Physical cosmology

2538: 8639: 2663:, there must be an additional component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually accelerate. 2111: 2692:': i.e. the reason that physicists observe a universe with such a small cosmological constant is that no physicists (or any life) could exist in a universe with a larger cosmological constant. Many cosmologists find this an unsatisfying explanation: perhaps because while the weak anthropic principle is self-evident (given that living observers exist, there must be at least one universe with a cosmological constant (CC) which allows for life to exist) it does not attempt to explain the context of that universe. For example, the weak anthropic principle alone does not distinguish between: 1567: 40: 8202: 591: 68: 1540:, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it. This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time. However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this 4542:; Arnaud, M.; Ashdown, M.; Aumont, J.; Baccigalupi, C.; Banday, A. J.; Barreiro, R. B.; Bartlett, J. G.; Bartolo, N.; Battaner, E.; Battye, R.; Benabed, K.; Benoit, A.; Benoit-Levy, A.; Bernard, J. -P.; Bersanelli, M.; Bielewicz, P.; Bonaldi, A.; Bonavera, L.; Bond, J. R.; Borrill, J.; Bouchet, F. R.; Boulanger, F.; Bucher, M.; Burigana, C.; Butler, R. C.; Calabrese, E.; et al. (2016). "Planck 2015 Results. XIII. Cosmological Parameters". 8214: 7437: 603: 2534:, which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy. 2400:). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The results of measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses. 2114:

The inflationary theory as an augmentation to the Big Bang theory was first proposed by Alan Guth of MIT. Inflation solves the 'horizon problem' by making the early universe much more compact than was assumed in the standard model. Given such smaller size, causal contact (i.e., thermal communication)

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of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy

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in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. One way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in

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An example of a gravitational lens found in the DESI Legacy Surveys data. There are four sets of lensed images in DESI-090.9854-35.9683, corresponding to four distinct background galaxies—from the outermost giant red arc to the innermost bright blue arc, arranged in four concentric circles. All of

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For a number of years, support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model, and since the

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to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe. The Einstein model describes a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small

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As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is cosmologically important in a certain epoch if the time scale describing that process is smaller than, or comparable to, the time scale of the expansion of the universe. The time scale that describes the expansion of the universe is

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governing the universe as a whole are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological constant. The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion, the radiation and matter in the universe cool and become diluted. At first, the expansion is slowed down by

2208:, between matter and antimatter. However, particle accelerators measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists look for additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the 2115:

would have been possible among all regions of the early universe. The image was an adaptation from various generic charts depicting the growth of the size of the observable universe, for both the standard model and inflationary model respectively, of the Big Bang theory.

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Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that

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attracting the radiation and matter in the universe. However, as these become diluted, the cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this happened billions of years ago.

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and inhomogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, but it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and

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stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance from Earth. This fact is now known as

2269:. It was used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the 1820:

There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each

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of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass-energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the

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The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology. The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs, according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard cosmological model is known as the

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around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable

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of the cosmic microwave background. These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the

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Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by

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in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard general relativity, the universe began with a

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effect. This energy is not transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of

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independently derived the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval

2190:, but this is not observed. Therefore, some process in the early universe must have created a small excess of matter over antimatter, and this (currently not understood) process is called 2096:

Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in

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that indicated they were receding from Earth. However, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its

2558:, which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas. 4762:

Naess, Sigurd; Hasselfield, Matthew; McMahon, Jeff; Niemack, Michael D.; et al. (October 2014). "The Atacama Cosmology Telescope: CMB polarization at 200 < l < 9000".

1873:. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion. 1852:, and so move at the speed of light or very close to it; non-relativistic particles have much higher rest mass than their energy and so move much slower than the speed of light. 1650:

provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of

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Another tool for understanding structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into

5015: 1659:, though the numerical factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of ten, due to not knowing about the types of Cepheid variables. 1699:

An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.

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or contract. It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the

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Planck Collaboration (2016). "Planck intermediate results. XXX. The angular power spectrum of polarized dust emission at intermediate and high Galactic latitudes".

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Colpi, Monica; Sesana, Alberto (2017). "Gravitational Wave Sources in the Era of Multi-Band Gravitational Wave Astronomy". In Gerard, Augar; Eric, Plagnol (eds.).

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Lamarre, Jean-Michel (2010). "The Cosmic Microwave Background". In Huber, M. C. E.; Pauluhn, A.; Culhane, J. L.; Timothy, J. G.; Wilhelm, K.; Zehnder, A. (eds.).

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Abbott, B. P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger".

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Weinberg, David H.; Davé, Romeel; Katz, Neal; Kollmeier, Juna A. (May 2003). "The Lyman-α Forest as a Cosmological Tool". In Holt, S.H.; Reynolds, C. S. (eds.).

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could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from hydrogen

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Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its

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Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and

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Lemaître, Georges (1927). "Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques".

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on Earth. Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses.

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Sievers, J. L.; et al. (2003). "Cosmological Parameters from Cosmic Background Imager Observations and Comparisons with BOOMERANG, DASI, and MAXIMA".

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Furlanetto, Steven R.; Oh, S. Peng; Briggs, Frank H. (October 2006). "Cosmology at low frequencies: The 21 cm transition and the high-redshift Universe".

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Scranton, R.; Connolly, A. J.; Nichol, R. C.; Stebbins, A.; Szapudi, I.; Eisenstein, D. J.; et al. (July 2003). "Physical Evidence for Dark Energy".

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Boucher, V.; Gérard, J.-M.; Vandergheynst, P.; Wiaux, Y. (November 2004). "Cosmic microwave background constraints on the strong equivalence principle".

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or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's

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whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.

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Kuhlen, Michael; Vogelsberger, Mark; Angulo, Raul (November 2012). "Numerical simulations of the dark universe: State of the art and the next decade".

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Pogosian, Levon; Tye, S.-H. Henry; Wasserman, Ira; Wyman, Mark (2003). "Observational constraints on cosmic string production during brane inflation".

3742: 3054: 563: 1560: 8132: 2462:, concluding that the B-mode signal from dust is the same strength as that reported from BICEP2. On 30 January 2015, a joint analysis of BICEP2 and 7181: 8139: 7068: 2542:

them are gravitationally warped—or lensed—by the orange galaxy at the very center. Dark matter is expected to produce gravitational lensing also.

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and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well

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in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.

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Hinshaw, G.; et al. (October 2013). "Nine-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Parameter Results".

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Takeda, M.; et al. (10 August 1998). "Extension of the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum beyond the Predicted Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuz'min Cutoff".

8251: 6218: 2376:, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular 2064:. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the 8592: 3967: 2178:. Cosmologists can observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter. If it were, there would be 1491: 633: 3330:

Seitter, Waltraut C.; Duerbeck, Hilmar W. (1999). Egret, Daniel; Heck, Andre (eds.). "Carl Wilhelm Wirtz – Pioneer in Cosmic Dimensions".

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Lots of universes exist (simultaneously or serially) with a range of CC values, and of course ours is one of the life-supporting ones.

5026: 840: 3497: 2261:. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, 1414: 3767:

Burles, Scott; Nollett, Kenneth M.; Turner, Michael S. (May 2001). "Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Predictions for Precision Cosmology".

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Cyburt, Richard H.; Fields, Brian D.; Olive, Keith A.; Yeh, Tsung-Han (January 2016). "Big bang nucleosynthesis: Present status".

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physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.

1536:, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. At the time, Einstein believed in a 4517:

Lucente, Michele; Abada, Asmaa; Arcadi, Giorgio; Domcke, Valerie (March 2018). "Leptogenesis, dark matter and neutrino masses".

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suggests that about 23% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible,

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which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable gravitational waves such as

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The early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the Big Bang from roughly 10 seconds onwards, but there are several

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Cole, Shaun; Percival, Will J.; Peacock, John A.; Norberg, Peder; Baugh, Carlton M.; Frenk, Carlos S.; et al. (2005).

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Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of

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Introductory cosmology and general relativity without the full tensor apparatus, deferred until the last part of the book.

2714:, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology. 2537: 7351: 5190:

Percival, Will J.; et al. (2007). "The Shape of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 5 Galaxy Power Spectrum".

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Only one universe will ever exist and there is some underlying principle that constrains the CC to the value we observe.

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Modern introduction to cosmology covering the homogeneous and inhomogeneous universe as well as inflation and the CMB.

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Nojiri, S.; Odintsov, S. D. (2006). "Introduction to Modified Gravity and Gravitational Alternative for Dark Energy".

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Munshi, Dipak; Valageas, Patrick; van Waerbeke, Ludovic; Heavens, Alan (2008). "Cosmology with weak lensing surveys".

728:. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the 8244: 7186: 6631: 4877:

Refregier, A. (1999). "Overview of Secondary Anisotropies of the CMB". In de Oliveira-Costa, A.; Tegmark, M. (eds.).

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from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a

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at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source.

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George FR Ellis (2006). "Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology". In Jeremy Butterfield & John Earman (ed.).

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The Penrose-Hawking Singularity Theorems: History and Implications – The expanding worlds of general relativity

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was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first

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cosmological model, the most widely accepted out of all in physical cosmology (neither time nor size to scale)

8074: 7284: 7212: 5133:"The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey: power-spectrum analysis of the final data set and cosmological implications" 3965:

Frieman, Joshua A.; Turner, Michael S.; Huterer, Dragan (2008). "Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe".

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Other, complementary observations to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe

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Das, Saurya; Bhaduri, Rajat K (21 May 2015). "Dark matter and dark energy from a Bose–Einstein condensate".

