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90:
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fuel. In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long. The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that one refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly two years.
751:, which in turn decays (with a half-life of 6.57 hours) to new xenon-135. When the reactor is shut down, iodine-135 continues to decay to xenon-135, making restarting the reactor more difficult for a day or two, as the xenon-135 decays into cesium-135, which is not nearly as poisonous as xenon-135, with a half-life of 9.2 hours. This temporary state is the "iodine pit." If the reactor has sufficient extra reactivity capacity, it can be restarted. As the extra xenon-135 is transmuted to xenon-136, which is much less a neutron poison, within a few hours the reactor experiences a "xenon burnoff (power) transient". Control rods must be further inserted to replace the neutron absorption of the lost xenon-135. Failure to properly follow such a procedure was a key step in the
3218:. The spent fuel pool is a large pool of water that provides cooling and shielding of the spent nuclear fuel as well as limit radiation exposure to on-site personnel. Once the energy has decayed somewhat (approximately five years), the fuel can be transferred from the fuel pool to dry shielded casks, that can be safely stored for thousands of years. After loading into dry shielded casks, the casks are stored on-site in a specially guarded facility in impervious concrete bunkers. On-site fuel storage facilities are designed to withstand the impact of commercial airliners, with little to no damage to the spent fuel. An average on-site fuel storage facility can hold 30 years of spent fuel in a space smaller than a football field.
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opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs.
81:
1671:. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters.
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70:
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770:. For this reason many designs use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods. This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life.
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considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the
Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.
8131:
2147:
404:
962:(written by Szilárd) suggesting that the discovery of uranium's fission could lead to the development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type", giving impetus to the study of reactors and fission. Szilárd and Einstein knew each other well and had worked together years previously, but Einstein had never thought about this possibility for nuclear energy until Szilard reported it to him, at the beginning of his quest to produce the
2512:
2295:
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2132:: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.
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2408:. Their main attraction is their use of light water and unenriched uranium. As of 2022, 8 remain open, mostly due to safety improvements and help from international safety agencies such as the DOE. Despite these safety improvements, RBMK reactors are still considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. RBMK reactors were deployed only in the former
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811:. The costs for replacements or improvements required for continued safe operation may be so high that they are not cost-effective. Or they may be shut down due to technical failure. Other ones have been shut down because the area was contaminated, like Fukushima, Three Mile Island, Sellafield, Chernobyl. The British branch of the French concern
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contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that may aid safety is that the fuel balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one by one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.
3152:, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel.
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as 80 years or longer with proper maintenance and management. While most components of a nuclear power plant, such as steam generators, are replaced when they reach the end of their useful lifetime, the overall lifetime of the power plant is limited by the life of components that cannot be replaced when aged by wear and
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2738:(IFR) was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors.
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estimates that a person drinking water for one year out of a well contaminated by what they would consider to be a significant tritiated water spill would receive a radiation dose of 0.3 millirem. For comparison, this is an order of magnitude less than the 4 millirem a person receives on a round trip
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The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The
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is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to
2875:
are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs. These are generally not expected to be available for commercial use before 2040–2050, although the World
Nuclear Association suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally
201:
to regulate the number of neutrons that continue the reaction, ensuring the reactor operates safely. The efficiency of energy conversion in nuclear reactors is significantly higher compared to conventional fossil fuel plants; a kilo of uranium-235 can release millions of times more energy than a kilo
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Such reactors can no longer form on Earth in its present geologic period. Radioactive decay of formerly more abundant uranium-235 over the time span of hundreds of millions of years has reduced the proportion of this naturally occurring fissile isotope to below the amount required to sustain a chain
628:
The rate of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally
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The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years. After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel
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in the United States were reactors of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions
798:
Modern nuclear power plants are typically designed for a lifetime of 60 years, while older reactors were built with a planned typical lifetime of 30-40 years, though many of those have received renovations and life extensions of 15-20 years. Some believe nuclear power plants can operate for as long
578:– is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the
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or to limit their consequences. The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new, safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly. Mistakes do occur and the
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At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent", having spent four to six years in the reactor producing power. This spent fuel is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies. Though considered "spent," these fuel assemblies contain a large quantity of
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of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium. Helium is not subject to steam explosions, resists neutron absorption leading to radioactivity, and does not dissolve
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Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so
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These reactors use a pressure vessel to contain the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderator, and coolant. The hot radioactive water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats a secondary (nonradioactive) loop of water to steam that can run turbines. They
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BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods housed in a steel vessel that is submerged in water. The nuclear fission
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warned that the lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants amounts to entering a new era of risk. It estimated the current
European nuclear liability coverage in average to be too low by a factor of between 100 and 1,000 to cover the likely costs, while at the same time, the likelihood of a
640:
and therefore absorb neutrons. When a control rod is inserted deeper into the reactor, it absorbs more neutrons than the material it displaces – often the moderator. This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission and reduces the reactor's power output. Conversely, extracting the
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released from nuclear power plants under normal operations is so low as to be undetectable above natural background radiation. Detectable strontium-90 in ground water and the general environment can be traced to weapons testing that occurred during the mid-20th century (accounting for 99% of the
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in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).
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Thorium-based reactors — It is possible to convert
Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, thorium, which is four times more abundant than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as
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in Europe. The U.S. was not yet officially at war, but in
October, when the Einstein-Szilárd letter was delivered to him, Roosevelt commented that the purpose of doing the research was to make sure "the Nazis don't blow us up." The U.S. nuclear project followed, although with some delay as there
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causes the water to boil, generating steam. This steam flows through pipes into turbines. The turbines are driven by the steam, and this process generates electricity. During normal operation, pressure is controlled by the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine.
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are fissionable with fast neutrons, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some
Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of
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U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally to their absolute temperature, a thermal neutron has the best
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Generation V reactors are designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though some generation V reactors could potentially be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics,
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salts, or use such salts for coolant. MSRs potentially have many safety features, including the absence of high pressures or highly flammable components in the core. They were initially designed for aircraft propulsion due to their high efficiency and high power density. One prototype, the
309:
Reactor safety is maintained through various systems that control the rate of fission. The insertion of control rods, which absorb neutrons, can rapidly decrease the reactor's output, while other systems automatically shut down the reactor in the event of unsafe conditions. The buildup of
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residue, which they reasoned was created by the fissioning of the uranium nuclei. In their second publication on nuclear fission in
February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a
746:
produced in the fission process acts as a neutron poison that absorbs neutrons and therefore tends to shut the reactor down. Xenon-135 accumulation can be controlled by keeping power levels high enough to destroy it by neutron absorption as fast as it is produced. Fission also produces
719:
In other reactors, the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the control rods do. In these reactors, power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to
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disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the Earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment.
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to occur with circumstances that are similar to the conditions in a constructed nuclear reactor. Fifteen fossil natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo uranium mine in Gabon. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist
922:
in London. However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas for nuclear reactors using neutron-mediated nuclear chain reactions in light elements proved unworkable.
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in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake, despite multiple warnings by the NRG and the
Japanese nuclear safety administration. According to
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are cooled by a circulating gas. In commercial nuclear power plants carbon dioxide has usually been used, for example in current
British AGR nuclear power plants and formerly in a number of first generation British, French, Italian, & Japanese plants.
951:. Subsequent studies in early 1939 (one of them by Szilárd and Fermi) revealed that several neutrons were indeed released during the fissioning, making available the opportunity for the nuclear chain reaction that Szilárd had envisioned six years previously.
3423:
reactions took place in these reactors approximately 1.5 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by
2935:, where the fissile material is gaseous uranium hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. This reactor design could also function
2399:
A Soviet design, RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable during power operation and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and large, making
715:
to cause fission. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator.
2465:
stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor
4891:, Vol. 44, No. 39; p. 7, 25 September 2003 Quote: "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based."
1556:(LWRs). Light-water reactors (the most common type of thermal reactor) use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. Because the light hydrogen isotope is a slight neutron poison these reactors need artificially enriched fuels. When at
2460:
These designs have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United
Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e.
3245:
reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be situated within the reactor core that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element.
1564:
stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy-water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalized than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, and the absence of the light hydrogen poisoning effects these types can use
2275:
A BWR is like a PWR without the steam generator. The lower pressure of its cooling water allows it to boil inside the pressure vessel, producing the steam that runs the turbines. Unlike a PWR, there is no primary and secondary loop. The
500:
are able to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring or instrumentation detects unsafe conditions.
2501:. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high-pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. These reactors are
803:, such as the reactor pressure vessel. At the end of their planned life span, plants may get an extension of the operating license for some 20 years and in the US even a "subsequent license renewal" (SLR) for an additional 20 years.
4661:
Golubev, V. I.; Dolgov, V. V.; Dulin, V. A.; Zvonarev, A. V.; Smetanin, É. Y.; Kochetkov, L. A.; Korobeinikov, V. V.; Liforov, V. G.; Manturov, G. N.; Matveenko, I. P.; Tsibulya, A. M. (1993). "Fast-reactor actinoid transmutation".
806:
Even when a license is extended, it does not guarantee the reactor will continue to operate, particularly in the face of safety concerns or incident. Many reactors are closed long before their license or design life expired and are
680:
as a result of an exponential power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention. This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known as the
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as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable
1197:
1657:
Water cooled reactor. These constitute the great majority of operational nuclear reactors: as of 2014, 93% of the world's nuclear reactors are water cooled, providing about 95% of the world's total nuclear generation capacity.
407:
An example of an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors and
1804:
and helium have also been used, helium being considered particularly suitable for high temperature designs. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Commercial nuclear power plants run the gas through a
1032:
on 2 December 1942 at 3:25 PM. The reactor support structure was made of wood, which supported a pile (hence the name) of graphite blocks, embedded in which was natural uranium oxide 'pseudospheres' or 'briquettes'.
3206:(U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days.
2761:(SSTAR) is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with.
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2538:
mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. The Russian
2992:. A fission fragment reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates electricity by decelerating an ion beam of fission byproducts instead of using nuclear reactions to generate heat. By doing so, it bypasses the
2607:
These use fuel molded into ceramic balls, and then circulate gas through the balls. The result is an efficient, low-maintenance, very safe reactor with inexpensive, standardized fuel. The prototypes were the
2979:
into electricity, by passing the high energy photons through an array of conducting foils to transfer some of their energy to electrons, the energy of the photon is captured electrostatically, similar to a
4872:
1708:
concept where the reactor is operated at supercritical pressures and water is heated to a supercritical fluid, which never undergoes a transition to steam yet behaves like saturated steam, to power a
389:
are also an area of current development. These reactors play a crucial role in generating large amounts of electricity with low carbon emissions, contributing significantly to the global energy mix.
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89:
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Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a
4843:
1116:
After World War II, the U.S. military sought other uses for nuclear reactor technology. Research by the Army led to the power stations for Camp Century, Greenland and McMurdo Station, Antarctica
5174:
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have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable. An interdisciplinary team from
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766:) often cannot be run at continuous power around the clock in the same way that land-based power reactors are normally run, and in addition often need to have a very long core life without
1199:
629:
from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose.
3253:, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burnup is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal.
2534:
there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a
6345:
287:
to yield up to 25% more nuclear fuel, and is practiced in Europe, Russia and Japan. Due to initial concerns of proliferation risks, the United States has no reprocessing capability.
49:
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remained skepticism (some of it from Fermi) and also little action from the small number of officials in the government who were initially charged with moving the project forward.
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2497:
This totally unmoderated reactor design produces more fuel than it consumes. They are said to "breed" fuel, because they produce fissionable fuel during operation because of
2996:
and can achieve efficiencies of up to 90% instead of 40–45% attainable by efficient turbine-driven thermal reactors. The fission fragment ion beam would be passed through a
648:
emission by a number of neutron-rich fission isotopes. These delayed neutrons account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed "
2616:
in Germany, which produced up to 308MW of electricity between 1985 and 1989 until it was shut down after experiencing a series of incidents and technical difficulties. The
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of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the
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2363:. India also operates a number of PHWRs, often termed 'CANDU derivatives', built after the Government of Canada halted nuclear dealings with India following the 1974
7125:
3057:, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The
1652:
In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.
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1200:
1056:
for nuclear weapons. Fermi and Szilard applied for a patent on reactors on 19 December 1944. Its issuance was delayed for 10 years because of wartime secrecy.
481:. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a
4990:
2787:
547:(U-235) converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three million times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 × 10
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5673:
5298:
Quimby, D.C., High Thermal Efficiency X-ray energy conversion scheme for advanced fusion reactors, ASTM Special technical Publication, v.2, 1977, pp. 1161–1165
5343:"Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials"
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absorbs a neutron, it splits into lighter nuclei, releasing energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons, which can induce further fission in a self-sustaining
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has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.
