:cognitive
3077:Affective
2962:Cognition
2916:Sexuality
2902:Pair bond
2662:Education
2319:Cognition
2237:Inclusive
2177:processes
2165:Criticism
2030:Protocell
1881:Darwinism
1769:Sympatric
1518:processes
1406:Tetrapods
1355:Kangaroos
1281:Dinosaurs
1218:Inversion
1187:Variation
1108:Gene flow
1101:Inclusive
911:Mutualism
856:Evolution
746:2169-0812
673:: 43â44.
644:1469-1825
90:Ultimatum
61:imitation
44:sociology
3519:Memetics
3485:25347943
3354:Memetics
3114:Ethology
3072:genetics
2907:Physical
2872:Jealousy
2827:Activity
2633:maternal
2589:Religion
2577:Morality
2555:Language
2436:taxonomy
2249:Mismatch
2195:Cheating
2190:Altruism
2058:Category
1933:Vitalism
1928:Theistic
1921:Spandrel
1605:Morality
1600:Monogamy
1475:plastids
1440:Flagella
1396:Reptiles
1377:sea cows
1360:primates
1269:Molluscs
1247:Bacteria
1135:Mutation
1068:genetics
1044:Taxonomy
990:Mismatch
970:Homology
884:Cheating
879:Altruism
652:25347943
329:Memetics
304:See also
94:Dictator
3255:Species
3027:Suicide
2862:Fantasy
2842:Arousal
2624:Bonding
2513:Culture
2337:Display
2324:Emotion
2232:Fitness
2121:History
1949:Related
1779:History
1640:Meiosis
1575:Empathy
1570:Emotion
1470:nucleus
1411:Viruses
1401:Spiders
1313:Mammals
1296:Insects
1096:Fitness
1032:Species
831:Outline
628:: e30.
246:against
3483:
3433:
3420:
3407:
2997:Memory
2957:Autism
2924:female
2857:Desire
2594:Origin
2570:Speech
2560:Origin
2332:Affect
2068:Portal
1744:Hybrid
1580:Ethics
1422:organs
1384:Plants
1370:lemurs
1365:humans
1350:horses
1340:hyenas
1328:wolves
1323:canids
1257:origin
744:
650:
642:
254:losses
96:, and
67:, and
46:, and
2967:Crime
2550:Crime
2481:Sleep
2471:skill
2311:Areas
1531:Death
1526:Aging
1505:brain
1291:Fungi
1252:Birds
1165:Fungi
963:Event
846:Index
250:gains
3481:PMID
2920:male
2281:Male
2018:Tree
1490:hair
1430:Cell
1333:dogs
1318:cats
1308:Life
1286:Fish
1239:taxa
742:ISSN
648:PMID
640:ISSN
78:and
3471:doi
2819:Sex
2496:Eye
1516:Of
1485:eye
1435:DNA
1420:Of
1237:Of
732:doi
675:hdl
671:e55
630:doi
252:or
244:or
242:for
236:As
166:and
3500::
3479:.
3467:39
3465:.
3461:.
740:.
726:.
722:.
697:.
669:.
646:.
638:.
626:39
624:.
620:.
457:^
427:^
413:^
378:^
366:^
354:^
92:,
63:,
50:.
42:,
38:,
34:,
30:,
3487:.
3473::
3295:/
3087:/
3083:/
3079:/
3070:/
3061:/
2922:/
2918:/
2909:/
2689:/
2635:/
2631:/
2469:/
2443:/
2434:/
2361:/
2321:/
2283:/
2102:e
2095:t
2088:v
1694:/
1685:/
1676:/
1672:/
807:e
800:t
793:v
748:.
734::
728:1
707:.
683:.
677::
654:.
632::
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