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Only one universe will ever exist and although there is no underlying principle fixing the CC, we got lucky.

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Springel, Volker; Frenk, Carlos S.; White, Simon D.M. (2006). "The large-scale structure of the Universe".

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Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies,

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During the earliest moments of the universe, the average energy density was very high, making knowledge of

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Dick, Steven J. (2020). "The Biophysical Cosmology: The Place of Bioastronomy in the History of Science".

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reactions, smaller atomic nuclei are then combined into larger atomic nuclei, ultimately forming stable

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Fernández-Jambrina, L. (September 2014). "Grand rip and grand bang/crunch cosmological singularities".

2785: 2730: 2637:. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include a modification of gravity at small accelerations ( 2516: 2493: 2381: 1711: 1680: 810: 670: 361: 341: 149: 94: 2307:

of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by

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also powers the most energetic processes, generally seen in the nuclear regions of galaxies, forming

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Peebles, Phillip James Edwin (April 2014). "Discovery of the hot Big Bang: What happened in 1948".

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These will help cosmologists settle the question of when and how structure formed in the universe.

2511: 2393: 2228: 2098: 2043: 1882: 826: 356: 121: 3183:. Milton Keynes Cambridge, UK; New York: Open University Cambridge University Press. p. 232. 3158:. Milton Keynes Cambridge, UK; New York: Open University Cambridge University Press. p. 228. 3105: 2436: 2060:

Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known

1844:, or non-relativistic particles referred to as matter. Relativistic particles are particles whose 8614: 8463: 8302: 8030: 7816: 7675: 7654: 7613: 7577: 7545: 7407: 6434: 2761: 1739: 1165: 324: 204: 7083:(subtitle) Could cosmic inflation be a sign that our universe is embedded in a far vaster realm? 8083: 7956: 7949: 7872: 7666: 7315: 6663: 5445: 5382: 5319: 4127: 3303:

Slipher, V. M. (1922). "Further Notes on Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae and Clusters".

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Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the universe to contain far more matter than

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Klasen, M.; Pohl, M.; Sigl, G. (November 2015). "Indirect and direct search for dark matter".

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Kovetz, Ely D. (2017). "Probing Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter with Gravitational Waves".

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in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of

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announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to interstellar dust in the Milky Way.

1613:, but a physical size must be assumed in order to do this. Another method is to measure the 740:; however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations. 8572: 8520: 8413: 8356: 8045: 7977: 7795: 7733: 7524: 7501: 7494: 7392: 6507: 6296: 6237: 6178: 6117: 5962: 5857: 5808: 5755: 5702: 5612: 5565: 5508: 5437: 5374: 5311: 5262: 5209: 5154: 5095: 4977: 4892: 4830: 4781: 4728: 4675: 4638: 4608: 4561: 4483: 4430: 4374: 4298: 4253: 4206: 4119: 4066: 3998: 3986: 3923: 3872: 3835: 3786: 3697: 3644: 3596: 3532: 3466: 3407: 3376: 3339: 3312: 3036: 2962: 2905: 2815:

of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other

2796: 2668: 2660: 2612:. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like a cold, 2412: 2397: 2352:

when neutral atoms first formed. At this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped

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Apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy.

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Canetti, Laurent; et al. (September 2012). "Matter and antimatter in the universe".

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universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed.

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An introduction including more on general relativity and quantum field theory than most.

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Cosmologists cannot explain all cosmic phenomena exactly, such as those related to the

1672: 1622: 1594: 1575: 1533: 1434: 1390: 725: 705: 494: 464: 429: 399: 346: 290: 5714: 3430: 3395: 1762:, meaning subsequent to the Big Bang. Such reactions of nuclear particles can lead to 8467: 8327: 8322: 8312: 8111: 8097: 7896: 7881: 7858: 7802: 7570: 7402: 7387: 6929: 6909: 6888: 6864: 6844: 6838: 6822: 6798: 6779: 6755: 6735: 6715: 6695: 6688: 6671: 6649: 6627: 6603: 6583: 6563: 6537: 6515: 6483: 6464: 6440: 6416: 6394: 6355: 6324: 6259: 6133: 5990: 5978: 5922: 5887: 5873: 5828: 5775: 5669: 5657: 5585: 5528: 5463: 5404: 5341: 5282: 5167: 5132: 5117: 4900: 4801: 4740: 4581: 4503: 4394: 4318: 4145: 4086: 4026: 3939: 3888: 3806: 3717: 3625: 3548: 3435: 3347: 3184: 3159: 3134: 3109: 2970: 2915: 2910: 2900: 2808: 2804: 2613: 2455: 2143: 1870: 1723: 791: 524: 6198: 6145: 5722: 5229: 4748: 4695: 4006: 3951: 3900: 3664: 8453: 8016: 7995: 7830: 7823: 7441: 7320: 7072: 7032: 6999: 6641: 6347: 6314: 6304: 6245: 6186: 6129: 6125: 5974: 5970: 5910: 5865: 5816: 5763: 5710: 5649: 5620: 5601:"Vacuum catastrophe: An elementary exposition of the cosmological constant problem" 5573: 5516: 5475: 5455: 5392: 5329: 5270: 5217: 5176: 5162: 5103: 5054: 5049:

Cowen, Ron (30 January 2015). "Gravitational waves discovery now officially dead".

4997: 4985: 4838: 4789: 4736: 4683: 4569: 4491: 4450: 4438: 4382: 4306: 4261: 4214: 4157: 4137: 4074: 3994: 3931: 3880: 3843: 3794: 3705: 3656: 3652: 3540: 3474: 3425: 3415: 3044: 2920: 2683: 2531: 2527: 2319: 2209: 2147: 2003: 1935: 1889: 1810: 1755: 1651: 1206: 779: 756: 736:, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of 700:

Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began in 1915 with the development of

607: 409: 245: 114: 5459: 5396: 4989: 4573: 2853:, whether or not Einstein's general theory of relativity is the correct theory of 419: 394: 8502: 8162: 7837: 7754: 7692: 7647: 7591: 7336: 7248: 7037: 6529: 6454: 6430: 5653: 4495: 4386: 4195:"Inflationary universe: A possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems" 3884: 3527:

Earman, John (1999). Goenner, Hubert; Jürgen; Ritter, Jim; Sauer, Tilman (eds.).

2895: 2858: 2677: 2609: 2523: 2454:

to occur during the earliest phase of the Big Bang. However, later that year the

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formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the

1786: 1735: 1693: 1656: 1537: 775: 752: 701: 534: 469: 454: 439: 424: 414: 278: 175: 6351: 6190: 4815:

Baumann, Daniel; et al. (2009). "Probing Inflation with CMB Polarization".

4047:

Ojeda, P.; Rosu, H. (June 2006). "Supersymmetry of FRW barotropic cosmologies".

3544: 3207: 3133:. New York: Hill and Wang, A division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 19. 2872: 2380:

of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (

1855:

As the universe expands, both matter and radiation become diluted. However, the

8643: 8567: 8530: 8292: 8277: 8229: 8009: 7942: 7844: 6030: 5869: 5820: 5577: 5520: 5274: 5011: 4920: 4817:

CMB Polarization Workshop: Theory and Foregrounds: CMBPol Mission Concept Study

4539: 4442: 4265: 3400:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3265: 3049: 2506: 2429: 2377: 2312: 2238: 1943: 1856: 1849: 1633: 1266: 1226: 1186: 795: 519: 479: 30:

This article is about the branch of physics and astronomy. For other uses, see

5914: 5767: 5058: 4078: 3848: 3821: 3479: 3454: 3396:"A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" 2201: 1702:

In September 2023, astrophysicists questioned the overall current view of the

8653: 8597: 8577: 8067: 7045: 6646:

Einstein's General Theory of Relativity with Modern Applications in Cosmology

6068: 2622: 2617: 2562: 2266: 2164: 1806: 1689: 1606: 1511: 721: 674: 661:, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the 504: 489: 389: 5544:"Constraining Dark Energy with Type Ia Supernovae and Large-Scale Structure" 5108: 5073: 4219: 4194: 3935: 2717:

A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the

2568:

line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology.

2500:) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of 2120: 743:

Dramatic advances in observational cosmology since the 1990s, including the

8287: 8272: 8023: 8002: 7620: 7356: 6384: 6328: 6137: 5982: 5683:

Sahni, Varun (2002). "The cosmological constant problem and quintessence".

5661: 5467: 4149: 3943: 3892: 3601: 3439: 2876: 2773: 2722: 2571: 2547: 2497: 2357: 2192: 2187: 2081: 1866: 1798: 1664: 1647: 1629:, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1927, the 1610: 1410: 1139: 1003: 787: 770:

Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas of research in

709: 690: 509: 484: 459: 444: 300: 3420: 2949:

Philosophy of Physics (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science) 3 volume set

1566: 39: 8546: 8487: 8379: 8090: 7310: 7300: 7011: 6980: 6682:

For undergraduates; mathematically gentle with a strong historical focus.

6497: 6173: 5697: 5560: 5432: 5369: 5306: 5204: 5149: 5072:

Heß, Steffen; Kitaura, Francisco-Shu; Gottlöber, Stefan (November 2013).

4887: 4862: 4670: 4425: 4114: 3781: 2957: 2854: 2769: 2765: 2654: 2591: 2459: 2274: 2234: 2205: 1916: 1805:

that permeates all space. One hypothesis is that dark energy is just the

1802: 1286: 764: 760: 257: 250: 6309: 4141: 3623:

Ali, Ahmed Faraq (4 February 2015). "Cosmology from quantum potential".