2335:. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fueled with natural
1560:, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That
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material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less
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4835:
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Nuclear reactors have been launched into Earth orbit at least 34 times. A number of incidents connected with the unmanned nuclear-reactor-powered Soviet
2925:, where the fissile material is molten uranium or uranium solution cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel.
707:. A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons.
676:
state allows mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the time between achievement of criticality and
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for them expensive. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the
6355:
5215:
5184:
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India is also planning to build fast breeder reactors using the thorium – Uranium-233 fuel cycle. The FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor) in operation at
1083:
produced 0.8 kW in a test on 20 December 1951 and 100 kW (electrical) the following day, having a design output of 200 kW (electrical).
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100:
7236:
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radar satellite which resulted in nuclear fuel reentering the Earth's atmosphere from orbit and being dispersed in northern Canada (January 1978).
3098:
and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel. Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of
2818:(AHWR) — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the
2758:
2343:) which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWRs have been built in Canada,
1819:. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved. Other eutectic salt combinations used include
17:
2984:. Since X-rays can go through far greater material thickness than electrons, many hundreds or thousands of layers are needed to absorb the X-rays.
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The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this
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that range from milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine exactly when a reactor reaches the
5715:
5548:
5504:
353:
currently in development. Reactors can also be grouped by the choices of coolant and moderator. Almost 90% of global nuclear energy comes from
2956:, and therefore as the flux would be similar to that expected in fusion reactors, it would require similar materials to those selected by the
7683:
6040:
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is also possible. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission
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5268:"International Scientific Journal for Alternative Energy and Ecology, DIRECT CONVERSION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY TO ELECTRICITY, Mark A. Prelas"
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1527:. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for any purpose has ever been built.
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Generation V reactor (designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present).
1720:
which use more highly enriched fuel with the fuel elements set closer together to allow a faster neutron spectrum sometimes called an
857:, the first artificial nuclear reactor, built in secrecy at the University of Chicago in 1942 during World War II as part of the US's
7978:
7955:
7875:
6631:
4472:
4347:
2719:
2285:
1899:
7887:
6870:
4602:
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1086:
Besides the military uses of nuclear reactors, there were political reasons to pursue civilian use of atomic energy. U.S. President
7816:
5740:
5568:
4043:
8015:
7708:
7663:
7081:
6921:
6860:
5726:
Freeview Video 'Nuclear Power Plants — What's the Problem' A Royal Institution Lecture by John Collier by the Vega Science Trust.
5028:
4820:"Emergency and Back-Up Cooling of Nuclear Fuel and Reactors and Fire-Extinguishing, Explosion Prevention Using Liquid Nitrogen".
2570:
1882:
7001:
4213:
7713:
7703:
6826:
5267:
4901:
1028:, in late 1942. By this time, the program had been pressured for a year by U.S. entry into the war. The Chicago Pile achieved
7610:
6055:
5640:
4768:
4431:
4171:
4131:
4016:
3856:
3562:
3527:
2812:
compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste.
1580:(MSRs) are moderated by light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts
820:
5372:
3398:
Almost two billion years ago a series of self-sustaining nuclear fission "reactors" self-assembled in the area now known as
819:
with only between 3 and 10 years. All seven AGR plants are expected to be shut down in 2022 and in decommissioning by 2028.
8183:
8010:
7805:
6877:
4192:
3593:
3532:
3487:
and so is both colorless and odorless, however the additional neutrons in the hydrogen nuclei cause the tritium to undergo
3110:
powder, which is pressed and fired into pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called
1809:
to make steam for a steam turbine. Some experimental designs run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine.
5237:
5050:
4076:
3949:
7598:
6794:
6340:
6305:
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are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the
2746:
38:
4927:
256:
8178:
7988:
7983:
7838:
7743:
7678:
7492:
7076:
5728:
5309:"Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway"
4391:
3660:
3354:
3122:
2239:
1917:
1885:(evolutionary development of Gen III reactors, offering improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs, 2017–2021)
824:
342:
334:
4998:
3117:
Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high
2683:) dissolved in water and mixed with the coolant and the moderator. As of April 2006, only five AHRs were in operation.
1677:
are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using
1098:
on 8 December 1953. This diplomacy led to the dissemination of reactor technology to U.S. institutions and worldwide.
8163:
8004:
7973:
7833:
7762:
6156:
6035:
4748:
4551:
2194:
1910:
1860:
1135:
562:, so the energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 corresponds to that released by burning 2.7 million kg of coal.
319:
222:
118:
5665:
3495:
of 12.3 years. Despite being measurable, the tritium released by nuclear power plants is minimal. The United States
2176:
1765:. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included
7865:
7386:
7251:
5786:
3500:
flight from Washington, D.C. to Los Angeles, a consequence of less atmospheric protection against highly energetic
2772:
2168:
1717:
2579:
1633:
465:
absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the
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7329:
7163:
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6643:
6300:
6161:
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2708:
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discovered the nuclear chain reaction and patented a design in 1934, preceding the discovery of nuclear fission.
3440:
fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years, cycling on the order of hours to a few days.
2699:
More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the
2476:
8065:
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7168:
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5081:
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would not be more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a pressurized-water reactor. The
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1080:
982:
5207:
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830:
An increasing number of reactors is reaching or crossing their design lifetimes of 30 or 40 years. In 2014,
685:
point. There is a scale for describing criticality in numerical form, in which bare criticality is known as
7859:
7673:
7436:
7173:
6882:
6636:
6133:
5479:
3557:
2922:
2815:
2768:(CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator – this design is still in development.
2378:
2251:
1504:
3677:
Davis, E. D.; Gould, C. R.; Sharapov, E. I. (2014). "Oklo reactors and implications for nuclear science".
2058:
U-238 to Pu-239, or Th-232 to U-233). Thus, a uranium breeder reactor, once running, can be refueled with
8158:
7793:
7586:
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7471:
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7393:
7231:
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2302:
2255:
2119:
1935:
1762:
1698:
1605:
1102:
1072:
938:
in 1938 that bombardment of uranium with neutrons (provided by an alpha-on-beryllium fusion reaction, a "
816:
632:
The fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the
5108:
4629:
4105:
3121:
do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the
1815:(MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as
8153:
8109:
7871:
7799:
7420:
7279:
6958:
6476:
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6285:
5701:
4004:
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approaches the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles. Thermal neutrons have a far higher
1117:
732:) into the reactor to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected or anticipated.
354:
327:
298:
of ships and submarines is largely restricted to naval use. Reactors have also been tested for nuclear
963:
918:, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the
8173:
8168:
8123:
8089:
8025:
7934:
7668:
7574:
7256:
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as part of normal operations, which is eventually released into the environment in trace quantities.
3358:
2700:
2575:
2219:
2211:
2005:
1661:
1482:, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly
1172:
759:
583:
295:
178:
5500:
2624:
is being developed. The HTR-PM is expected to be the first generation IV reactor to enter operation.
1664:(PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all Western nuclear power plants.
644:
The physics of radioactive decay also affects neutron populations in a reactor. One such process is
8188:
7504:
7346:
7246:
7158:
6367:
6253:
6213:
6025:
5603:
4236:
4147:
3547:
3522:
2989:
2885:
2528:
2157:
1789:
1709:
1037:
299:
1396:
to keep up the fission of their fuel. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain
412:
rely on nuclear chain reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor is much slower than in a bomb.
8050:
8040:
7376:
7351:
6965:
6742:
6548:
6471:
6428:
6411:
6372:
6295:
3750:
3542:
2936:
2928:
2880:
2161:
1947:
1846:
1820:
1613:
1157:
1145:
The first portable nuclear reactor "Alco PM-2A" was used to generate electrical power (2 MW) for
808:
665:
603:
571:
466:
398:
214:
7334:
5525:
4701:
4543:
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3998:
8045:
7846:
7241:
6528:
6072:
5152:
4321:
3587:
3552:
3512:
Strontium-90 in the environment) and the Chernobyl accident (accounting for the remaining 1%).
3429:
3370:
2123:
1876:
1752:
1125:
948:
652:") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce delayed neutrons have
641:
control rod will result in an increase in the rate of fission events and an increase in power.
607:
482:
358:
303:
280:
268:
174:
166:
7640:
5308:
4376:
4272:
1113:
which was the first reactor to go critical in Europe, and was also built by the Soviet Union.
7535:
7271:
7226:
6688:
6616:
6543:
6538:
6503:
6290:
6258:
6045:
5972:
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4388:
3657:
3577:
3366:
3362:
3023:
3003:
2872:
2735:
2704:
2554:
2535:
2488:
2265:
2041:
1992:
1888:
1866:
1774:
1705:
1686:
1557:
1440:(U-238) compared to the faster neutrons that originally result from fission, allowing use of
1413:
1110:
1017:
959:
835:
serious accident happening in Europe continues to increase as the reactor fleet grows older.
800:
735:
Most types of reactors are sensitive to a process variously known as xenon poisoning, or the
591:
417:
386:
350:
346:
318:, which can complicate reactor restarts. There have been two reactor accidents classed as an
272:
147:
5410:
4424:"Chicago Pile reactors create enduring research legacy – Argonne's Historical News Releases"
4285:
8035:
7897:
7446:
7221:
7206:
6523:
6481:
6317:
6223:
6151:
3805:
3696:
3599:
3149:
3084:
2972:
2540:
2401:
1608:, such as those whose coolant is a mixture of lead and bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator.
1471:
1465:
1441:
724:
the reactor in an emergency shut down. These systems insert large amounts of poison (often
370:
314:
can influence reactor behavior, requiring careful management to prevent issues such as the
284:
244:
210:
80:
5737:
4836:"Russia completes world's first Gen III+ reactor; China to start up five reactors in 2017"
4479:
4342:
2433:
8:
8020:
7545:
7356:
7141:
6735:
6603:
6406:
6263:
6030:
5992:
5825:
4598:
3975:
3230:
2890:
2801:
2631:
2029:
1988:
1940:
1870:
1812:
1577:
1553:
1547:
1461:
1401:
1095:
844:
688:
362:
170:
140:
7822:
3700:
2327:. While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary water, it has greater
7928:
7891:
7828:
7525:
7261:
7098:
7025:
6836:
6486:
6456:
6440:
6423:
6067:
5957:
5905:
5855:
5802:
5576:
5528:– at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video
5109:"High Efficiency Nuclear Power Plants Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Technology"
4679:
4536:
4260:
3720:
3686:
3567:
3350:
3222:
3156:
3088:
3070:
3027:
2780:
2779:
ABWR) that is presently in use, it is not a complete fast reactor instead using mostly
2750:
2742:
2715:(ABWR), two of which are now operating with others under construction, and the planned
2597:
2586:, the first reactor to have a core meltdown, in 1955, was also a sodium-cooled reactor.
2446:
2405:
2332:
2331:(creates a higher number of thermal neutrons), allowing the reactor to operate without
2277:
2115:
2000:
1836:
1796:
1721:
1596:
1585:
1483:
1378:
1049:
752:
586:. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the
539:. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shut down.
536:
497:
366:
323:
291:
151:
5020:
4039:
668:
point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain reactivity where delayed neutrons are
574:– usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium or lead) or
8030:
7993:
6593:
6386:
6273:
6248:
6186:
6143:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5820:
4744:
4547:
4127:
4012:
3852:
3724:
3712:
3537:
3444:
3099:
2976:
2932:
2658:, a thermal spectrum reactor which would breed fissile uranium-233 fuel from thorium.
2339:
and are thermal-neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, (
2107:
2011:
1778:
1728:
1561:
1479:
1397:
1087:
1041:
1006:
919:
858:
767:
763:
704:
657:
532:
338:
206:
198:
5274:
4905:
4683:
3443:
These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic
2207:
993:
was far lower than had previously been thought. The memorandum was a product of the
551:
per kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 × 10 joules per kilogram of coal).
7916:
7441:
6496:
6461:
6218:
6208:
6096:
6084:
5925:
5920:
5910:
5900:
5895:
5750:
Annotated bibliography of nuclear reactor technology from the Alsos Digital Library
4736:
4671:
3844:
3740:
The First Reactor, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information
3704:
3322:
3183:
3141:
3126:
3076:
3011:
2805:
2340:
2129:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2033:
1832:
1592:
1581:
1336:
939:
935:
915:
907:
892:
677:
661:
378:
264:
248:
5633:
4772:
4423:
3083:). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly
2088:, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment.
1909:
The first mention of "Gen III" was in 2000, in conjunction with the launch of the
1152:
1059:"World's first nuclear power plant" is the claim made by signs at the site of the
7339:
7299:
6753:
6491:
6466:
6312:
6105:
6007:
5997:
5962:
5840:
5830:
5764:
5744:
5732:
5705:
5552:
5533:
5486:
4876:
4460:
4395:
4372:
4351:
4330:
4294:
4222:
4201:
4180:
3836:
3664:
3472:
3420:
3318:
3215:
3118:
3107:
3079:. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see
3007:
2795:
2680:
2676:
2498:
2473:
2328:
2231:
2059:
2047:
1828:
1732:
1668:
1566:
1445:
1433:
1393:
1389:
1362:
1091:
955:
740:
708:
682:
645:
611:
441:
429:
409:
229:
69:
30:
This article is about nuclear fission reactors. For nuclear fusion reactors, see
6831:
5634:
Backgrounder: Tritium, Radiation Protection Limits, and Drinking Water Standards
4398:
British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).