3019: 8587: 8551: 8508: 8282: 8060: 8037: 7517: 7305: 6413:

The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins

5750: 4248: 2839: 2777: 2365: 2299: 2175: 2155: 1939: 1861: 1775: 1743: 1668: 1618: 1614: 1078: 748: 499: 6960: 5333: 4842: 4061: 1038: 8491: 8443: 8418: 8403: 8297: 8261: 8155: 7482: 7119: 6480:

Heart of Darkness: Unraveling the mysteries of the invisible Universe

6408: 2781: 2749: 2745: 2672:

predicts a cosmological constant (CC) much like dark energy, but 120

2250: 2183: 2128: 1845: 1841: 1626: 1598: 717: 666: 650: 449: 31: 27:

Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe

6005:"Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction" 5625: 5600: 5543: 3863:

Frautschi, S. (13 August 1982). "Entropy in an expanding universe".

3270:"Detection of Waves in Space Buttresses Landmark Theory of Big Bang" 2871:

as part or an inherent part of physical cosmology. It stresses that

8439: 7263: 7148: 7138: 6112: 5957: 5852: 5503: 5221: 4687: 4556: 4523: 4478: 3820:

Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).

3798: 2812: 2473: 2278: 2034:

is roughly equal to the age of the universe at each point in time.

1826: 1727: 1703: 1583: 1571: 729: 708:, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, 662: 182: 84: 77: 44: 6291: 6232: 5803: 5257: 5090: 4972: 4825: 4776: 4723: 4369: 4293: 4037:

This argues cogently "Energy is always, always, always conserved."

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black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On 15 June 2016, a

7021: 7014: : A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology 5844:

An Overview of Gravitational Waves: Theory, Sources and Detection

5417: 4637:. ISSI Scientific Reports Series. Vol. 9. pp. 149–162. 2998: 2726: 2440: 2258: 1825:

that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the

1630: 1555:. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by 1246: 678: 2085: 712:

discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external

8185: 5189: 4410: 2425: 2369: 2308: 2254: 2246: 2073: 1822: 1780: 1751: 1731: 1679:

precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the

1636: 1602: 1454: 1161: 759:. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of 713: 8348: 5599:

Adler, Ronald J.; Casey, Brendan; Jacob, Ovid C. (July 1995).

4855: 4761: 5298:

AIP Conference Proceedings: The Emergence of Cosmic Structure

4655: 4537: 2645:

is a version of MOND that can explain gravitational lensing.

2642: 2630: 2404: 2196:. Three required conditions for baryogenesis were derived by 2179: 1478: 7451: 7088: 6970: 6809:

Discusses the formation of large-scale structures in detail.

5738:

International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

5542:

Perlmutter, Saul; Turner, Michael S.; White, Martin (1999).

4814: 2867:: a type of physical cosmology that studies and understands 2356:

from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by

2344:

The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from

1801:. Instead, cosmologists propose a new form of energy called 697:, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood. 67: 6964: 6766:

An introduction to cosmology with a thorough discussion of

6560:

Relativity, Gravitation and Cosmology: a Basic Introduction

6346:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 53–58. 6076: 6035:"Scientists Hear a Second Chirp From Colliding Black Holes" 5640:

Siegfried, Tom (11 August 2006). "A 'Landscape' Too Far?".

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Harmonizing Cosmic Distance Scales in a Post-Hipparcos Era

2200:

in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics

1734:, were created during the Big Bang through the process of 8332: 7627: 7075:(November 2007). "The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride". 6436:

A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes

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Kirshner, R. P. (2003). "Throwing Light on Dark Energy".

2388:) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as 2242: 1809:, a component of empty space that is associated with the 1474: 7000:

Cosmology: Methodological Debates in the 1930s and 1940s

5242: 4516: 3597:"Big Bang, Deflated? Universe May Have Had No Beginning" 7025:". Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics (LHEA) NASA 5901:

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016).

4334:"New source of asymmetry between matter and antimatter" 2835:

were formed in our universe, and what happened to them.

2284: 2053:

had energies higher than those currently accessible in

5074:"Simulating structure formation of the Local Universe" 3733:"The Story of Our Universe May Be Starting to Unravel" 2458:

collaboration provided a more accurate measurement of

2446:

polarization of the CMB, considered to be evidence of

1950:

are important for cosmological models of this period.

1621:, from which the distance may be determined using the 8627: 6069:"The Newest Search for Gravitational Waves has Begun" 5541: 4881:. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 181. p. 219. 2799:

Collaboration teams announced that they had made the

2629:, a gravitationally-interacting massive particle, an 2012: 1988: 1960: 6920:

A standard reference for the mathematical formalism.

6640: 4957: 4463: 3964: 2706:

Other possible explanations for dark energy include

2219:, rather than through observations of the universe. 665:

and allows study of fundamental questions about its

6614:An introductory text, released slightly before the 5071: 3766: 3020:Beringer, J.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2012). 2729:, or whether it will eventually reverse, lead to a 1938:critical to understanding this environment. Hence, 805: 653:concerned with the study of cosmological models. A 7041:". Division of Astronomy & Astrophysics, UCLA. 6814: 6709: 6687: 5788: 5354: 4099: 3731:Frank, Adam; Gleiser, Marcelo (2 September 2023). 3131:Many worlds in one: the search for other universes 2026: 2006:, which varies with time. The expansion timescale 1994: 1974: 1836:Different forms of energy may dominate the cosmos— 5900: 5137:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 5078:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3459:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3305:Publications of the American Astronomical Society 2838:Detection of cosmic rays with energies above the 2142:of particle physics suggest that there should be 1582:, a rapidly accelerated expansion just after the 8651: 8259: 6752:Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure 6749: 6562:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 3231: 3229: 2474:Formation and evolution of large-scale structure 1923: 1646:"—which was later called the Big Bang. In 1929, 5598: 5042: 4174:. The European Space Agency (ESA). 2 April 2013 3504:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from 3369:Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles 3329: 3260: 3258: 3091: 3089: 2946: 1559:in the early 1920s. His equations describe the 7067: 7016:". Caltech and Carnegie. Pasadena, California. 6957:– from Cambridge University (public home page) 6477: 6275:"Varying Constants, Gravitation and Cosmology" 5903:"Einstein's gravitational waves found at last" 5894: 5735: 5535: 5488: 5348: 5016:"Study Confirms Criticism of Big Bang Finding" 4764:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 4406: 4404: 3580:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 3178: 3153: 2333: 8364: 8245: 7467: 7104: 6482:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6478:Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Mitton, Simon (2013). 6219:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 5633: 4870: 3968:Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics 3856: 3762: 3760: 3238:"NASA Technology Views Birth of the Universe" 3226: 3202: 3200: 2530:. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic 834: 627: 6205: 6023: 5782: 5289: 5004: 4951: 4913: 4849: 4325: 4227: 4093: 3730: 3724: 3255: 3086: 2817:gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) 6885:New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology 6792: 5841: 4808: 4702: 4649: 4626: 4510: 4401: 4348: 4272: 3958: 3671: 3616: 3588: 2037: 8371: 8357: 8252: 8238: 7474: 7460: 7111: 7097: 6214:"Experimental Tests of General Relativity" 6152: 6091: 5729: 5482: 5411: 5236: 5183: 4531: 4457: 4020: 3757: 3677: 3520: 3197: 3095: 2424:, which are caused by interaction between 2372:today and is isotropic to one part in 10. 2171:will provide an alternative to inflation. 2088:model it will continue expanding forever. 1902:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric 1876: 1547:perturbations—it will eventually start to 841: 827: 634: 620: 66: 7182:Religious interpretations of the Big Bang 6861:The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 6582:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6318: 6308: 6290: 6249: 6231: 6172: 6111: 5956: 5851: 5835: 5802: 5749: 5696: 5676: 5639: 5624: 5592: 5559: 5502: 5449: 5431: 5386: 5368: 5323: 5305: 5256: 5203: 5166: 5148: 5107: 5089: 4971: 4886: 4876: 4861: 4824: 4775: 4755: 4722: 4669: 4595:Carlisle, Camille M. (10 February 2015). 4555: 4522: 4477: 4424: 4368: 4292: 4247: 4218: 4131: 4113: 4060: 4046: 3980: 3862: 3847: 3780: 3691: 3638: 3478: 3429: 3419: 3181:An introduction to galaxies and cosmology 3156:An introduction to galaxies and cosmology 3048: 2956: 2822: 7172:Discovery of cosmic microwave background 6923: 6901: 6773: 6662: 6597: 6528: 6266: 6211: 5491:Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics 5124: 5065: 4594: 4588: 4331: 4186: 3913: 3455:"A New Model for the Expanding Universe" 3366: 3128: 2939: 2861:are the same everywhere in the universe. 2801:first observation of gravitational waves 2536: 2109: 1848:is zero or negligible compared to their 1774:. Gravitational collapse of matter into 1565: 38: 7004:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6858: 6836: 6812: 6577: 6453: 6429: 6029: 5010: 4919: 4632: 4354: 3302: 3264: 3179:Jones, Mark; Lambourne, Robert (2004). 3154:Jones, Mark; Lambourne, Robert (2004). 2574:, the distortion of a distant image by 2326:). It is frequently referred to as the 1717: 724:and others showed that the universe is 14: 8652: 7044: 6729: 6726:The classic reference for researchers. 6685: 6668:Cosmology: the science of the universe 6621: 6383: 6097: 5942: 4538:Collaboration, Planck; Ade, P. A. R.; 4332:Pandolfi, Stefania (30 January 2017). 3999:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145243 3526: 3492: 3490: 3393: 3235: 2842:, and whether it signals a failure of 2736: 2432:with the cosmic microwave background. 2368:spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 2105: 1895: 1795:accelerating expansion of the universe 1507: 778:. Areas relevant to cosmology include 8352: 8233: 7455: 7092: 6746:Cosmology without general relativity. 6710:Kolb, Edward; Michael Turner (1988). 6557: 6496: 6251:10.1146/annurev.nucl.58.020807.111839 5936: 5682: 5048: 3745:from the original on 2 September 2023 3594: 3452: 2641:) or an effect from brane cosmology. 2435:On 17 March 2014, astronomers of the 1617:of an object and assume an intrinsic 819: 8213: 6882: 6503:Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe 6407: 6341: 6335: 6272: 4711:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 4607:(1). Sky & Telescope Media: 28. 4192: 3822:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" 3813: 3060:from the original on 9 October 2022. 2505:the universe and measure the matter 2450:that are predicted by the theory of 2439:announced the apparent detection of 2318:), associated with dark energy, and 2285:Standard model of Big Bang cosmology 1463: 1443: 1423: 1399: 1379: 1359: 1339: 1319: 1299: 1275: 1255: 1235: 1215: 1195: 1175: 1148: 1128: 1108: 1088: 808: 555: 6992: 6795:Structure formation in the universe 6750:Liddle, Andrew; David Lyth (2000). 6732:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 5997: 4819:. Vol. 1141. pp. 10–120. 4597:"Planck Upholds Standard Cosmology" 4023:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 3622: 3487: 3100:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 2627:weakly interacting massive particle 2480:Large-scale structure of the cosmos 2390:Degree Angular Scale Interferometer 1561:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker 755:, have led to the development of a 24: 6372: 6273:Uzan, Jean-Philippe (March 2011). 3013: 2222: 801: 362:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 25: 8691: 7187:Timeline of cosmological theories 6943: 6776:Physical Foundations of Cosmology 6690:Astronomy: A Physical Perspective 6624:Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy 4193:Guth, Alan H. (15 January 1981). 3236:Clavin, Whitney (17 March 2014). 3022:"2013 Review of Particle Physics" 2733:, or follow some other scenario. 2680:and a number of string theorists 2091: 1754:, which have the highest nuclear 577:Timeline of cosmological theories 342:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 8637: 8212: 8201: 8200: 7971:Southern African Large Telescope 7435: 6840:Principles of Physical Cosmology 5168:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09318.x 3212:The BICEP / Keck CMB Experiments 2873:life is inherent to the universe 2502:hierarchical structure formation 2374:Cosmological perturbation theory 786:, theoretical and observational 601: 590: 589: 8378: 7280:Future of an expanding universe 7019:Tyler, Pat, and Newman, Phil, " 6971:Center for Cosmological Physics 6706:An introductory astronomy text. 6061: 4357:The European Physical Journal H 4164: 4040: 4013: 3907: 3595:Ghose, Tia (26 February 2015). 3446: 3387: 3360: 3323: 3296: 2163:. Some cosmologists think that 2150:, which drives the universe to 1758:. The net process results in a 1578:are hypothesized to arise from 357:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 210:Future of an expanding universe 7177:History of the Big Bang theory 6948: 6887:. Cambridge University Press. 6863:. Princeton University Press. 6843:. Princeton University Press. 6821:. Cambridge University Press. 6797:. Cambridge University Press. 6778:. Cambridge University Press. 6774:Mukhanov, Viatcheslav (2005). 6694:. Cambridge University Press. 6670:. Cambridge University Press. 6130:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.131301 5975:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 3710:10.1088/0264-9381/32/10/105003 3657:10.1016/j.physletb.2014.12.057 3547:(inactive 11 September 2024). 3172: 3147: 3122: 3064: 2997:. 1 April 2014. Archived from 2983: 2648: 2585: 2509:. This is the approach of the 2488:Galaxy formation and evolution 2448:primordial gravitational waves 1865:per photon becomes roughly 10 1087: 572:History of the Big Bang theory 368:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 13: 1: 8464:creation of chemical elements 7481: 7285:Ultimate fate of the universe 7213:Gravitational wave background 7118: 6011:. National Science Foundation 5685:Classical and Quantum Gravity 5460:10.1016/j.physrep.2008.02.003 5397:10.1016/j.physrep.2006.08.002 4794:10.1088/1475-7516/2014/10/007 4311:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3680:Classical and Quantum Gravity 3208:"BICEP2 2014 Results Release" 2932: 2795:Scientific Collaboration and 2719:ultimate fate of the universe 1930:Particle physics in cosmology 1924:Particle physics in cosmology 564:Discovery of cosmic microwave 215:Ultimate fate of the universe 8675:Astronomical sub-disciplines 6551: 6279:Living Reviews in Relativity 5654:10.1126/science.313.5788.750 5245:Physics of the Dark Universe 4960:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4544:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4496:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015004 3885:10.1126/science.217.4560.593 3394:Hubble, Edwin (March 1929). 2788:shortly after the Big Bang. 2758:Gravitational-wave astronomy 2411:, are trying to measure the 2237:dropped below that at which 706:general theory of relativity 7: 7203:Cosmic microwave background 7027:Goddard Space Flight Center 6928:. Oxford University Press. 