3848:
3667:
British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).
1067:. Originally called "Chicago Pile-4", it was carried out under the direction of
782:
is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a
8055:
7922:
7881:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7034:
6941:
6910:
6892:
6416:
6322:
6268:
6233:
6166:
6113:
5967:
5860:
5845:
5835:
5179:
4068:
3941:
3338:
3309:
3262:
3103:
3046:
2971:
directly to electricity. This approach is similar to the experimentally proved
2716:
2364:
2092:
2085:
1849:
use organic fluids such as biphenyl and terphenyl as coolant rather than water.
1806:
1516:
1457:
1409:
1382:
1142:, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).
1044:
starting in 1943. The primary purpose for the largest reactors (located at the
1013:
994:
990:
926:
Inspiration for a new type of reactor using uranium came from the discovery by
903:
884:
854:
779:
649:
637:
518:
514:
493:
470:
450:
421:
345:
classes reactors into generations, with the majority of the global fleet being
190:
134:
112:
7314:
4968:
4473:"Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity"
4409:
4365:
Lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants: Entering a new era of risk.
3708:
2566:
2516:
432:
into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.
8147:
8135:
7479:
6770:
6176:
6017:
5501:"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties"
4934:
3716:
2847:
2111:
2096:
1602:" and other light element containing salts can all cause a moderating effect.
1550:(Used in Canada, India, Argentina, China, Pakistan, Romania and South Korea).
1453:
1429:
1425:
1029:
864:
783:
673:
462:
233:
186:
5725:
5107:
Juhasz, Albert J.; Rarick, Richard A.; Rangarajan, Rajmohan (October 2009).
4740:
7998:
7944:
7939:
7045:
6181:
6123:
6050:
6002:
5872:
5245:
5058:
4215:
What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think
3508:
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2021:
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1374:
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1025:
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888:
868:
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425:
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218:
194:
31:
7642:
Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites
5145:"The Venezuela-China relationship, explained: Belt and Road | Part 2 of 4"
1648:
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7456:
7103:
6693:
6200:
6171:
3620:
3425:
3326:
3203:
3179:
3175:
3159:
3137:
3015:
2851:
2828:– A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built in India by
2609:
2360:
2324:
2247:
1739:
1678:
1491:
1437:
1421:
1169:
1165:
1068:
1064:
998:
633:
575:
555:
544:
489:
458:
454:
209:. The world's first artificial nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, achieved
182:
4389:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements,"
3658:"Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements,"
3094:
Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235
2711:
designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the
2483:
221:, later incorporating grid electricity production in addition. In 1957,
8060:
6809:
4675:
3501:
3488:
3381:
3167:
2426:
2373:
1749:
reactors (later ones use heavy water moderator but light water coolant)
1139:
831:
812:
787:
748:
736:
729:
623:
615:
525:
474:
315:
60:
5721:
Union of Concerned Scientists, Concerns re: US nuclear reactor program
5639:(Report). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. February 2016.
4478:. American Nuclear Society Nuclear news. November 2001. Archived from
849:
7852:
7451:
6814:
6804:
5932:
5885:
5850:
5771:
5408:
4309:
Cleanup of Large Areas Contaminated as a Result of a Nuclear Accident
4099:"Chernobyl: what happened and why? by CM Meyer, technical journalist"
3492:
3054:
2981:
2840:
2344:
2235:
2099:
2081:
2074:
1891:(technologies still under development; unknown start date, see below)
1681:
as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers.
1621:
1520:
1495:
1370:
1053:
927:
872:
823:
was extended from 40 to 46 years, and closed. The same happened with
743:
653:
311:
7309:
2146:
1109:. It produced around 5 MW (electrical). It was built after the
1101:
The first nuclear power plant built for civil purposes was the AM-1
7723:
7540:
7183:
7178:
7118:
6787:
6715:
6698:
6683:
6658:
6401:
5890:
3468:
2968:
2646:
2642:
2613:
2511:
2352:
2294:
2230:
represent the majority (around 80%) of current reactors. This is a
2054:
than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting
1801:
1642:
1617:
1524:
1344:
1021:
579:
260:
5738:
Nuclear Energy Institute — How it Works: Electric Power Generation
5388:"Fukushima Crisis Worse for Atomic Power Than Chernobyl, UBS Says"
5340:
4538:
Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century
4124:
Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications
3843:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 66–91,
3691:
3221:
Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example,
2388:
Reaktor Bolshoy Moschnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (
879:
403:
8130:
7509:
7461:
7324:
7304:
6703:
6678:
6118:
5949:
5937:
5915:
5880:
3464:
3457:
3200:
3163:
3133:
3095:
3061:
project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power.
3019:
2861:
2749:(HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by
2356:
2336:
2077:
2067:
1667:
A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized
1487:
1449:
1417:
1366:
986:
911:
899:
700:
478:
447:
361:, which use it as a coolant and moderator. Other designs include
276:
240:
5598:
4965:"World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors"
2860:
Rolls-Royce aims to sell nuclear reactors for the production of
2843:(India) uses Plutonium as a fuel and liquid sodium as a coolant.
2543:
uses a lead-bismuth-cooled fast reactor as its main power plant.
2505:, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types:
2392:) (also known as a Light-Water Graphite-moderated Reactor—LWGR)
275:
risk as they can be configured to produce plutonium, as well as
7113:
7108:
7088:
7068:
7053:
6936:
6673:
6653:
6621:
4928:"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems"
3910:"DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory"
3406:, West Africa. The conditions at that place and time allowed a
3377:
3250:
3249:
The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its
3234:
2825:
2723:
2621:
2617:
2562:
2558:
2462:
2423:
2243:
1766:
943:
910:
mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by
548:
382:
205:
Nuclear reactors have their origins in the World War II Allied
128:
124:
3775:
535:
of fission products and materials that have been activated by
337:
reported there are 422 nuclear power reactors and 223 nuclear
7530:
7487:
7150:
7006:
6799:
6663:
5175:"Rolls-Royce Touts Nuclear Reactors as Key to Clean Jet Fuel"
4323:
Extending the operating lives of Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors
3480:
3403:
3242:
3053:
plants to produce power without the complexities of handling
2957:
2953:
2939:, as featured in Harry Harrison's 1976 science-fiction novel
2833:
2583:
2418:
2348:
2320:
2299:
1863:, research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors)
1816:
1746:
1076:
1060:
725:
721:
619:
428:, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled
5698:
4795:"Pool Reactors 1: An Introduction -- ANS / Nuclear Newswire"
4122:
Tsetkov, Pavel; Usman, Shoaib (2011). Krivit, Steven (ed.).
4069:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems"
3942:"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems"
3114:. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor.
2070:; however, an initial stock of fissile material is required.
997:, which was working on the UK atomic bomb project, known as
528:
produced during fission and converts their energy into heat.
213:
on 2 December 1942. Early reactor designs sought to produce
7909:
7011:
6900:
6710:
6668:
5628:
5626:
3399:
3342:
3226:
3058:
2389:
1638:
1328:
906:. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by
37:"Nuclear pile" redirects here. For nuclear stockpiles, see
5716:
A Debate: Is Nuclear Power The Solution to Global Warming?
4660:
4152:
IAEA Power Reactor Information System – operational by age
2963:
Gas core EM reactor. As in the gas core reactor, but with
2675:
These reactors use as fuel soluble nuclear salts (usually
1879:(evolutionary improvements of existing designs, 1996–2016)
1727:
Pool-type reactor can refer to unpressurized water cooled
6984:
6848:
5503:. Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events.
4237:"Swedish nuclear reactors shut down over safety concerns"
3321:
and led to the hydrogen explosions. This along with fuel
3292:
3284:
3080:
2578:
in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and could not be
1770:
696:, and other points in the process interpolated in cents.
5623:
5082:"Nuclear Reaction: Why Do Americans Fear Nuclear Power?"
3006:. Would use the neutrons emitted by fusion to fission a
4165:
2788:
hydrogen-moderated self-regulating nuclear power module
2783:, which are between thermal and fast neutrons in speed.
1120:. The Air Force Nuclear Bomber project resulted in the
5106:
4624:
4622:
4620:
1460:, instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor,
8107:
4234:
3166:
in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233
2689:
2066:, and a thorium breeder reactor can be refueled with
981:
The following year, the U.S. Government received the
509:
The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:
5711:
Uranium Conference adds discussion of Japan accident
4630:"Nuclear Power Reactors in the World – 2015 Edition"
4542:. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p.
3837:"Electricity and Heat from Thermal Nuclear Reactors"
3305:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
3030:/nuclear waste into relatively more benign isotopes.
2234:
reactor design, the newest of which are the Russian
1742:
which also served as a moderator. Examples include:
1452:, usually water under high pressure to increase the
1168:(blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loop
225:
became the first reactor dedicated to peaceful use.
4617:
4148:"PRIS - Miscellaneous reports - Operational by Age"
3471:, tritium (T) frequently binds to oxygen and forms
3273:Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent
2958:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
1478:to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a
815:, for example, extended the operating lives of its
165:is a device used to initiate and control a fission
6534:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
5444:"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger"
5341:Jacobson, Mark Z. & Delucchi, Mark A. (2010).
4863:
4861:
4535:
4194:Status of Subsequent License Renewal Applications.
3676:
1902:(CEA) was the first to refer to "Gen II" types in
1012:Eventually, the first artificial nuclear reactor,
127:, a prototype to the first Generation IV reactor,
4762:
4760:
3996:
3075:Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and
8145:
5498:
2759:small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor
1339:with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO
1124:. The U.S. Navy succeeded when they steamed the
5573:Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management
5441:
5362:
4858:
4695:
4693:
4357:
3436:reaction with only plain water as a moderator.
2766:Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor
1859:Generation I reactor (early prototypes such as
1266:
1194:
1040:developed a number of nuclear reactors for the
373:, variously optimizing efficiency, safety, and
137:, the first aircraft to test an onboard reactor
7888:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll
5409:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003).
4757:
3189:
2832:and Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research (
2654:, was built to confirm the feasibility of the
1356:
773:
7689:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll
7684:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
7626:
7237:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
5787:
5699:The Database on Nuclear Power Reactors – IAEA
5546:"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor."
5480:Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources
4635:. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
4297:. Seacoast Anti-Pollution League (SAPL), 2017
4183:Paul Voosen, Scientific American, 20 Nov 2009
3670:
3275:nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
3178:, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like
3106:. The enriched result is then converted into
2975:that would convert the X-rays generated from
2790:(HPM) is a reactor design emanating from the
985:from the UK, which stated that the amount of
5492:
5385:
4879:. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020
4690:
4315:
4121:
4063:
4061:
2850:deposit, has a reactor and hopes to replace
1335:'s PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-type
1134:The first commercial nuclear power station,
1131:(SSN-571) on nuclear power 17 January 1955.
902:was discovered in 1932 by British physicist
521:when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms.
193:. The process is carefully controlled using
143:, the first nuclear-powered circumnavigation
7811:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident
7694:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country
5459:
5457:
4824:. Document number 20180144836. 24 May 2018.
3883:Region, CountryBy TypeBy (29 August 2024).
3479:. This molecule is chemically identical to
3387:
2175:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1361:All commercial power reactors are based on
1323:Net power capacity (GWe) by type (end 2014)
239:(water or gas), which in turn runs through
7633:
7619:
5794:
5780:
4287:The True Lifespan of a Nuclear Power Plant
4032:
2519:, closed in 1998, was one of the few FBRs.
488:To control such a nuclear chain reaction,
7979:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
7956:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
7876:Three Mile Island accident health effects
5336:
5334:
5205:
5079:
4279:
4058:
3915:. US Department of Energy. Archived from
3690:
3679:International Journal of Modern Physics E
3317:overheated, causing the coolant water to
3194:The amount of energy in the reservoir of
2911:
2867:
2720:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor
2286:Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor
2195:Learn how and when to remove this message
1400:materials that slow neutrons until their
349:constructed from the 1960s to 1990s, and
243:. In commercial reactors, turbines drive
7974:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)
7817:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident
7149:
5454:
4771:. University of Michigan. Archived from
4560:
4453:Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet
3902:
3885:"In Operation & Suspended Operation"
3308:
2510:
2482:
2432:
2417:
2372:
2293:
2206:
2026:Heat for domestic and industrial heating
1647:
1632:
1530:
1432:, and a relatively lower probability of
1327:
1151:
878:
863:
848:
402:
310:neutron-absorbing fission products like
251:, and industrial applications including
8016:International Day against Nuclear Tests
7664:Crimes involving radioactive substances
5199:
4983:
4766:
4375:Greenpeace, March, 2014 (2.6 MB).