6644:; Hervik, Sigbjørn (2007). 6352:10.1007/978-3-030-41614-0_4 6212:Turyshev, Slava G. (2008). 6191:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1163 5715:10.1088/0264-9381/19/13/304 5605:American Journal of Physics 4990:10.1051/0004-6361/201425034 4925:"Ripples From the Big Bang" 4574:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830 3545:10.1007/978-1-4612-0639-2_7 3498:"Big Bang or Steady State?" 2883: 2784:, and the formation of the 2676:larger than that observed. 2635:massive compact halo object 2604:, structure formation, and 2602:cosmic microwave background 2466:data was published and the 2409:Atacama Cosmology Telescope 2403:Newer experiments, such as 2340:Cosmic microwave background 2334:Cosmic microwave background 2249:), it principally produced 2076:, and ultimately galaxies, 2066:cosmic microwave background 1908:standard cosmological model 1708:Standard Model of Cosmology 1508: 988: 757:standard model of cosmology 745:cosmic microwave background 332:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 10: 8696: 8394:Chronology of the universe 7208:Cosmic neutrino background 7144:Chronology of the universe 7038:Cosmology tutorial and FAQ 6879:and correlation functions. 6859:Peebles, P. J. E. (1980). 6837:Peebles, P. J. E. (1993). 6622:Gal-Or, Benjamin (1987) . 6460:The Universe in a Nutshell 6377: 5870:10.1142/9789813141766_0002 5821:10.1103/PhysRevD.90.064014 5578:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.670 5521:10.1016/j.ppnp.2015.07.001 5275:10.1016/j.dark.2012.10.002 4741:10.1088/0067-0049/208/2/19 4635:Observing Photons in Space 4443:10.1103/PhysRevD.70.103528 4387:10.1140/epjh/e2014-50002-y 4266:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.023506 3050:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001 2652: 2589: 2517:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey 2477: 2337: 2226: 2041: 1927: 1899: 1880: 1768:cataclysmic variable stars 1712:James Webb Space Telescope 1681:Cosmic Background Explorer 1667:The other explanation was 1521: 95:Chronology of the universe 29: 8606: 8560: 8539: 8427: 8386: 8268: 8195: 7987: 7964:Large Binocular Telescope 7929:Extremely Large Telescope 7922:Extremely large telescope 7895: 7778: 7718: 7639: 7601: 7562: 7555: 7489: 7431: 7375: 7329: 7293: 7272: 7254:Expansion of the universe 7231: 7195: 7162: 7126: 7081:(print). pp. 52–59. 6924:Weinberg, Steven (2008). 6905:Gravitation and Cosmology 6902:Weinberg, Steven (1971). 5915:10.1038/nature.2016.19361 5768:10.1142/S0219887807001928 5192:The Astrophysical Journal 5059:10.1038/nature.2015.16830 4658:The Astrophysical Journal 4466:Reviews of Modern Physics 4079:10.1007/s10773-006-9123-2 3849:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547 3827:Reviews of Modern Physics 3769:The Astrophysical Journal 3334:. ASP Conference Series. 2857:, and if the fundamental 2827:Cosmologists also study: 2760:is an emerging branch of 2418:Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect 1840:which are referred to as 188:Expansion of the universe 43:Artist conception of the 7936:Gran Telescopio Canarias 7050:"Four Keys to Cosmology" 6855:Strong historical focus. 6793:Padmanabhan, T. (1993). 6598:Dodelson, Scott (2003). 6578:Baumann, Daniel (2022). 6390:The Fabric of the Cosmos 2926:Universal Rotation Curve 2819:are under construction. 2598:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 2512:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 2394:Cosmic Background Imager 2364:, has a perfect thermal 2229:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 2186:produced as a result of 2099:Timeline of the Big Bang 2044:Timeline of the Big Bang 2038:Timeline of the Big Bang 1883:Timeline of the Big Bang 851: 352:Planck space observatory 138:Gravitational wave (GWB) 8521:Agricultural Revolution 8303:Extragalactic astronomy 8031:Astrology and astronomy 7741:Gravitational radiation 7408:Observational cosmology 7006:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 6730:Liddle, Andrew (2003). 6534:The First Three Minutes 6344:Space, Time, and Aliens 6161:Physical Review Letters 6100:Physical Review Letters 5945:Physical Review Letters 5548:Physical Review Letters 4982:2016A&A...586A.133P 4613:2015S&T...130a..28C 4566:2016A&A...594A..13P 4220:10.1103/PhysRevD.23.347 3991:2008ARA&A..46..385F 3936:10.1126/science.1086879 3480:10.1093/mnras/108.5.372 3129:Vilenkin, Alex (2007). 3072:"Nobel Prize Biography" 2762:observational astronomy 2688:have invoked the 'weak 2330:of Big Bang cosmology. 2295:Lambda cold dark matter 1877:History of the universe 1740:stellar nucleosynthesis 738:alternative cosmologies 693:to those on Earth, and 205:Inhomogeneous cosmology 7950:Hubble Space Telescope 7259:Accelerating expansion 6813:Peacock, John (1998). 6648:. New York: Springer. 6558:Cheng, Ta-Pei (2005). 4281:New Journal of Physics 2995:cosmologystatement.org 2833:primordial black holes 2823:Other areas of inquiry 2606:galaxy rotation curves 2543: 2140:grand unified theories 2134:cosmological principle 2116: 2028: 1996: 1976: 1838:relativistic particles 1831:conservation of energy 1813:that exist due to the 1764:sudden energy releases 1710:, based on the latest 1586: 1553:cosmological principle 884:−10 — 874:−11 — 864:−12 — 854:−13 — 790:, general relativity, 48: 8665:Philosophy of physics 8054:Astroparticle physics 7789:Australian Aboriginal 7362:Shape of the universe 7352:Large-scale structure 7165:cosmological theories 6975:University of Chicago 6883:Rees, Martin (2002). 6877:large-scale structure 6686:Kutner, Marc (2003). 6463:. Bantam Books, Inc. 6439:. Bantam Books, Inc. 6393:. Penguin Books Ltd. 5109:10.1093/mnras/stt1428 5014:(22 September 2014). 4879:Microwave Foregrounds 3421:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168 2945:For an overview, see 2865:Biophysical cosmology 2851:equivalence principle 2803:, originating from a 2780:; and events such as 2576:gravitational lensing 2540: 2468:European Space Agency 2362:Robert Woodrow Wilson 2271:equivalence principle 2113: 2055:particle accelerators 2029: 1997: 1977: 1815:uncertainty principle 1797:, using conventional 1706:, in the form of the 1688:, as demonstrated by 1569: 1543:cosmological constant 1524:Timeline of cosmology 1029:Accelerated expansion 974:−1 — 964:−2 — 954:−3 — 944:−4 — 934:−5 — 924:−6 — 914:−7 — 904:−8 — 894:−9 — 685:, which implies that 296:Large-scale structure 274:Shape of the universe 42: 8573:Cynthia Stokes Brown 8478:formation of planets 8414:Goldilocks principle 8046:Astronomers Monument 7978:Very Large Telescope 7525:Astronomical symbols 7442:astronomy portal 6981:Origins, Nova Online 6875:The classic work on 6817:Cosmological Physics 3453:Hoyle, Fred (1948). 2906:List of cosmologists 2768:systems composed of 2669:Quantum field theory 2526:, superclusters and 2437:BICEP2 Collaboration 2161:quantum field theory 2078:clusters of galaxies 2010: 1986: 1958: 1948:elementary particles 1760:later energy release 1718:Energy of the cosmos 1528:List of cosmologists 1247:NGC 188 star cluster 683:Copernican principle 681:originated with the 608:Astronomy portal 566:background radiation 543:List of cosmologists 8547:Big History Project 8540:Web-based education 8387:Themes and subjects 8260:Major subfields of 8119:List of astronomers 7532:Astronomical object 7367:Structure formation 7330:Structure formation 7244:Friedmann equations 7154:Observable universe 7134:Age of the universe 7078:Scientific American 7054:Scientific American 7009:Madore, Barry F., " 6977:, Chicago, Illinois 6955:Cambridge Cosmology 6626:. Springer Verlag. 6512:2004biba.book.....S 6455:Hawking, Stephen W. 6431:Hawking, Stephen W. 6310:10.12942/lrr-2011-2 6301:2011LRR....14....2U 6242:2008ARNPS..58..207T 6183:1998PhRvL..81.1163T 6122:2017PhRvL.119m1301K 6079:. 18 September 2015 5967:2016PhRvL.116f1102A 5862:2017ogw..book...43C 5846:. pp. 43–140. 5813:2014PhRvD..90f4014F 5760:2007IJGMM..04..115N 5707:2002CQGra..19.3435S 5617:1995AmJPh..63..620A 5570:1999PhRvL..83..670P 5513:2015PrPNP..85....1K 5442:2008PhR...462...67M 5379:2006PhR...433..181F 5316:2003AIPC..666..157W 5267:2012PDU.....1...50K 5214:2007ApJ...657..645P 5159:2005MNRAS.362..505C 5100:2013MNRAS.435.2065H 4897:1999ASPC..181..219R 4835:2009AIPC.1141...10B 4786:2014JCAP...10..007N 4733:2013ApJS..208...19H 4680:2003ApJ...591..599S 4643:2010ISSIR...9..149L 4488:2016RvMP...88a5004C 4435:2004PhRvD..70j3528B 4379:2014EPJH...39..205P 4303:2012NJPh...14i5012C 4258:2003PhRvD..68b3506P 4211:1981PhRvD..23..347G 4172:"Cosmic Detectives" 4142:10.1038/nature04805 4124:2006Natur.440.1137S 4108:(7088): 1137–1144. 4071:2006IJTP...45.1152R 4049:Int. J. Theor. Phys 4021:Liddle, A. (2003). 3928:2003Sci...300.1914K 3922:(5627): 1914–1918. 3877:1982Sci...217..593F 3840:1957RvMP...29..547B 3791:2001ApJ...552L...1B 3702:2015CQGra..32j5003D 3649:2015PhLB..741..276F 3537:1999ewgr.book..235E 3471:1948MNRAS.108..372H 3412:1929PNAS...15..168H 3381:1927ASSB...47...49L 3344:1999ASPC..167..237S 3317:1922PAAS....4..284S 3096:Liddle, A. (2003). 3041:2012PhRvD..86a0001B 2967:2006astro.ph..2280E 2744:are ripples in the 2742:Gravitational waves 2737:Gravitational waves 2690:anthropic principle 2674:orders of magnitude 2659:If the universe is 2578:due to dark matter. 2484:Structure formation 2348:after the epoch of 2127:, homogeneous, and 2106:Very early universe 2062:high energy physics 2027:{\displaystyle 1/H} 1975:{\displaystyle 1/H} 1912:equations of motion 1896:Equations of motion 1738:. In a sequence of 1576:gravitational waves 1557:Alexander Friedmann 1371:Sexual reproduction 1311:Earliest known life 695:Newtonian mechanics 308:Structure formation 200:Friedmann equations 90:Age of the universe 54:Part of a series on 8670:Philosophy of time 8660:Physical cosmology 8318:Physical cosmology 8308:Galactic astronomy 8105:Physical cosmology 7347:Large quasar group 6714:. Addison-Wesley. 6712:The Early Universe 6602:. Academic Press. 6040:The New York Times 5021:The New York Times 4930:The New York Times 3738:The New York Times 3502:Ideas of Cosmology 3275:The New York Times 2844:special relativity 2752:that propagate as 2556:Lyman-alpha forest 2544: 2422:Sachs-Wolfe effect 2354:Thomson scattering 2263:Ralph Asher Alpher 2144:magnetic monopoles 2117: 2024: 1992: 1972: 1673:steady state model 1623:inverse-square law 1597:) interpreted the 1595:Carl Wilhelm Wirtz 1587: 1534:general relativity 1435:Cambrian explosion 1351:Atmospheric oxygen 1050:Single-celled life 655:cosmological model 647:Physical cosmology 347:Dark Energy Survey 291:Large quasar group 60:Physical cosmology 49: 18:Cosmological model 8625: 8624: 8500:- development of 8492:evolution of life 8454:creation of stars 8346: 8345: 8338:Stellar astronomy 8328:Planetary science 8323:Planetary geology 8313:Orbital mechanics 8227: 8226: 8112:Quantum cosmology 8098:Planetary geology 7891: 7890: 7602:Celestial subject 7449: 7448: 7403:Illustris project 7073:Quevedo, Fernando 7048:(February 2004). 6935:978-0-19-852682-7 6915:978-0-471-92567-5 6894:978-0-521-64544-7 6870:978-0-691-08240-0 6850:978-0-691-01933-8 6828:978-0-521-42270-3 6804:978-0-521-42486-8 6785:978-0-521-56398-7 6761:978-0-521-57598-0 6741:978-0-470-84835-7 6721:978-0-201-11604-5 6701:978-0-521-52927-3 6677:978-0-521-66148-5 6655:978-0-387-69199-2 6609:978-0-12-219141-1 6589:978-0-19-852957-6 6569:978-0-19-852957-6 6543:978-0-465-02437-7 6521:978-0-00-716221-5 6506:. Fourth Estate. 6489:978-0-691-13430-7 6470:978-0-553-80202-3 6446:978-0-553-38016-3 6422:978-0-224-04448-6 6400:978-0-14-101111-0 6361:978-3-030-41613-3 6049:on 1 January 2022 5879:978-981-314-176-6 5791:Physical Review D 5691:(13): 3435–3448. 5648:(5788): 750–753. 5334:10.1063/1.1581786 5030:on 1 January 2022 4939:on 1 January 2022 4923:(25 March 2014). 4906:978-1-58381-006-4 4843:10.1063/1.3160885 4601:Sky and Telescope 4413:Physical Review D 4236:Physical Review D 4199:Physical Review D 4032:978-0-470-84835-7 3871:(4560): 593–599. 3633:(2015): 276–279. 3626:Physics Letters B 3554:978-1-4612-6850-5 3353:978-1-886733-88-6 3284:on 1 January 2022 3268:(17 March 2014). 3190:978-0-521-54623-2 3165:978-0-521-54623-2 3140:978-0-8090-6722-0 3115:978-0-470-84835-7 3104:. Wiley. p. 2976:978-0-444-51560-5 2951:. North Holland. 2916:Quantum cosmology 2911:Physical ontology 2901:Illustris project 2846:at high energies. 2712:equation of state 2616:fluid that forms 1995:{\displaystyle H} 1811:virtual particles 1746:elements such as 1724:chemical elements 1520: 1519: 1512:billion years ago 1486: 1485: 1462: 1461: 1442: 1441: 1422: 1421: 1398: 1397: 1378: 1377: 1358: 1357: 1338: 1337: 1318: 1317: 1298: 1297: 1274: 1273: 1254: 1253: 1234: 1233: 1227:Milky Way spirals 1214: 1213: 1194: 1193: 1174: 1173: 1147: 1146: 1127: 1126: 1107: 1106: 1100:Earliest Universe 792:quantum mechanics 677:. Cosmology as a 644: 643: 315: 314: 157: 156: 16:(Redirected from 8687: 8642: 8641: 8633: 8428:Eight thresholds 8399:Cosmic evolution 8373: 8366: 8359: 8350: 8349: 8254: 8247: 8240: 8231: 8230: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8208: 8204: 8203: 8188: 8179: 8172: 8165: 8158: 8149: 8142: 8135: 8133:Medieval Islamic 8128: 8121: 8114: 8107: 8100: 8093: 8086: 8077: 8070: 8063: 8056: 8049: 8040: 8033: 8026: 8019: 8017:Astroinformatics 8012: 8005: 7998: 7996:Archaeoastronomy 7980: 7973: 7966: 7959: 7957:Keck Observatory 7952: 7945: 7938: 7931: 7924: 7917: 7910: 7884: 7875: 7868: 7861: 7854: 7852:Medieval Islamic 7847: 7840: 7833: 7826: 7819: 7812: 7805: 7798: 7791: 7771: 7764: 7757: 7750: 7743: 7736: 7729: 7711: 7702: 7695: 7688: 7681: 7679: 7671: 7669: 7657: 7650: 7630: 7623: 7616: 7594: 7587: 7580: 7573: 7560: 7559: 7548: 7541: 7534: 7527: 7520: 7511: 7504: 7497: 7476: 7469: 7462: 7453: 7452: 7440: 7439: 7438: 7342:Galaxy formation 7321:Lambda-CDM model 7232:Present universe 7113: 7106: 7099: 7090: 7089: 7085: 7064: 7062: 7060: 6993:From individuals 6963:– from the NASA 6939: 6919: 6898: 6874: 6854: 6832: 6820: 6808: 6789: 6765: 6745: 6725: 6705: 6693: 6681: 6664:Harrison, Edward 6659: 6637: 6613: 6600:Modern Cosmology 6593: 6573: 6547: 6530:Weinberg, Steven 6525: 6493: 6474: 6450: 6426: 6415:. Random House. 6404: 6366: 6365: 6339: 6333: 6332: 6322: 6312: 6294: 6270: 6264: 6263: 6253: 6235: 6209: 6203: 6202: 6176: 6174:astro-ph/9807193 6167:(6): 1163–1166. 6156: 6150: 6149: 6115: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6054: 6048: 6043:. 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Basic Books. 6522: 6490: 6471: 6447: 6423: 6401: 6380: 6375: 6373:Further reading 6370: 6369: 6362: 6340: 6336: 6271: 6267: 6210: 6206: 6157: 6153: 6096: 6092: 6082: 6080: 6067: 6066: 6062: 6052: 6050: 6031:Overbye, Dennis 6028: 6024: 6014: 6012: 6003: 6002: 5998: 5941: 5937: 5927: 5925: 5899: 5895: 5880: 5840: 5836: 5787: 5783: 5734: 5730: 5681: 5677: 5638: 5634: 5626:10.1119/1.17850 5597: 5593: 5540: 5536: 5487: 5483: 5451:10.1.1.337.3760 5420:Physics Reports 5416: 5412: 5388:10.1.1.256.8319 5357:Physics Reports 5353: 5349: 5325:10.1.1.256.1928 5294: 5290: 5241: 5237: 5188: 5184: 5129: 5125: 5070: 5066: 5047: 5043: 5033: 5031: 5012:Overbye, Dennis 5009: 5005: 4956: 4952: 4942: 4940: 4921:Overbye, Dennis 4918: 4914: 4907: 4875: 4871: 4854: 4850: 4813: 4809: 4760: 4756: 4707: 4703: 4654: 4650: 4631: 4627: 4617: 4615: 4593: 4589: 4536: 4532: 4515: 4511: 4462: 4458: 4409: 4402: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4330: 4326: 4277: 4273: 4232: 4228: 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4133:10.1.1.255.8877 4098: 4094: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4018: 4014: 3963: 3959: 3912: 3908: 3861: 3857: 3818: 3814: 3765: 3758: 3748: 3746: 3729: 3725: 3676: 3672: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3593: 3589: 3579: 3570: 3569: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3525: 3521: 3511: 3509: 3508:on 12 June 2015 3496: 3495: 3488: 3451: 3447: 3392: 3388: 3365: 3361: 3354: 3328: 3324: 3301: 3297: 3287: 3285: 3266:Overbye, Dennis 3263: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3234: 3227: 3217: 3215: 3214:. 17 March 2014 3206: 3205: 3198: 3191: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3094: 3087: 3077: 3075: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3024: 3018: 3014: 3004: 3002: 3001:on 1 April 2014 2989: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2886: 2859:laws of physics 2825: 2739: 2678:Steven Weinberg 2657: 2651: 2610:baryonic matter 2594: 2588: 2490: 2478:Main articles: 2476: 2342: 2336: 2305:parametrization 2287: 2231: 2225: 2223:Big Bang Theory 2198:Andrei Sakharov 2169:brane cosmology 2108: 2094: 2046: 2040: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2007: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1964: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1932: 1926: 1904: 1898: 1885: 1879: 1799:forms of energy 1787:active galaxies 1736:nucleosynthesis 1720: 1694:Stephen Hawking 1570:History of the 1538:static universe 1530: 1516: 1515: 1503: 1502: 1501: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1482: 1481: 1467: 1458: 1457: 1447: 1438: 1437: 1427: 1418: 1417: 1403: 1394: 1393: 1383: 1374: 1373: 1363: 1354: 1353: 1343: 1334: 1333: 1331:Earliest oxygen 1323: 1314: 1313: 1303: 1294: 1293: 1279: 1270: 1269: 1259: 1250: 1249: 1239: 1230: 1229: 1219: 1210: 1209: 1199: 1190: 1189: 1179: 1170: 1169: 1159: 1152: 1143: 1142: 1140:Earliest galaxy 1132: 1123: 1122: 1112: 1103: 1102: 1092: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1010: 1009: 1008: 1004: 999: 998: 997: 993: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 847: 821: 815: 812:Nature timeline 811: 804: 802:Subject history 776:applied physics 702:Albert Einstein 689:obey identical 649:is a branch of 640: 602: 600: 582: 581: 568: 565: 558: 556:Subject history 548: 547: 539: 384: 376: 375: 372: 369: 327: 317: 316: 279:Galaxy filament 232: 220: 219: 171: 166:Expansion 159: 158: 143:Microwave (CMB) 122:Nucleosynthesis 106: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8693: 8683: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8647: 8646: 8623: 8622: 8620: 8619: 8610: 8608: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8568:Walter Alvarez 8564: 8562: 8561:Notable people 8558: 8557: 8555: 8554: 8549: 8543: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8533: 8523: 8513: 8512: 8511: 8494: 8480: 8470: 8456: 8446: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8390: 8388: 8384: 8383: 8376: 8375: 8368: 8361: 8353: 8344: 8343: 8341: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8293:Cosmochemistry 8290: 8285: 8280: 8278:Astrochemistry 8275: 8269: 8266: 8265: 8257: 8256: 8249: 8242: 8234: 8225: 8224: 8222: 8221: 8209: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8190: 8189: 8182: 8181: 8180: 8173: 8166: 8152: 8151: 8150: 8143: 8136: 8129: 8115: 8108: 8101: 8094: 8087: 8080: 8079: 8078: 8064: 8057: 8050: 8041: 8034: 8027: 8020: 8013: 8010:Astrochemistry 8006: 7999: 7991: 7989: 7985: 7984: 7982: 7981: 7974: 7967: 7960: 7953: 7946: 7943:Hale Telescope 7939: 7932: 7925: 7918: 7911: 7903: 7901: 7893: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7886: 7885: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7841: 7834: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7806: 7799: 7792: 7784: 7782: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7772: 7765: 7758: 7751: 7744: 7737: 7730: 7722: 7720: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7712: 7705: 7704: 7703: 7689: 7682: 7676:Visible-light 7672: 7658: 7651: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7636: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7631: 7617: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7588: 7581: 7574: 7566: 7564: 7557: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7549: 7542: 7535: 7528: 7521: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7498: 7490: 7487: 7486: 7479: 7478: 7471: 7464: 7456: 7447: 7446: 7432: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7333: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7297: 7295: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7287: 7282: 7276: 7274: 7270: 7269: 7267: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7199: 7197: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7168: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7130: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7116: 7115: 7108: 7101: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7069:Burgess, Cliff 7065: 7046:Musser, George 7042: 7030: 7017: 7007: 6994: 6991: 6990: 6989: 6983:– Provided by 6978: 6968: 6958: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6944:External links 6942: 6941: 6940: 6934: 6921: 6914: 6908:. John Wiley. 6899: 6893: 6880: 6869: 6856: 6849: 6834: 6827: 6810: 6803: 6790: 6784: 6771: 6760: 6747: 6740: 6734:. John Wiley. 6727: 6720: 6707: 6700: 6683: 6676: 6660: 6654: 6638: 6632: 6619: 6608: 6595: 6588: 6575: 6568: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6542: 6526: 6520: 6494: 6488: 6475: 6469: 6451: 6445: 6427: 6421: 6405: 6399: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6360: 6334: 6265: 6226:(1): 207–248. 6204: 6151: 6106:(13): 131301. 6090: 6060: 6022: 5996: 5935: 5893: 5878: 5834: 5781: 5751:hep-th/0601213 5744:(1): 115–146. 5728: 5675: 5632: 5611:(7): 620–626. 5591: 5554:(4): 670–673. 5534: 5481: 5410: 5347: 5288: 5251:(1–2): 50–93. 