4235:Wikinews contributors (5 August 2006).
4225:. Office of Nuclear Energy, 16 Apr 2020
4126:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 48, 85.
3834:
2136:
1954:
1920:(DOE), for developing new plant types.
420:generate electricity by harnessing the
27:Device for controlled nuclear reactions
14:
8146:
7806:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident
7164:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
5801:
5499:Johnston, Robert (23 September 2007).
5331:
4954:; see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability"
4413:"Neutronic Reactor" issued 17 May 1955
4000:Nuclear Weapons: What You Need to Know
3882:
3816:from the original on 18 September 2010
3636:was discovered in 1972 in Oklo, Gabon.
1448:fuel. The moderator is often also the
341:in operation around the world. The US
247:shafts. The heat can also be used for
150:, built to contain the effects of the
7614:
7406:
7169:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
6578:
6565:
5775:
5561:
5084:. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).
4730:
4642:from the original on 16 November 2020
4596:
4533:
4527:
4515:from the original on 3 September 2017
4042:. HowStuffWorks.com. 9 October 2000.
3786:from the original on 11 February 2012
3563:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
3528:List of small modular reactor designs
3415:, they are collectively known as the
3064:
1251:Number of reactors by type (end 2014)
597:
8011:History of the anti-nuclear movement
7593:
7409:
6566:
5591:
5507:from the original on 23 October 2007
5230:
5206:De Clercq, Geert (13 October 2014).
5100:
4920:
4801:from the original on 6 November 2021
4712:from the original on 3 December 2017
4578:from the original on 27 October 2019
4173:How Long Can a Nuclear Reactor Last?
4046:from the original on 22 October 2019
3974:. Bioenergy.ornl.gov. Archived from
3876:
3736:
3734:
3594:World Nuclear Industry Status Report
3533:List of United States Naval reactors
3298:
2694:
2173:adding citations to reliable sources
2140:
1637:Treatment of the interior part of a
517:of fission products is converted to
259:. Some reactors are used to produce
7669:Criticality accidents and incidents
7174:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
5676:from the original on 2 October 2017
5646:from the original on 18 August 2017
5473:
5319:from the original on 14 August 2007
5137:
5073:
5043:
4846:from the original on 13 August 2020
4605:from the original on 29 August 2010
4079:from the original on 22 August 2018
3952:from the original on 22 August 2018
3743:
2921:Liquid-core reactor. A closed loop
2747:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor
1923:
1916:"Gen IV" was named in 2000, by the
322:Level 7 "major accident": the 1986
39:List of states with nuclear weapons
24:
7773:Nuclear power accidents by country
6983:
6134:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
5611:from the original on 30 March 2021
5423:from the original on 12 April 2019
5125:from the original on 28 April 2021
5088:from the original on 17 April 2018
3355:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
3123:International Atomic Energy Agency
3034:
2690:Future and developing technologies
2553:Most LMFBRs are of this type. The
2323:), very similar to PWRs but using
2240:Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor
1918:United States Department of Energy
1738:Some reactors have been cooled by
1574:Light-element-moderated reactors.
1351:
1262:
1190:
1105:, launched on 27 June 1954 in the
504:
335:International Atomic Energy Agency
25:
8200:
8005:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
6157:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
6056:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
5692:
5599:"Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors"
5369:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5363:Gusterson, Hugh (16 March 2011).
5218:from the original on 29 July 2021
5151:. 14 January 2019. Archived from
5051:"Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors"
4995:Nuclear Engineering International
4991:"HTR-PM: Making dreams come true"
4904:. Euronuclear.org. Archived from
4505:"The Nuclear Option — NOVA | PBS"
4434:from the original on 13 June 2022
3751:"Spent Fuel Reprocessing Options"
3731:
3369:reactor accident (1968), and the
3337:have occurred. These include the
3256:
2620:is operating in China, where the
1911:Generation IV International Forum
1900:Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique
1861:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
1036:Soon after the Chicago Pile, the
973:invaded Poland in 1939, starting
838:
692:and the prompt critical point is
320:International Nuclear Event Scale
223:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
119:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
8129:
8117:
8094:
8093:
8083:
7866:Kramatorsk radiological accident
7592:
7581:
7580:
7568:
7257:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
5569:"Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors"
5544:Meshik, Alex P. (November 2005)
5238:"Generation IV Nuclear Reactors"
5208:"Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power?"
5031:from the original on 12 May 2019
4699:
4306:
4247:from the original on 16 May 2023
3865:from the original on 5 June 2018
3626:
3613:
3087:and disposed of is known as the
2846:China, which has control of the
2773:reduced moderation water reactor
2145:
1853:
1718:Reduced moderation water reactor
1675:Pressurized heavy water reactors
1416:(probability) of fissioning the
1179:
524:The reactor absorbs some of the
99:
88:
79:
68:
59:
48:
18:Cooling system (nuclear reactor)
7768:List of orphan source incidents
6346:Historical stockpiles and tests
5658:
5538:
5519:
5442:Fackler, Martin (1 June 2011).
5435:
5402:
5379:
5356:
5301:
5292:
5260:
5167:
5013:
4957:
4894:
4882:
4828:
4813:
4787:
4731:Joyce, Malcolm (2018). "10.6".
4724:
4654:
4590:
4497:
4465:
4446:
4416:
4407:Enrico, Fermi and Leo, Szilard
4401:
4381:
4336:
4300:
4228:
4207:
4186:
4140:
4115:
4091:
3990:
3964:
3934:
3634:natural nuclear fission reactor
3394:Natural nuclear fission reactor
3335:nuclear and radiation accidents
2931:. A closed loop version of the
2656:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor
2310:Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
1156:Primary coolant system showing
554:The fission of one kilogram of
236:
169:. Nuclear reactors are used at
7247:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
6129:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
5666:"Radionuclides in Groundwater"
4869:Generation IV Nuclear Reactors
4702:"Light Water Nuclear Reactors"
4568:"On This Day: 17 October"
3972:"Bioenergy Conversion Factors"
3828:
3798:
3768:
3650:
3214:is transferred to the on-site
3049:could in principle be used in
2792:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2777:Advanced boiling water reactor
2713:advanced boiling water reactor
2652:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
2282:Advanced Boiling Water Reactor
2050:are capable of producing more
1731:, but not to be confused with
1614:Organically moderated reactors
1554:Light-water-moderated reactors
1499:prototypes is continuing (see
1122:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
1052:), was the mass production of
966:to alert the U.S. government.
845:Nuclear fission § History
181:. When a fissile nucleus like
13:
1:
8090:Nuclear technology portal
7575:Nuclear technology portal
5411:"The Future of Nuclear Power"
5386:Paton, James (4 April 2011).
3643:
3573:Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants
3365:reactor accident (1961), the
3289:Fukushima I nuclear accidents
3269:Nuclear reactor safety system
2998:magnetohydrodynamic generator
2906:Very-high-temperature reactor
2820:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
2439:Torness nuclear power station
2110:(for example with the pulsed
1628:
1081:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
1063:, which is now a museum near
958:signed a letter to President
793:
121:, the first peacetime reactor
7860:Andreev Bay nuclear accident
7847:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident
7437:Field-reversed configuration
7047:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
6581:
4769:"Nuclear Energy and Society"
4708:. Georgia State University.
4455:, Idaho National Laboratory
3588:Traveling-wave reactor (TWR)
3558:One Less Nuclear Power Plant
3451:
2816:Advanced heavy-water reactor
2641:These dissolve the fuels in
2379:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
2319:A Canadian design (known as
2256:United States Naval reactors
2252:European Pressurized Reactor
2091:Production of materials for
1606:Liquid metal cooled reactors
1456:. These are surrounded by a
817:Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors
392:
283:. Reactor spent fuel can be
7:
8184:Nuclear power reactor types
7794:Nyonoksa radiation accident
7394:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
6579:
6341:States with nuclear weapons
5464:The Worst Nuclear Disasters
4601:. Camp Century, Greenland.
3849:10.1007/978-3-642-68444-9_5
3583:Thorium-based nuclear power
3515:
3190:Fueling of nuclear reactors
2923:liquid-core nuclear reactor
2901:Supercritical water reactor
2666:Aqueous homogeneous reactor
2451:advanced gas-cooled reactor
2381:– a RBMK type (closed 2009)
2303:Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant
2248:Hualong Pressurized Reactor
2120:neutron activation analysis
1936:Aqueous homogeneous reactor
1763:Liquid metal cooled reactor
1699:Supercritical water reactor
1540:Graphite-moderated reactors
1357:By type of nuclear reaction
1103:Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant
1073:Argonne National Laboratory
790:and generates electricity.
774:Electrical power generation
636:. Control rods are made of
115:, the first nuclear reactor
10:
8205:
8066:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
7989:Films about nuclear issues
7984:Books about nuclear issues
7872:Three Mile Island accident
7800:Fukushima nuclear accident
7679:Military nuclear accidents
7674:Nuclear meltdown accidents
7407:
7232:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
6356:Tests in the United States
5365:"The lessons of Fukushima"
4767:Lipper, Ilan; Stone, Jon.
4005:Cambridge University Press
3997:Bernstein, Jeremy (2008).
3391:
3347:Three Mile Island accident
3325:released large amounts of
3302:
3266:
3260:
3136:U-235 and non-fissile but
3068:
3038:
2896:Sodium-cooled fast reactor
2728:Nuclear Power 2010 Program
2333:fuel enrichment facilities
2220:Pressurized water reactors
2010:Various proposed forms of
1785:Sodium-cooled fast reactor
1535:Used by thermal reactors:
1118:Army Nuclear Power Program
842:
601:
565:
558:releases about 19 billion
439:
435:
396:
355:pressurized water reactors
290:Reactors are also used in
36:
29:
8179:Nuclear research reactors
8079:
8026:Nuclear-Free Future Award
7964:
7935:Totskoye nuclear exercise
7781:
7763:Sunken nuclear submarines
7648:
7562:
7518:
7470:
7427:
7417:
7369:
7357:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
7270:
7252:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
7217:
7200:
7140:
7067:
7059:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
7033:
7024:
6976:
6956:
6909:
6891:
6847:
6752:
6734:
6602:
6589:
6574:
6561:
6516:
6449:
6394:
6385:
6333:
6241:
6232:
6199:
6142:
6104:
6095:
6016:
5948:
5871:
5813:
5809:
5758:ソヴィエト連邦における宇宙用原子炉の開発とその実用
5242:World Nuclear Association
5055:World Nuclear Association
4822:USPTO Patent Applications
4354:. EDF (accessed Feb 2023)
4040:"How nuclear power works"
3709:10.1142/S0218301314300070
3456:Nuclear reactors produce
3373:reactor accident (1985).
3359:Nuclear-powered submarine
3313:Three of the reactors at
3278:designers of reactors at
2917:practicality, or safety.
2006:Nuclear marine propulsion
1979:
1777:, and in early reactors,
1662:Pressurized water reactor
1624:as moderator and coolant.
1544:Water moderated reactors
1173:pressurized water reactor
1016:, was constructed at the
983:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
760:nuclear marine propulsion
584:pressurized water reactor
296:Nuclear marine propulsion
179:nuclear marine propulsion
8164:Power station technology
7262:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
6878:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
6214:Electron-beam processing
5604:American Nuclear Society
5526:Video of physics lecture
4350:19 February 2023 at the
4329:19 February 2023 at the
4293:19 February 2023 at the
3606:
3548:Nuclear power by country
3523:List of nuclear reactors
3388:Natural nuclear reactors
2990:Fission fragment reactor
2933:nuclear lightbulb rocket
2886:Lead-cooled fast reactor
2040:Production reactors for
1847:Organic nuclear reactors
1790:Lead-cooled fast reactor
1519:of elements such as the
1390:Thermal-neutron reactors
1038:Metallurgical Laboratory
531:Heat is produced by the
109:From top, left to right
8041:Nuclear power phase-out
7377:Organic nuclear reactor
6549:Nuclear power phase-out
6472:Nuclear decommissioning
6412:Reactor-grade plutonium
6162:Targeted alpha-particle
6041:Accidents and incidents
5743:30 January 2010 at the
5731:3 November 2011 at the
5485:11 January 2015 at the
4741:10.1016/c2015-0-05557-5
4599:"Science Leads the Way"
4459:29 October 2008 at the
4344:Nuclear decommissioning
4200:21 January 2018 at the
4179:2 February 2017 at the
3543:Nuclear decommissioning
3408:natural nuclear fission
3125:there are at least 100
3000:to produce electricity.
2881:Gas-cooled fast reactor
1883:Generation III+ reactor
1755:class research reactors
1735:which are sodium cooled
1408:, that is, until their
1158:reactor pressure vessel
964:Einstein-Szilárd letter
827:, also after 46 years.