5235: 5222:10.1086/510615 5198:(2): 645–663. 5182: 5143:(2): 505–534. 5123: 5064: 5041: 5003: 4950: 4912: 4905: 4869: 4848: 4807: 4754: 4701: 4688:10.1086/375510 4664:(2): 599–622. 4648: 4625: 4587: 4530: 4509: 4456: 4419:(10): 103528. 4400: 4363:(2): 205–223. 4347: 4324: 4271: 4249:hep-th/0304188 4226: 4205:(2): 347–356. 4185: 4163: 4092: 4039: 4031: 4012: 3975:(1): 385–432. 3957: 3906: 3855: 3834:(4): 547–650. 3812: 3799:10.1086/320251 3756: 3723: 3686:(10): 105003. 3670: 3615: 3587: 3571:|journal= 3553: 3519: 3486: 3465:(5): 372–382. 3445: 3406:(3): 168–173. 3386: 3359: 3352: 3322: 3295: 3254: 3225: 3196: 3189: 3171: 3164: 3146: 3139: 3121: 3114: 3085: 3063: 3012: 2982: 2975: 2937: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2893: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2881: 2880: 2875:and therefore 2862: 2847: 2836: 2824: 2821: 2786:early universe 2738: 2735: 2704: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2653:Main article: 2650: 2647: 2623:supersymmetric 2596:Evidence from 2590:Main article: 2587: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2569: 2559: 2507:power spectrum 2475: 2472: 2378:power spectrum 2338:Main article: 2335: 2332: 2328:standard model 2286: 2283: 2239:nuclear fusion 2227:Main article: 2224: 2221: 2154:, smooths out 2107: 2104: 2093: 2092:Areas of study 2090: 2042:Main article: 2039: 2036: 2023: 2019: 2015: 1991: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1942:processes and 1928:Main article: 1925: 1922: 1900:Main article: 1897: 1894: 1878: 1875: 1850:kinetic energy 1719: 1716: 1696:in the 1960s. 1634:Roman Catholic 1603:spiral nebulae 1589:In the 1910s, 1518: 1517: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1473: 1472: 1470: 1460: 1459: 1453: 1452: 1450: 1440: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1430: 1420: 1419: 1409: 1408: 1406: 1396: 1395: 1391:Earliest fungi 1389: 1388: 1386: 1376: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1356: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1346: 1336: 1335: 1329: 1328: 1326: 1316: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1306: 1296: 1295: 1285: 1284: 1282: 1272: 1271: 1267:Alpha Centauri 1265: 1264: 1262: 1252: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1242: 1232: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1222: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1202: 1192: 1191: 1187:Omega Centauri 1185: 1184: 1182: 1172: 1171: 1158: 1157: 1155: 1145: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1135: 1125: 1124: 1120:Earliest stars 1118: 1117: 1115: 1105: 1104: 1098: 1097: 1095: 1086: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1059:Photosynthesis 1057: 1056: 1055: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1040:Water on Earth 1037: 1036: 1035: 1026: 1025: 1024: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1002: 1001: 1000: 991: 990: 989: 987: 984:0 — 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 849: 848: 846: 845: 838: 831: 820: 817: 816: 809: 803: 800: 796:plasma physics 642: 641: 639: 638: 631: 624: 616: 613: 612: 611: 610: 598: 584: 583: 580: 579: 574: 569: 562: 559: 554: 553: 550: 549: 546: 545: 538: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 386: 385: 382: 381: 378: 377: 374: 373: 366: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 328: 323: 322: 319: 318: 313: 312: 311: 310: 298: 293: 288: 276: 268: 267: 263: 262: 261: 260: 248: 240: 239: 233: 226: 225: 222: 221: 218: 217: 212: 207: 202: 190: 185: 172: 165: 164: 161: 160: 155: 154: 153: 152: 150:Neutrino (CNB) 140: 132: 131: 127: 126: 125: 124: 107: 105:Early universe 104: 103: 100: 99: 98: 97: 92: 87: 72: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8692: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8657: 8655: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8634: 8631: 8618:(2013 series) 8617: 8616: 8612: 8611: 8609: 8605: 8599: 8598:Graeme Snooks 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8578:Eric Chaisson 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8559: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8542: 8538: 8532: 8528: 8524: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8506: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8495: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8479: 8475: 8471: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8432: 8430: 8426: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8374: 8369: 8367: 8362: 8360: 8355: 8354: 8351: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8250: 8248: 8243: 8241: 8236: 8235: 8232: 8219: 8210: 8207: 8198: 8197: 8194: 8187: 8183: 8178: 8174: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8153: 8148: 8144: 8141: 8137: 8134: 8130: 8127: 8123: 8122: 8120: 8116: 8113: 8109: 8106: 8102: 8099: 8095: 8092: 8088: 8085: 8081: 8076: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8068:Constellation 8065: 8062: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8042: 8039: 8035: 8032: 8028: 8025: 8021: 8018: 8014: 8011: 8007: 8004: 8000: 7997: 7993: 7992: 7990: 7986: 7979: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7961: 7958: 7954: 7951: 7947: 7944: 7940: 7937: 7933: 7930: 7926: 7923: 7919: 7916: 7912: 7909: 7905: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7894: 7883: 7879: 7874: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7863: 7860: 7856: 7853: 7849: 7846: 7842: 7839: 7835: 7832: 7828: 7825: 7821: 7818: 7814: 7811: 7807: 7804: 7800: 7797: 7793: 7790: 7786: 7785: 7783: 7781: 7777: 7770: 7766: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7752: 7749: 7745: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7731: 7728: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7719:Other methods 7717: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7690: 7687: 7683: 7680: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7659: 7656: 7655:Submillimetre 7652: 7649: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7638: 7629: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7618: 7615: 7614:Extragalactic 7611: 7607: 7606: 7604: 7600: 7593: 7589: 7586: 7582: 7579: 7578:Observational 7575: 7572: 7568: 7567: 7565: 7561: 7558: 7554: 7547: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7533: 7529: 7526: 7522: 7519: 7515: 7510: 7506: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7496: 7492: 7491: 7488: 7484: 7477: 7472: 7470: 7465: 7463: 7458: 7457: 7454: 7444: 7443: 7430: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7380: 7378: 7374: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7334: 7332: 7328: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7200: 7198: 7196:Past universe 7194: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7161: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7131: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7114: 7109: 7107: 7102: 7100: 7095: 7094: 7091: 7084: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7040: 7039: 7034: 7031: 7028: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7008: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6996: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6979: 6976: 6972: 6969: 6966: 6962: 6961:Cosmology 101 6959: 6956: 6953: 6952: 6937: 6931: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6911: 6907: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6890: 6886: 6881: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6846: 6842: 6841: 6835: 6830: 6824: 6819: 6818: 6811: 6806: 6800: 6796: 6791: 6787: 6781: 6777: 6772: 6769: 6763: 6757: 6754:. Cambridge. 6753: 6748: 6743: 6737: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6717: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6697: 6692: 6691: 6684: 6679: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6633:0-387-90581-2 6629: 6625: 6620: 6617: 6611: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6585: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6565: 6561: 6556: 6555: 6545: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6504: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6485: 6481: 6476: 6472: 6466: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6396: 6392: 6391: 6386: 6385:Greene, Brian 6382: 6381: 6363: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6338: 6330: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6269: 6261: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6220: 6215: 6208: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6094: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6064: 6047: 6042: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6026: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5951:(6): 061102. 5950: 5946: 5939: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5897: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5797:(6): 064014. 5796: 5792: 5785: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5732: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5627: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5485: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5426:(3): 67–121. 5425: 5421: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5292: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5186: 5178: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5127: 5119: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5045: 5028: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5013: 5007: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4966:(133): A133. 4965: 4961: 4954: 4937: 4932: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4908: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4811: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4758: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4652: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4534: 4525: 4520: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4472:(1): 015004. 4471: 4467: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4405: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4335: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4287:(9): 095012. 4286: 4282: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4242:(2): 023506. 4241: 4237: 4230: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4173: 4167: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4062:gr-qc/0510004 4058: 4054: 4050: 4043: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4016: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3969: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3859: 3850: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3828: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3761: 3744: 3740: 3739: 3734: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3674: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3619: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3591: 3583: 3576: 3564: 3556: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3491: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3371:(in French). 3370: 3363: 3355: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3282: 3277: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3261: 3259: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3230: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3201: 3192: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3167: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3142: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3117: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3101: 3092: 3090: 3074:. Nobel Prize 3073: 3067: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3035:(1): 010001. 3034: 3030: 3023: 3016: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2978: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2829: 2828: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2791:In 2016, the 2789: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2774:neutron stars 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2723:superclusters 2720: 2715: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2685: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2664: 2662: 2656: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2614:non-radiative 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2593: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2563:21-centimeter 2560: 2557: 2553: 2552: 2551: 2549: 2539: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2499: 2498:superclusters 2495: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2350:recombination 2347: 2341: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2322:(abbreviated 2321: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2267:Robert Herman 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2230: 2220: 2218: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2166: 2165:string theory 2162: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2135: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2112: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2082:superclusters 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2045: 2035: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2005: 1989: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1931: 1921: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1903: 1893: 1891: 1884: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1807:vacuum energy 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1788: 1783: 1782: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1722:The lightest 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1690:Roger Penrose 1687: 1682: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1665:George Gamow. 1660: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607:Doppler shift 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1591:Vesto Slipher 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1525: 1513: 1506: 1499: 1480: 1476: 1475:Earliest apes 1471: 1466: 1465: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1445: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1425: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1381: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1361: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1341: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1321: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1301: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1277: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1257: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1237: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1217: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1197: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1177: 1167: 1163: 1156: 1151: 1150: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1130: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1110: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1090: 1082: 1071: 1068:Multicellular 1060: 1051: 1042: 1031: 1020: 1007: 996: 850: 844: 839: 837: 832: 830: 825: 824: 818: 814: 807: 799: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 741: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 722:Vesto Slipher 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 698: 696: 692: 691:physical laws 688: 684: 680: 676: 675:ultimate fate 672: 669:, structure, 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 637: 632: 630: 625: 623: 618: 617: 615: 614: 609: 599: 597: 588: 587: 586: 585: 578: 575: 573: 570: 567: 561: 560: 557: 552: 551: 544: 541: 540: 536: 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 387: 380: 379: 371: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 329: 326: 321: 320: 309: 306: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 280: 277: 275: 272: 271: 270: 269: 265: 264: 259: 256: 252: 249: 247: 244: 243: 242: 241: 237: 236: 230: 224: 223: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 177: 174: 173: 169: 163: 162: 151: 148: 144: 141: 139: 136: 135: 134: 133: 129: 128: 123: 120: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 102: 101: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 79: 76: 75: 74: 73: 69: 65: 64: 61: 58: 57: 53: 52: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 8680:Astrophysics 8613: 8526: 8516: 8503:Homo sapiens 8501: 8497: 8483: 8473: 8459: 8449: 8435: 8398: 8317: 8288:Astrophysics 8273:Astrobiology 8104: 8044: 8024:Astrophysics 8003:Astrobiology 7667:Far-infrared 7621:Local system 7556:Astronomy by 7546:... in space 7433: 7357:Reionization 7316:Quintessence 7249:Hubble's law 7082: 7076: 7057:. Retrieved 7053: 7036: 7020: 7010: 7003: 6984: 6925: 6904: 6884: 6860: 6839: 6816: 6794: 6775: 6751: 6731: 6711: 6689: 6667: 6645: 6642:Grøn, Øyvind 6623: 6599: 6579: 6559: 6533: 6502: 6498:Singh, Simon 6479: 6459: 6435: 6412: 6389: 6343: 6337: 6282: 6278: 6268: 6223: 6217: 6207: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6081:. Retrieved 6073:LIGO Caltech 6072: 6063: 6051:. Retrieved 6046:the original 6038: 6025: 6013:. Retrieved 6008: 5999: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5926:. Retrieved 5906: 5896: 5843: 5837: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5688: 5684: 5678: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5608: 5604: 5594: 5551: 5547: 5537: 5494: 5490: 5484: 5423: 5419: 5413: 5360: 5356: 5350: 5297: 5291: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5195: 5191: 5185: 5140: 5136: 5126: 5081: 5077: 5067: 5050: 5044: 5034:22 September 5032:. Retrieved 5027:the original 5019: 5006: 4963: 4959: 4953: 4941:. Retrieved 4936:the original 4928: 4915: 4878: 4872: 4851: 4816: 4810: 4767: 4763: 4757: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4634: 4628: 4616:. 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Retrieved 2999:the original 2994: 2985: 2948: 2941: 2896:Hubble's law 2864: 2826: 2790: 2770:white dwarfs 2740: 2716: 2708:quintessence 2705: 2681: 2667: 2665: 2658: 2625:particle, a 2595: 2581: 2572:Weak lensing 2548:reionization 2545: 2521: 2510: 2501: 2491: 2441: 2434: 2413:polarization 2402: 2358:Arno Penzias 2343: 2327: 2323: 2315: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2232: 2214: 2193:baryogenesis 2191: 2188:annihilation 2173: 2156:anisotropies 2138:. Moreover, 2131: 2118: 2097: 2095: 2059: 2047: 1952: 1946:of unstable 1933: 1905: 1886: 1871:analytically 1854: 1835: 1819: 1792: 1785: 1779: 1763: 1759: 1726:, primarily 1721: 1701: 1698: 1677: 1661: 1657:Hubble's law 1648:Edwin Hubble 1611:angular size 1588: 1541: 1531: 1291:Solar System 1005:Reionization 788:astrophysics 769: 742: 710:Edwin Hubble 699: 658: 657:, or simply 654: 646: 645: 370:Probe (WMAP) 304: 301:Reionization 282: 254: 228: 196: 179: 176:Hubble's law 167: 146: 118: 81: 59: 36: 8615:Big History 8517:Agriculture 8488:abiogenesis 8468:dying stars 8409:Time scales 8380:Big History 8091:Planetarium 7748:High-energy 7734:Cosmic rays 7686:Ultraviolet 7376:Experiments 7311:Dark matter 7301:Dark energy 7239:FLRW metric 7033:Wright, Ned 6949:From groups 6083:29 November 6015:11 February 6009:www.nsf.gov 5928:11 February 5907:Nature News 4770:(10): 007. 4550:(13): A13. 4540:Aghanim, N. 3749:3 September 3608:28 February 3338:: 237–242. 3311:: 284–286. 3078:25 February 2855:gravitation 2778:black holes 2766:binary star 2655:Dark energy 2649:Dark energy 2592:Dark matter 2586:Dark matter 2460:cosmic dust 2303:model is a 2277:, and test 2275:dark matter 2273:, to probe 2235:temperature 2206:CP-symmetry 1917:gravitation 1906:Within the 1803:dark energy 1776:black holes 1686:singularity 1593:(and later 1080:Vertebrates 822:This box: 772:theoretical 765:dark energy 761:dark matter 751:and galaxy 732:theory, by 716:beyond the 325:Experiments 258:Dark matter 251:Dark energy 193:FLRW metric 130:Backgrounds 8654:Categories 8593:Fred Spier 8588:Carl Sagan 8552:ChronoZoom 8531:modern era 8283:Astrometry 8084:Photometry 8061:Binoculars 8038:Astrometry 7899:telescopes 7796:Babylonian 7640:EM methods 7518:Astronomer 7306:Dark fluid 7294:Components 7163:History of 7127:Background 6409:Guth, Alan 6113:1705.09182 5958:1602.03837 5853:1610.05309 5504:1507.03800 4557:1502.01589 4524:1803.10826 4479:1505.01076 2933:References 2840:GZK cutoff 2782:supernovae 2731:Big Freeze 2566:absorption 2366:black-body 2346:decoupling 2300:Lambda-CDM 2217:experiment 2184:gamma rays 2176:antimatter 2002:being the 1940:scattering 1881:See also: 1862:wavelength 1744:iron group 1669:Fred Hoyle 1619:luminosity 1615:brightness 1522:See also: 1166:black hole 749:supernovae 747:, distant 405:Copernicus 383:Scientists 238:Components 8527:Modernity 8509:Stone Age 8444:cosmogony 8419:Modernity 8404:Deep time 8298:Cosmology 8262:astronomy 8156:Telescope 7762:Spherical 7709:Gamma-ray 7678:(optical) 7483:Astronomy 7393:BOOMERanG 7218:Inflation 7120:Cosmology 6926:Cosmology 6768:inflation 6580:Cosmology 6552:Textbooks 6532:(1993) . 6292:1009.5514 6260:119199160 6233:0806.1731 5991:124959784 5923:182916902 5888:119292265 5829:118328824 5804:1408.6997 5776:119458605 5670:118891996 5586:119427069 5529:118359390 5446:CiteSeerX 5405:118985424 5383:CiteSeerX 5342:118868536 5320:CiteSeerX 5283:119232040 5258:1209.5745 5118:119198359 5091:1304.6565 4973:1409.5738 4826:0811.3919 4802:118593572 4777:1405.5524 4724:1212.5226 4717:(2): 19. 4582:119262962 4504:118409603 4395:118539956 4370:1310.2146 4319:119233888 4294:1204.4186 4128:CiteSeerX 4087:119496918 4025:. 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