604:Nuclear reactor physics
572:nuclear reactor coolant
399:Nuclear reactor physics
281:boosted fission weapons
215:weapons-grade plutonium
8046:Nuclear weapons debate
5392:Bloomberg Businessweek
4840:Nuclear Energy Insider
3553:Nuclear power in space
3430:University of Arkansas
3353:(April 1986), and the
3333:Serious, though rare,
3330:
3329:material into the air.
2967:arrays converting the
2912:Generation V+ reactors
2873:Generation IV reactors
2868:Generation IV reactors
2520:
2491:
2442:
2430:
2382:
2305:
2266:Boiling water reactors
2250:and the Franco-German
2215:
2124:potassium-argon dating
2106:Providing a source of
1993:small modular reactors
1877:Generation III reactor
1653:
1645:
1505:generation IV reactors
1348:
1275:
1203:
1176:
949:nuclear chain reaction
895:
876:
861:
699:In some reactors, the
608:Passive nuclear safety
483:nuclear chain reaction
424:released from burning
418:thermal power stations
413:
387:Small modular reactors
359:boiling water reactors
351:Generation IV reactors
347:Generation II reactors
175:electricity generation
167:nuclear chain reaction
7904:K-19 nuclear accident
7699:Nuclear weapons tests
6539:Anti-nuclear movement
5551:15 March 2015 at the
5532:4 August 2006 at the
4875:30 March 2023 at the
4534:Kragh, Helge (1999).
4410:U.S. patent 2,708,656
4371:15 March 2023 at the
3578:Small modular reactor
3345:accident (1961), the
3312:
3004:Hybrid nuclear fusion
2943:. In theory, using UF
2736:integral fast reactor
2536:lead-bismuth eutectic
2514:
2489:TOPAZ nuclear reactor
2487:Scaled-down model of
2486:
2436:
2429:nuclear power station
2421:
2402:containment buildings
2376:
2297:
2210:
1889:Generation IV reactor
1867:Generation II reactor
1775:lead-bismuth eutectic
1706:Generation IV reactor
1687:Boiling water reactor
1651:
1636:
1558:operating temperature
1531:By moderator material
1515:could be produced by
1472:Fast-neutron reactors
1365:. They generally use
1331:
1274:
1202:
1155:
1111:F-1 (nuclear reactor)
1018:University of Chicago
960:Franklin D. Roosevelt
882:
867:
852:
801:neutron embrittlement
711:are more likely than
592:boiling water reactor
416:Just as conventional
406:
371:fast breeder reactors
304:spacecraft propulsion
273:nuclear proliferation
271:use. Reactors pose a
148:Chernobyl sarcophagus
8036:Nuclear power debate
7898:Cuban Missile Crisis
7749:in the United States
7447:Reversed field pinch
7242:Traveling-wave (TWR)
6726:Supercritical (SCWR)
6224:Gemstone irradiation
5556:Scientific American.
4597:Leskovitz, Frank J.
4394:21 June 2008 at the
4111:on 11 December 2013.
3978:on 27 September 2011
3835:Oldekop, W. (1982),
3663:21 June 2008 at the
3619:Hungarian physicist
3600:Nuclear microreactor
3417:Oklo Fossil Reactors
3361:mishaps include the
3341:(October 1957), the
3231:molten-salt reactors
3150:fast breeder reactor
2973:photoelectric effect
2854:with nuclear energy.
2802:Subcritical reactors
2632:Molten-salt reactors
2582:until May 2010. The
2541:Alfa class submarine
2477:fast-breeder reactor
2367:nuclear weapon test.
2169:improve this section
2137:Current technologies
1989:Nuclear power plants
1955:By shape of the core
1898:In 2003, the French
1871:nuclear power plants
1813:Molten-salt reactors
1578:Molten-salt reactors
1548:Heavy-water reactors
1466:containment building
1442:low-enriched uranium
1075:. This experimental
363:heavy water reactors
343:Department of Energy
245:electrical generator
171:nuclear power plants
8021:Nuclear close calls
6612:Aqueous homogeneous
6407:Reprocessed uranium
6080:Safety and security
5763:3 June 2019 at the
5704:2 June 2013 at the
5212:Scientific American
5187:on 19 December 2019
4971:on 31 December 2006
4842:. 8 February 2017.
4733:Nuclear Engineering
4574:. 17 October 1956.
4511:. 11 January 2017.
4221:9 June 2020 at the
4073:The Nuclear Tourist
3946:The Nuclear Tourist
3701:2014IJMPE..2330007D
3504:at high altitudes.
3223:pebble bed reactors
3182:, thorium-232 is a
2891:Molten-salt reactor
2781:epithermal neutrons
2598:Pebble-bed reactors
2030:Hydrogen production
2018:Other uses of heat
1941:Molten-salt reactor
1797:Gas cooled reactors
1462:radiation shielding
1402:neutron temperature
1149:from 1960 to 1963.
1096:UN General Assembly
1020:, by a team led by
875:in their laboratory
367:gas-cooled reactors
300:aircraft propulsion
257:hydrogen production
141:Operation Sea Orbit
8159:Nuclear technology
8124:Nuclear technology
7929:Operation Plumbbob
7892:Operation Fishbowl
7829:Chernobyl disaster
7526:Dense plasma focus
6441:Actinide chemistry
5906:Isotope separation
5803:Nuclear technology
5448:The New York Times
5248:on 23 January 2010
5061:on 6 February 2010
4676:10.1007/BF00750983
4271:has generic name (
3685:(4): 1430007–236.
3568:Safety engineering
3419:. Self-sustaining
3351:Chernobyl disaster
3331:
3157:thorium fuel cycle
3089:nuclear fuel cycle
3071:Nuclear fuel cycle
3065:Nuclear fuel cycle
3028:spent nuclear fuel
2937:as a rocket engine
2751:Doppler broadening
2743:pebble-bed reactor
2521:
2492:
2447:Gas-cooled reactor
2443:
2431:
2406:Chernobyl disaster
2383:
2306:
2278:thermal efficiency
2216:
2116:positron radiation
2001:nuclear propulsion
1729:open pool reactors
1722:Epithermal neutron
1654:
1646:
1494:waste because all
1379:thorium fuel cycle
1349:
1285:PWR: 257.2 (68.3%)
1276:
1204:
1177:
954:On 2 August 1939,
896:
877:
862:
764:nuclear submarines
753:Chernobyl disaster
598:Reactivity control
590:; for example the
537:neutron absorption
498:neutron moderators
414:
328:Fukushima disaster
324:Chernobyl disaster
292:nuclear propulsion
199:neutron moderators
8154:Energy conversion
8105:
8104:
8031:Nuclear-free zone
7994:Anti-war movement
7950:Rocky Flats Plant
7608:
7607:
7558:
7557:
7554:
7553:
7505:Magnetized-target
7402:
7401:
7365:
7364:
7196:
7195:
7192:
7191:
7136:
7135:
7020:
7019:
6952:
6951:
6557:
6556:
6512:
6511:
6381:
6380:
6368:Weapon-free zones
6195:
6194:
6187:Radiopharmacology
4940:on 5 October 2006
4133:978-0-470-89439-2
4018:978-0-521-88408-2
3858:978-3-540-11307-2
3538:Neutron transport
3445:radioactive waste
3299:Nuclear accidents
3174:-233 and then to
3127:research reactors
3100:gaseous diffusion
2977:aneutronic fusion
2954:reactor materials
2952:, weakening most
2695:Advanced reactors
2258:are of this type.
2205:
2204:
2197:
2108:neutron radiation
2073:Creating various
2012:rocket propulsion
1641:reactor frame at
1569:/unenriched fuel.
1562:negative feedback
1480:neutron moderator
1398:neutron moderator
1309:LWGR: 10.2 (2.7%)
1303:PHWR: 24.6 (6.5%)
1291:BWR: 75.5 (20.1%)
1088:Dwight Eisenhower
1042:Manhattan Project
1007:Manhattan Project
908:nuclear reactions
885:Chicago Pile Team
859:Manhattan project
758:Reactors used in
705:neutron moderator
533:radioactive decay
339:research reactors
207:Manhattan Project
16:(Redirected from
8196:
8174:Pressure vessels
8169:Nuclear reactors
8134:
8133:
8122:
8121:
8120:
8113:
8097:
8096:
8088:
8087:
8086:
7917:Kyshtym disaster
7912:nuclear meltdown
7839:Related articles
7823:Goiânia accident
7635:
7628:
7621:
7612:
7611:
7596:
7595:
7584:
7583:
7573:
7572:
7571:
7483:
7442:Levitated dipole
7412:
7404:
7403:
7352:Helium gas (GFR)
7215:
7214:
7210:
7147:
7146:
7031:
7030:
6981:
6980:
6974:
6973:
6969:
6968:
6750:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6584:
6576:
6575:
6568:Nuclear reactors
6563:
6562:
6462:High-level (HLW)
6392:
6391:
6239:
6238:
6219:Food irradiation
6209:Atomic gardening
6102:
6101:
6085:Nuclear meltdown
5911:Nuclear material
5901:Fissile material
5896:Fertile material
5811:
5810:
5796:
5789:
5782:
5773:
5772:
5756:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5662:
5656:
5655:
5653:
5651:
5645:
5638:
5630:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5595:
5589:
5588:
5586:
5584:
5579:on 16 March 2006
5575:. Archived from
5565:
5559:
5542:
5536:
5523:
5517:
5516:
5514:
5512:
5496:
5490:
5477:
5471:
5461:
5452:
5451:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5422:
5415:
5406:
5400:
5399:
5394:. Archived from
5383:
5377:
5376:
5371:. Archived from
5360:
5354:
5353:
5347:
5338:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5305:
5299:
5296:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5279:
5273:. Archived from
5272:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5255:
5253:
5244:. Archived from
5234:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5192:
5183:. Archived from
5171:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5124:
5113:
5104:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5077:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5057:. Archived from
5047:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5025:nucleus.iaea.org
5017:
5011:
5010:
5008:
5006:
5001:on 28 March 2022
4997:. Archived from
4987:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4976:
4967:. Archived from
4961:
4955:
4953:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4939:
4933:. Archived from
4932:
4924:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4908:on 17 March 2011
4898:
4892:
4886:
4880:
4865:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4817:
4811:
4810:
4808:
4806:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4764:
4755:
4754:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4717:
4697:
4688:
4687:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4641:
4634:
4626:
4615:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4541:
4531:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4501:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4484:
4477:
4469:
4463:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4420:
4414:
4412:
4405:
4399:
4385:
4379:
4361:
4355:
4340:
4334:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4304:
4298:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4270:
4266:
4264:
4256:
4254:
4252:
4232:
4226:
4211:
4205:
4204:NRC, 24 Feb 2022
4190:
4184:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4104:. Archived from
4103:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4065:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4036:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4025:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3983:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3922:on 23 April 2008
3921:
3914:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3810:nucleus.iaea.org
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3755:
3747:
3741:
3738:
3729:
3728:
3694:
3674:
3668:
3654:
3637:
3630:
3624:
3617:
3184:fertile material
3077:enriched uranium
3026:other reactor's
3012:fertile material
2929:Gas-core reactor
2806:energy amplifier
2775:builds upon the
2341:online refueling
2200:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2180:
2149:
2141:
2130:Research reactor
2064:depleted uranium
2052:fissile material
2048:Breeder reactors
2034:hydrogen economy
1999:Propulsion, see
1924:By phase of fuel
1733:pool type LMFBRs
1394:thermal neutrons
1369:and its product
1337:research reactor
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1265:
1242:
1236:
1231:PHWR: 49 (11.2%)
1230:
1224:
1218:
1213:PWR: 277 (63.2%)
1212:
1193:
1162:steam generators
1090:made his famous
1079:operated by the
940:neutron howitzer
936:Fritz Strassmann
709:Thermal neutrons
678:nuclear meltdown
662:neutron emission
467:fission products
333:As of 2022, the
249:district heating
103:
92:
83:
72:
63:
52:
21:
8204:
8203:
8199:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8194:
8193:
8189:Neutron sources
8144:
8143:
8140:
8128:
8118:
8116:
8108:
8106:
8101:
8084:
8082:
8075:
8051:Peace activists
7966:
7960:
7785:
7783:
7777:
7655:
7653:
7651:
7644:
7639:
7609:
7604:
7569:
7567:
7550:
7514:
7481:
7466:
7423:
7413:
7408:
7398:
7361:
7266:
7211:
7204:
7203:
7188:
7132:
7063:
7038:
7016:
6988:
6970:
6963:
6962:
6961:
6948:
6914:
6905:
6887:
6852:
6843:
6757:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6730:
6644:Natural fission
6598:
6597:
6585:
6580:
6570:
6553:
6529:Nuclear weapons
6508:
6467:Low-level (LLW)
6445:
6377:
6329:
6228:
6191:
6138:
6091:
6012:
5944:
5867:
5805:
5800:
5765:Wayback Machine
5754:
5745:Wayback Machine
5733:Wayback Machine
5706:Wayback Machine
5695:
5690:
5689:
5679:
5677:
5664:
5663:
5659:
5649:
5647:
5643:
5636:
5632:
5631:
5624:
5614:
5612:
5597:
5596:
5592:
5582:
5580:
5567:
5566:
5562:
5553:Wayback Machine
5543:
5539:
5534:Wayback Machine
5524:
5520:
5510:
5508:
5497:
5493:
5487:Wayback Machine
5478:
5474:
5462:
5455:
5440:
5436:
5426:
5424:
5420:
5413:
5407:
5403:
5398:on 15 May 2011.
5384:
5380:
5375:on 6 June 2013.
5361:
5357:
5345:
5339:
5332:
5322:
5320:
5315:. 7 June 2006.
5307:
5306:
5302:
5297:
5293:
5283:
5281:
5280:on 4 March 2016
5277:
5270:
5266:
5265:
5261:
5251:
5249:
5236:
5235:
5231:
5221:
5219:
5204:
5200:
5190:
5188:
5173:
5172:
5168:
5158:
5156:
5155:on 24 June 2019
5143:
5142:
5138:
5128:
5126:
5122:
5111:
5105:
5101:
5091:
5089:
5080:Till, Charles.
5078:
5074:
5064:
5062:
5049:
5048:
5044:
5034:
5032:
5019:
5018:
5014:
5004:
5002:
4989:
4988:
4984:
4974:
4972:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4951:
4943:
4941:
4937:
4930:
4926:
4925:
4921:
4911:
4909:
4902:"Generation IV"
4900:
4899:
4895:
4889:Nucleonics Week
4887:
4883:
4877:Wayback Machine
4866:
4859:
4849:
4847:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4804:
4802:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4778:
4776:
4775:on 1 April 2009
4765:
4758:
4751:
4729:
4725:
4715:
4713:
4698:
4691:
4659:
4655:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4618:
4608:
4606:
4595:
4591:
4581:
4579:
4566:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4532:
4528:
4518:
4516:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4488:
4486:
4485:on 25 June 2008
4482:
4475:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4461:Wayback Machine
4451:
4447:
4437:
4435:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4408:
4406:
4402:
4396:Wayback Machine
4386:
4382:
4373:Wayback Machine
4362:
4358:
4352:Wayback Machine
4341:
4337:
4331:Wayback Machine
4320:
4316:
4305:
4301:
4295:Wayback Machine
4284:
4280:
4268:
4267:
4258:
4257:
4250:
4248:
4233:
4229:
4223:Wayback Machine
4212:
4208:
4202:Wayback Machine
4191:
4187:
4181:Wayback Machine
4170:
4166:
4156:
4154:
4146:
4145:
4141:
4134:
4120:
4116:
4108:
4101:
4097:
4096:
4092:
4082:
4080:
4067:
4066:
4059:
4049:
4047:
4038:
4037:
4033:
4023:
4021:
4019:
3995:
3991:
3981:
3979:
3970:
3969:
3965:
3955:
3953:
3940:
3939:
3935:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3893:
3891:
3881:
3877:
3868:
3866:
3859:
3833:
3829:
3819:
3817:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3789:
3787:
3774:
3773:
3769:
3759:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3739:
3732:
3675:
3671:
3665:Wayback Machine
3655:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3640:
3631:
3627:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3518:
3507:The amounts of
3484:
3476:
3454:
3421:nuclear fission
3396:
3390:
3307:
3301:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3216:spent fuel pool
3192:
3119:neutron economy
3108:uranium dioxide
3073:
3067:
3043:
3037:
3035:Fusion reactors
2946:
2914:
2870:
2796:uranium hydride
2697:
2692:
2681:uranium nitrate
2677:uranium sulfate
2569:in France; and
2499:neutron capture
2329:neutron economy
2232:thermal neutron
2201:
2190:
2184:
2181:
2166:
2150:
2139:
2093:nuclear weapons
2086:smoke detectors
1982:
1957:
1926:
1904:Nucleonics Week
1856:
1840:
1824:
1710:steam generator
1669:pressure vessel
1631:
1600:
1589:
1567:natural uranium
1533:
1446:natural uranium
1434:neutron capture
1363:nuclear fission
1359:
1354:
1352:Classifications
1342:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1315:FBR: 0.6 (0.2%)
1312:
1306:
1300:
1297:GCR: 8.2 (2.2%)
1294:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1237:LWGR: 15 (3.4%)
1234:
1228:
1222:
1219:BWR: 80 (18.3%)
1216:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1191:
1182:
1092:Atoms for Peace
969:Shortly after,
956:Albert Einstein
847:
841:
821:Hinkley Point B
796:
776:
741:fission product
728:in the form of
703:also acts as a
683:prompt critical
650:prompt neutrons
646:delayed neutron
638:neutron poisons
626:
612:Delayed neutron
602:Main articles:
600:
568:
507:
505:Heat generation
494:neutron poisons
475:gamma radiation
444:
442:Nuclear fission
438:
430:nuclear fission
410:nuclear weapons
401:
395:
232:is passed to a
230:nuclear fission
163:nuclear reactor
159:
158:
157:
156:
106:
105:
104:
95:
94:
93:
85:
84:
75:
74:
73:
65:
64:
55:
54:
53:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8202:
8192:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8176:
8171:
8166:
8161:
8156:
8139:
8138:
8126:
8103:
8102:
8080:
8077:
8076:
8074:
8073:
8068:
8063:
8058:
8056:Peace movement
8053:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8033:
8028:
8023:
8018:
8013:
8008:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7986:
7981:
7976:
7970:
7968:
7962:
7961:
7959:
7958:
7952:
7947:
7942:
7937:
7931:
7925:
7923:Windscale fire
7919:
7913:
7906:
7900:
7894:
7884:
7882:Lucens reactor
7878:
7868:
7862:
7856:
7849:
7843:
7842:
7841:
7836:
7825:
7819:
7813:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7789:
7787:
7779:
7778:
7776:
7775:
7770:
7765:
7760:
7759:
7758:
7753:
7752:
7751:
7746:
7739:United Kingdom
7736:
7731:
7726:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7666:
7660:
7658:
7646:
7645:
7638:
7637:
7630:
7623:
7615:
7606:
7605:
7603:
7602:
7590:
7578:
7563:
7560:
7559:
7556:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7536:Muon-catalyzed
7533:
7528:
7522:
7520:
7516:
7515:
7513:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7496:
7495:
7485:
7476:
7474:
7468:
7467:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7433:
7431:
7425:
7424:
7418:
7415:
7414:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7396:
7391:
7390:
7389:
7384:
7373:
7371:
7367:
7366:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7343:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7276:
7274:
7268:
7267:
7265:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7227:Integral (IFR)
7224:
7218:
7212:
7201:
7198:
7197:
7194:
7193:
7190:
7189:
7187:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7155:
7153:
7144:
7138:
7137:
7134:
7133:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7128:
7123:
7122:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7091:
7086:
7085:
7084:
7073:
7071:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7061:
7056:
7051:
7042:
7040:
7036:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7018:
7017:
7015:
7014:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6993:
6991:
6986:
6978:
6971:
6957:
6954:
6953:
6950:
6949:
6947:
6946:
6945:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6918:
6916:
6912:
6907:
6906:
6904:
6903:
6897:
6895:
6889:
6888:
6886:
6885:
6880:
6875:
6874:
6873:
6868:
6857:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6840:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6819:
6818:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6797:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6785:
6782:
6779:
6776:
6762:
6760:
6755:
6747:
6732:
6731:
6729:
6728:
6723:
6722:
6721:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6707:
6706:
6701:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6646:
6641:
6640:
6639:
6634:
6629:
6624:
6614:
6608:
6606:
6600:
6599:
6591:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6572:
6571:
6559:
6558:
6555:
6554:
6552:
6551:
6546:
6544:Uranium mining
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6513:
6510:
6509:
6507:
6506:
6501:
6500:
6499:
6494:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6453:
6451:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6443:
6438:
6437:
6436:
6426:
6421:
6420:
6419:
6417:Minor actinide
6414:
6409:
6398:
6396:
6389:
6383:
6382:
6379:
6378:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6353:
6343:
6337:
6335:
6331:
6330:
6328:
6327:
6326:
6325:
6315:
6310:
6309:
6308:
6303:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6282:
6281:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6245:
6243:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6205:
6203:
6197:
6196:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6148:
6146:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6114:Autoradiograph
6110:
6108:
6099:
6093:
6092:
6090:
6089:
6088:
6087:
6077:
6076:
6075:
6065:
6064:
6063:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6022:
6020:
6014:
6013:
6011:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5954:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5942:
5941:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5877:
5875:
5869:
5868:
5866:
5865:
5864:
5863:
5858:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5836:Atomic nucleus
5833:
5828:
5823:
5817:
5815:
5807:
5806:
5799:
5798:
5791:
5784:
5776:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5767:
5747:
5735:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5694:
5693:External links
5691:
5688:
5687:
5657:
5622:
5590:
5560:
5537:
5518:
5491:
5472:
5453:
5434:
5416:. p. 48.
5401:
5378:
5355:
5330:
5300:
5291:
5259:
5229:
5198:
5180:Bloomberg News
5166:
5136:
5099:
5072:
5042:
5012:
4982:
4956:
4952:(4.33 MB)
4919:
4893:
4881:
4857:
4827:
4812:
4786:
4756:
4749:
4723:
4689:
4653:
4616:
4589:
4559:
4552:
4526:
4496:
4464:
4445:
4415:
4400:
4380:
4356:
4335:
4314:
4299:
4278:
4227:
4206:
4185:
4164:
4139:
4132:
4114:
4090:
4057:
4031:
4017:
3989:
3963:
3933:
3901:
3875:
3857:
3841:Primary Energy
3827:
3797:
3767:
3742:
3730:
3669:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3625:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3602:
3597:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3482:
3474:
3453:
3450:
3413:Francis Perrin
3392:Main article:
3389:
3386:
3357:(March 2011).
3339:Windscale fire
3300:
3297:
3263:Nuclear safety
3261:Main article:
3258:
3257:Nuclear safety
3255:
3199:the amount of
3191:
3188:
3104:gas centrifuge
3069:Main article:
3066:
3063:
3047:nuclear fusion
3039:Main article:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3001:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2944:
2926:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2869:
2866:
2864:for aircraft.
2858:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2844:
2837:
2823:
2822:(BARC), India.
2809:
2799:
2784:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2739:
2717:passively safe
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2670:
2669:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2636:
2635:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2602:
2601:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2481:
2480:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2467:
2455:
2454:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2394:
2393:
2385:
2384:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2365:Smiling Buddha
2314:
2313:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2270:
2269:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2224:
2223:
2203:
2202:
2153:
2151:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2127:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2089:
2071:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2027:
2024:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2008:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1938:
1930:
1925:
1922:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1869:(most current
1864:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1822:
1810:
1807:heat exchanger
1794:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1750:
1736:
1725:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1684:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1603:
1598:
1587:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1551:
1542:
1532:
1529:
1517:nuclear fusion
1511:In principle,
1509:
1508:
1469:
1458:reactor vessel
1410:kinetic energy
1392:use slowed or
1383:chain reaction
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1340:
1322:
1317:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1225:GCR: 15 (3.4%)
1220:
1214:
1207:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1094:speech to the
1014:Chicago Pile-1
1003:to be subsumed
995:MAUD Committee
991:chain reaction
942:") produced a
904:James Chadwick
840:
839:Early reactors
837:
809:decommissioned
795:
792:
786:that turns an
780:thermal energy
775:
772:
599:
596:
567:
564:
543:A kilogram of
541:
540:
529:
522:
519:thermal energy
515:kinetic energy
506:
503:
471:kinetic energy
451:atomic nucleus
440:Main article:
437:
434:
422:thermal energy
397:Main article:
394:
391:
191:chain reaction
155:
154:
144:
138:
135:Convair NB-36H
131:
122:
116:
113:Chicago Pile-1
108:
107:
98:
97:
96:
87:
86:
78:
77:
76:
67:
66:
58:
57:
56:
47:
46:
45:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8201:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8142:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8125:
8115:
8114:
8111:
8100:
8092:
8091:
8078:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8037:
8034:
8032:
8029:
8027:
8024:
8022:
8019:
8017:
8014:
8012:
8009:
8007:
8006:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7971:
7969:
7963:
7957:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7932:
7930:
7926:
7924:
7920:
7918:
7914:
7911:
7907:
7905:
7901:
7899:
7895:
7893:
7889:
7885:
7883:
7879:
7877:
7873:
7869:
7867:
7863:
7861:
7857:
7854:
7850:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7826:
7824:
7820:
7818:
7814:
7812:
7809:
7807:
7803:
7801:
7797:
7795:
7791:
7790:
7788:
7780:
7774:
7771:
7769:
7766:
7764:
7761:
7757:
7756:United States
7754:
7750:
7747:
7745:
7742:
7741:
7740:
7737:
7735:
7732:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7701:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7685:
7682:
7680:
7677:
7675:
7672:
7670:
7667:
7665:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7657:
7647:
7643:
7636:
7631:
7629:
7624:
7622:
7617:
7616:
7613:
7601:
7600:
7591:
7589:
7588:
7579:
7577:
7576:
7565:
7564:
7561:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7523:
7521:
7517:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7494:
7493:electrostatic
7491:
7490:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7478:
7477:
7475:
7473:
7469:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7416:
7411:
7405:
7395:
7392:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7379:
7378:
7375:
7374:
7372:
7368:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7282:
7281:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7273:
7272:Generation IV
7269:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7222:Breeder (FBR)
7220:
7219:
7216:
7213:
7208:
7199:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7156:
7154:
7152:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7139:
7127:
7124:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7101:
7100:
7097:
7096:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7083:
7080:
7079:
7078:
7075:
7074:
7072:
7070:
7066:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7048:
7044:
7043:
7041:
7039:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7023:
7013:
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6994:
6992:
6990:
6982:
6979:
6975:
6972:
6967:
6960:
6955:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6924:
6923:
6920:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6908:
6902:
6899:
6898:
6896:
6894:
6890:
6884:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6863:
6862:
6859:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6846:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6783:
6780:
6777:
6774:
6773:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6751:
6748:
6744:
6737:
6733:
6727:
6724:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6696:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6638:
6635:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6619:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6610:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6601:
6596:
6595:
6588:
6583:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6564:
6560:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6524:Nuclear power
6522:
6521:
6519:
6515:
6505:
6504:Transmutation
6502:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6454:
6452:
6448:
6442:
6439:
6435:
6432:
6431:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6403:
6400:
6399:
6397:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6384:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6348:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6332:
6324:
6321:
6320:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6301:high-altitude
6299:
6298:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6291:Proliferation
6289:
6287:
6284:
6280:
6277:
6276:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6246:
6244:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6231:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6206:
6204:
6202:
6198:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6177:Brachytherapy
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6149:
6147:
6145:
6141:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6094:
6086:
6083:
6082:
6081:
6078:
6074:
6071:
6070:
6069:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6058:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6023:
6021:
6019:
6015:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5973:Cross section
5971:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5955:
5953:
5951:
5947:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5870:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5853:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5797:
5792:
5790:
5785:
5783:
5778:
5777:
5774:
5766:
5762:
5759:
5755:(in Japanese)
5753:
5752:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5730:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5703:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5661:
5642:
5635:
5629:
5627:
5610:
5606:
5605:
5600:
5594:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5564:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5547:
5541:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5522:
5506:
5502:
5495:
5488:
5484:
5481:
5476:
5469:
5465:
5460:
5458:
5449:
5445:
5438:
5419:
5412:
5405:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5382:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5359:
5351:
5350:Energy Policy
5344:
5337:
5335:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5304:
5295:
5276:
5269:
5263:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5233:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5202:
5186:
5182:
5181:
5176:
5170:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5140:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5103:
5087:
5083:
5076:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5046:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5021:"RRDB Search"
5016:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4986:
4970:
4966:
4960:
4936:
4929:
4923:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4890:
4885:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4870:
4864:
4862:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4823:
4816:
4800:
4796:
4790:
4774:
4770:
4763:
4761:
4752:
4750:9780081009628
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4727:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4696:
4694:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4664:Atomic Energy
4657:
4638:
4631:
4625:
4623:
4621:
4604:
4600:
4593:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4563:
4555:
4553:0-691-09552-3
4549:
4545:
4540:
4539:
4530:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4500:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4419:
4411:
4404:
4397:
4393:
4390:
4384:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4366:
4360:
4353:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4339:
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4325:
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4303:
4296:
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4262:
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4224:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4210:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4189:
4182:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4168:
4153:
4149:
4143:
4135:
4129:
4125:
4118:
4107:
4100:
4094:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4062:
4045:
4041:
4035:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
4001:
3993:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3918:
3911:
3905:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3806:"RRDB Search"
3801:
3785:
3781:
3780:pris.iaea.org
3777:
3776:"PRIS – Home"
3771:
3752:
3746:
3737:
3735:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3653:
3649:
3635:
3629:
3622:
3616:
3612:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
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3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3478:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3459:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3395:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3254:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3227:RBMK reactors
3224:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3187:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3153:
3151:
3146:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3115:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2865:
2863:
2853:
2849:
2848:Cerro Impacto
2845:
2842:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2576:Monju reactor
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2549:Sodium-cooled
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2296:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2213:
2212:Diablo Canyon
2209:
2199:
2196:
2188:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2154:This section
2152:
2148:
2143:
2142:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2112:Godiva device
2109:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2097:weapons-grade
2094:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2042:transmutation
2039:
2035:
2032:for use in a
2031:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1950:(theoretical)
1949:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:Fluid fueled
1931:
1928:
1927:
1921:
1919:
1914:
1913:(GIF) plans.
1912:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1857:
1854:By generation
1848:
1845:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1476:fast neutrons
1473:
1470:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:boiling point
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1430:plutonium-241
1427:
1426:plutonium-239
1423:
1419:
1415:
1414:cross section
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1243:FBR: 2 (0.5%)
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1180:Reactor types
1174:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
989:needed for a
988:
984:
979:
976:
972:
967:
965:
961:
957:
952:
950:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
924:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
890:
886:
881:
874:
870:
866:
860:
856:
851:
846:
836:
833:
828:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
804:
802:
791:
789:
785:
784:steam turbine
781:
771:
769:
765:
761:
756:
754:
750:
745:
742:
739:. The common
738:
733:
731:
727:
723:
717:
714:
713:fast neutrons
710:
706:
702:
697:
695:
691:
690:
684:
679:
675:
674:critical mass
672:to achieve a
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
642:
639:
635:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
595:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
563:
561:
557:
552:
550:
546:
538:
534:
530:
527:
523:
520:
516:
512:
511:
510:
502:
499:
495:
491:
486:
484:
480:
479:free neutrons
476:
472:
469:), releasing
468:
464:
463:plutonium-239
460:
456:
452:
449:
446:When a large
443:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
411:
405:
400:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
307:
305:
301:
297:
294:of vehicles.
293:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
235:
234:working fluid
231:
226:
224:
220:
219:fission bombs
216:
212:
208:
203:
200:
196:
192:
188:
187:plutonium-239
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
153:
152:1986 disaster
149:
145:
142:
139:
136:
132:
130:
126:
123:
120:
117:
114:
111:
110:
102:
91:
82:
71:
62:
51:
40:
33:
19:
8141:
8081:
8003:
7999:Bikini Atoll
7945:Hanford Site
7940:Bikini Atoll
7744:in Australia
7734:Soviet Union
7729:South Africa
7597:
7585:
7566:
7546:Pyroelectric
7500:Laser-driven
7280:Sodium (SFR)
7207:fast-neutron
7046:
6592:
6567:
6482:Reprocessing
6363:WMD treaties
6182:Radiosurgery
6152:Fast-neutron
6124:Scintigraphy
5678:. Retrieved
5669:
5660:
5648:. Retrieved
5613:. Retrieved
5602:
5593:
5581:. Retrieved
5577:the original
5572:
5563:
5555:
5540:
5521:
5509:. Retrieved
5494:
5475:
5467:
5447:
5437:
5425:. Retrieved
5404:
5396:the original
5391:
5381:
5373:the original
5368:
5358:
5352:. p. 6.
5349:
5321:. Retrieved
5312:
5303:
5294:
5282:. Retrieved
5275:the original
5262:
5250:. Retrieved
5246:the original
5232:
5220:. Retrieved
5211:
5201:
5189:. Retrieved
5185:the original
5178:
5169:
5157:. Retrieved
5153:the original
5148:
5139:
5127:. Retrieved
5115:
5102:
5090:. Retrieved
5075:
5063:. Retrieved
5059:the original
5045:
5033:. Retrieved
5024:
5015:
5003:. Retrieved
4999:the original
4994:
4985:
4973:. Retrieved
4969:the original
4959:
4942:. Retrieved
4935:the original
4922:
4910:. Retrieved
4906:the original
4896:
4888:
4884:
4868:
4848:. Retrieved
4839:
4830:
4821:
4815:
4803:. Retrieved
4789:
4777:. Retrieved
4773:the original
4735:. Elsevier.
4732:
4726:
4714:. Retrieved
4706:Hyperphysics
4705:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4644:. Retrieved
4607:. Retrieved
4592:
4580:. Retrieved
4571:
4562:
4537:
4529:
4517:. Retrieved
4508:
4499:
4487:. Retrieved
4480:the original
4467:
4448:
4436:. Retrieved
4427:
4418:
4403:
4387:L. Szilárd,
4383:
4364:
4359:
4343:
4338:
4333:. EDF Energy
4322:
4317:
4308:
4302:
4286:
4281:
4249:. Retrieved
4240:
4230:
4214:
4209:
4193:
4188:
4172:
4167:
4155:. Retrieved
4151:
4142:
4123:
4117:
4106:the original
4093:
4083:25 September
4081:. Retrieved
4072:
4050:25 September
4048:. Retrieved
4034:
4022:. Retrieved
3999:
3992:
3980:. Retrieved
3976:the original
3966:
3956:25 September
3954:. Retrieved
3945:
3936:
3926:24 September
3924:. Retrieved
3917:the original
3904:
3892:. Retrieved
3888:
3878:
3867:, retrieved
3840:
3830:
3818:. Retrieved
3809:
3800:
3788:. Retrieved
3779:
3770:
3758:. Retrieved
3745:
3682:
3678:
3672:
3656:L. Szilárd,
3652:
3628:
3615:
3592:
3509:strontium-90
3506:
3462:
3455:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3397:
3375:
3332:
3272:
3248:
3220:
3212:
3208:
3196:nuclear fuel
3193:
3172:protactinium
3154:
3147:
3132:
3116:
3093:
3074:
3051:fusion power
3044:
3041:Fusion power
2994:Carnot cycle
2965:photovoltaic
2950:neutron flux
2940:
2915:
2871:
2859:
2722:(ESBWR) and
2698:
2503:fast neutron
2474:Liquid metal
2410:Soviet Union
2191:
2182:
2167:Please help
2155:
2044:of elements
2022:Desalination
1985:Electricity
1929:Solid fueled
1915:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1873:, 1965–1996)
1704:SCWRs are a
1534:
1513:fusion power
1510:
1501:fast breeder
1405:
1375:nuclear fuel
1360:
1147:Camp Century
1144:
1133:
1127:
1115:
1107:Soviet Union
1100:
1085:
1058:
1046:Hanford Site
1035:
1026:Enrico Fermi
1011:
980:
975:World War II
971:Nazi Germany
968:
953:
932:Lise Meitner
925:
897:
889:Enrico Fermi
887:, including
883:Some of the
869:Lise Meitner
855:Chicago Pile
829:
825:Hunterston B
805:
797:
777:
762:(especially
757:
734:
718:
698:
693:
686:
669:
643:
634:control rods
631:
627:
588:reactor core
569:
560:kilocalories
553:
542:
508:
490:control rods
487:
445:
426:fossil fuels
415:
332:
308:
289:
279:gas used in
253:desalination
227:
204:
195:control rods
162:
160:
32:Fusion power
8071:Smiling Sun
7782:Individual
7719:North Korea
7457:Stellarator
7421:confinement
7315:Superphénix
7142:Molten-salt
7094:VHTR (HTGR)
6871:HW BLWR 250
6837:R4 Marviken
6766:Pressurized
6736:Heavy water
6720:many others
6649:Pressurized
6604:Light water
6306:underground
6264:Disarmament
6172:Tomotherapy
6167:Proton-beam
6031:Power plant
5993:Temperature
5826:Engineering
5672:. nrc.gov.
5191:19 December
5005:12 December
4609:9 September
4509:www.pbs.org
4269:|last=
3632:An extinct
3621:Leo Szilard
3502:cosmic rays
3426:Paul Kuroda
3380:especially
3327:radioactive
3315:Fukushima I
3204:uranium-235
3180:uranium-238
3176:uranium-233
3168:beta decays
3160:thorium-232
3138:fissionable
3085:reprocessed
3045:Controlled
2852:coal energy
2726:units (see
2567:Superphénix
2529:Lead-cooled
2517:Superphénix
2361:South Korea
2325:heavy water
2242:, American
2238:, Japanese
2084:for use in
2075:radioactive
1963:Cylindrical
1740:heavy water
1679:heavy water
1523:isotope of
1492:transuranic
1438:uranium-238
1422:uranium-235
1406:thermalized
1377:, though a
1343:pellets in
1170:Hualong One
1166:pressurizer
1136:Calder Hall
1069:Walter Zinn
1065:Arco, Idaho
1030:criticality
1005:within the
999:Tube Alloys
916:Leó Szilárd
893:Leó Szilárd
582:, like the
576:molten salt
556:uranium-235
545:uranium-235
492:containing
459:uranium-233
455:uranium-235
285:reprocessed
211:criticality
183:uranium-235
8148:Categories
8061:Peace camp
7851:1985–1987
7784:accidents
7652:disasters
7482:(acoustic)
7099:PBR (PBMR)
6487:Spent fuel
6477:Repository
6457:Fuel cycle
6424:Activation
6201:Processing
6068:Propulsion
6026:by country
5958:Activation
5284:7 December
5252:29 January
5129:27 October
5092:9 November
5065:29 January
4805:6 November
4646:26 October
4582:9 November
4519:12 January
4007:. p.
3869:2 February
3644:References
3489:beta decay
3382:Kosmos 954
3319:dissociate
3303:See also:
3267:See also:
3162:absorbs a
2794:that uses
2449:(GCR) and
2427:Sizewell A
2254:. All the
2246:, Chinese
2080:, such as
1991:including
1948:Gas fueled
1629:By coolant
1616:(OMR) use
1164:(purple),
1140:Sellafield
1050:Washington
1024:physicist
914:scientist
843:See also:
832:Greenpeace
813:EDF Energy
794:Life-times
788:alternator
749:iodine-135
737:iodine pit
730:boric acid
694:one dollar
656:for their
654:half-lives
624:Decay heat
616:Iodine pit
526:gamma rays
379:enrichment
316:iodine pit
269:industrial
228:Heat from
7853:Therac-25
7786:and sites
7656:incidents
7650:Lists of
7452:Spheromak
7151:Fluorides
6815:IPHWR-700
6810:IPHWR-540
6805:IPHWR-220
6594:Moderator
6274:Explosion
6249:Arms race
6036:Economics
5988:Reflector
5983:Radiation
5978:Generator
5933:Plutonium
5886:Deuterium
5851:Radiation
5821:Chemistry
5680:2 October
5650:17 August
5222:10 August
5035:6 January
4779:3 October
4700:Nave, R.
4438:21 August
4377:In German
4261:cite news
3894:30 August
3820:6 January
3760:30 August
3725:118394767
3717:0218-3013
3692:1404.4948
3493:half-life
3452:Emissions
3323:meltdowns
3280:Fukushima
3112:fuel rods
3055:actinides
3024:transmute
2982:capacitor
2841:Kalpakkam
2580:restarted
2565:in USSR;
2347:, China,
2345:Argentina
2236:VVER-1200
2185:June 2015
2156:does not
2100:plutonium
2082:americium
1969:Spherical
1966:Octagonal
1724:Spectrum.
1639:VVER-1000
1622:terphenyl
1521:deuterium
1496:actinides
1371:plutonium
1347:cladding.
1054:plutonium
928:Otto Hahn
920:Admiralty
912:Hungarian
873:Otto Hahn
768:refueling
744:Xenon-135
670:necessary
393:Operation
375:fuel type
326:and 2011
312:xenon-135
202:of coal.
8099:Category
7965:Related
7855:accident
7724:Pakistan
7587:Category
7541:Polywell
7472:Inertial
7429:Magnetic
7184:TMSR-LF1
7179:TMSR-500
7159:Fuji MSR
7119:THTR-300
6959:Graphite
6822:PHWR KWU
6788:ACR-1000
6716:IPWR-900
6699:ACPR1000
6694:HPR-1000
6684:CPR-1000
6659:APR-1400
6450:Disposal
6402:Actinide
6395:Products
6254:Delivery
6097:Medicine
5926:depleted
5921:enriched
5891:Helium-3
5856:ionizing
5761:Archived
5741:Archived
5729:Archived
5702:Archived
5674:Archived
5670:U.S. NRC
5641:Archived
5609:Archived
5549:Archived
5530:Archived
5505:Archived
5483:Archived
5418:Archived
5323:3 August
5317:Archived
5216:Archived
5149:SupChina
5120:Archived
5086:Archived
5029:Archived
4912:18 March
4873:Archived
4844:Archived
4799:Archived
4710:Archived
4684:95704617
4637:Archived
4603:Archived
4576:Archived
4572:BBC News
4513:Archived
4457:Archived
4432:Archived
4392:Archived
4369:Archived
4348:Archived
4327:Archived
4291:Archived
4245:Archived
4241:Wikinews
4219:Archived
4198:Archived
4177:Archived
4077:Archived
4044:Archived
4024:17 March
3982:18 March
3950:Archived
3863:archived
3814:Archived
3790:10 April
3784:Archived
3661:Archived
3516:See also
3469:hydrogen
3349:(1979),
3287:AG, the
2969:UV light
2798:as fuel.
2647:chloride
2643:fluoride
2614:THTR-300
2612:and the
2479:(LMFBR)
2441:– an AGR
2353:Pakistan
2284:and the
2095:such as
2078:isotopes
2062:or even
1802:Nitrogen
1773:, lead,
1643:Atommash
1618:biphenyl
1525:hydrogen
1484:enriched
1464:, and a
1444:or even
1345:zircaloy
1333:NC State
1128:Nautilus
1001:, later
666:critical
580:turbines
453:such as
261:isotopes
241:turbines
8110:Portals
7834:Effects
7599:Commons
7510:Z-pinch
7480:Bubble
7462:Tokamak
7325:FBR-600
7305:CFR-600
7300:BN-1200
6966:coolant
6893:Organic
6778:CANDU 9
6775:CANDU 6
6743:coolant
6704:ACP1000
6679:CAP1400
6617:Boiling
6582:Fission
6429:Fission
6373:Weapons
6313:Warfare
6296:Testing
6286:History
6279:effects
6234:Weapons
6144:Therapy
6119:RadBall
6106:Imaging
5998:Thermal
5963:Capture
5950:Neutron
5938:Thorium
5916:Uranium
5881:Tritium
5861:braking
5841:Fission
5831:Physics
5814:Science
5615:28 June
5583:28 June
5511:27 June
5427:15 June
5159:24 June
4944:5 March
4850:10 July
4716:5 March
4489:18 June
4428:anl.gov
4157:12 July
3697:Bibcode
3491:with a
3465:isotope
3458:tritium
3428:at the
3201:fissile
3164:neutron
3142:fertile
3134:Fissile
3096:isotope
3014:, like
3008:blanket
2941:Skyfall
2862:synfuel
2571:Fermi-I
2357:Romania
2337:uranium
2312:(PHWR)
2214:– a PWR
2177:removed
2162:sources
2068:thorium
2060:natural
2056:fertile
1975:Annulus
1960:Cubical
1779:mercury
1701:(SCWR)
1488:fissile
1450:coolant
1420:nuclei
1418:fissile
1367:uranium
1160:(red),
1022:Italian
987:uranium
900:neutron
701:coolant
689:dollars
566:Cooling
448:fissile
436:Fission
277:tritium
265:medical
237:coolant
177:and in
8136:Energy
7967:topics
7890:under
7709:France
7410:Fusion
7370:Others
7310:Phénix
7295:BN-800
7290:BN-600
7285:BN-350
7114:HTR-PM
7109:HTR-10
7089:UHTREX
7054:Magnox
7049:(UNGG)
6942:Lucens
6937:KS 150
6674:ATMEA1
6654:AP1000
6637:Kerena
6517:Debate
6269:Ethics
6259:Design
6242:Topics
6073:rocket
6051:Fusion
6046:Policy
6008:Fusion
5968:Poison
5846:Fusion
5558:p. 82.
5489:p. 14.
4950:
4747:
4682:
4670:: 83.
4550:
4307:IAEA.
4251:16 May
4130:
4015:
3855:
3756:. IAEA
3723:
3715:
3463:As an
3378:RORSAT
3251:burnup
3235:Magnox
3020:Th-232
2826:KAMINI
2724:AP1000
2668:(AHR)
2634:(MSR)
2622:HTR-PM
2618:HTR-10
2600:(PBR)
2563:BN-600
2559:BN-350
2463:Magnox
2453:(AGR)
2424:Magnox
2359:, and
2268:(BWR)
2244:AP1000
2222:(PWR)
2118:(e.g.
2114:) and
1980:By use
1833:"LiCl"
1767:sodium
1745:Early
1689:(BWR)
1593:"LiCl"
1428:, and
1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1175:design
944:barium
622:, and
549:joules
477:, and
383:burnup
381:, and
369:, and
129:HTR-PM
125:HTR-10
7954:1945
7933:1954
7927:1957
7921:1957
7915:1957
7908:1961
7902:1961
7896:1962
7886:1962
7880:1969
7870:1979
7864:1980
7858:1982
7845:1985
7827:1986
7821:1987
7815:1990
7804:2001
7798:2011
7792:2019
7714:India
7704:China
7531:Migma
7519:Other
7488:Fusor
7387:Piqua
7382:Arbus
7340:PRISM
7082:MHR-T
7077:GTMHR
7007:EGP-6
7002:AMB-X
6977:Water
6922:HWGCR
6861:HWLWR
6800:IPHWR
6771:CANDU
6632:ESBWR
6387:Waste
6351:Tests
6334:Lists
6318:Yield
6061:MMRTG
6018:Power
5644:(PDF)
5637:(PDF)
5421:(PDF)
5414:(PDF)
5346:(PDF)
5278:(PDF)
5271:(PDF)
5123:(PDF)
5112:(PDF)
4975:3 May
4938:(PDF)
4931:(PDF)
4680:S2CID
4640:(PDF)
4633:(PDF)
4483:(PDF)
4476:(PDF)
4109:(PDF)
4102:(PDF)
3920:(PDF)
3913:(PDF)
3754:(PDF)
3721:S2CID
3687:arXiv
3607:Notes
3404:Gabon
3371:K-431
3243:CANDU
3016:U-238
2834:IGCAR
2584:EBR-I
2555:TOPAZ
2466:core.
2349:India
2321:CANDU
2300:CANDU
1837:"BeCl
1835:with
1829:"NaF"
1827:with
1817:FLiBe
1747:CANDU
1597:"BeCl
1582:"LiF"
1077:LMFBR
1061:EBR-I
726:boron
722:scram
687:zero
658:decay
620:SCRAM
461:, or
7910:SL-1
7874:and
7654:and
7347:Lead
7330:CEFR
7320:PFBR
7202:None
7012:RBMK
6997:AM-1
6927:EL-4
6901:WR-1
6883:AHWR
6827:MZFR
6795:CVTR
6784:AFCR
6711:VVER
6669:APWR
6664:APR+
6627:ABWR
6497:cask
6492:pool
6434:LLFP
6323:TNTe
6003:Fast
5873:Fuel
5682:2017
5652:2017
5617:2006
5585:2006
5513:2011
5468:Time
5429:2011
5325:2007
5313:IAEA
5286:2013
5254:2010
5224:2022
5193:2019
5161:2019
5131:2014
5116:NASA
5094:2006
5067:2010
5037:2019
5007:2019
4977:2007
4946:2007
4914:2011
4852:2019
4807:2021
4781:2009
4745:ISBN
4718:2018
4648:2017
4611:2008
4584:2006
4548:ISBN
4521:2017
4491:2008
4440:2013
4273:help
4253:2023
4159:2024
4128:ISBN
4085:2008
4052:2008
4026:2011
4013:ISBN
3984:2011
3958:2008
3928:2008
3896:2024
3889:PRIS
3871:2021
3853:ISBN
3822:2019
3792:2019
3762:2024
3713:ISSN
3400:Oklo
3367:K-27
3363:K-19
3343:SL-1
3241:and
3140:and
3059:ITER
3022:and
2830:BARC
2786:The
2771:The
2764:The
2757:The
2745:, a
2741:The
2734:The
2709:PHWR
2707:and
2561:and
2515:The
2437:The
2422:The
2390:RBMK
2377:The
2298:The
2160:any
2158:cite
2122:and
1972:Slab
1831:and
1821:"ZrF
1753:DIDO
1620:and
1595:and
1586:"BeF
1584:and
1474:use
1126:USS
1071:for
898:The
891:and
871:and
853:The
513:The
496:and
357:and
302:and
267:and
263:for
255:and
217:for
197:and
173:for
146:The
133:The
7419:by
7335:PFR
7126:PMR
7104:AVR
7026:Gas
6964:by
6932:KKN
6866:ATR
6781:EC6
6741:by
6689:EPR
6622:BWR
4737:doi
4672:doi
4544:286
4009:312
3845:doi
3705:doi
3497:NRC
3467:of
3402:in
3293:MIT
3285:UBS
3239:AGR
3170:to
3155:In
3102:or
3081:MOX
3018:or
3010:of
2730:).
2705:BWR
2701:PWR
2679:or
2645:or
2610:AVR
2171:by
1771:NaK
1591:",
1503:or
1486:in
1436:by
1404:is
1373:as
1138:in
1048:in
660:by
185:or
8150::
7069:He
7035:CO
6911:CO
6832:R3
5668:.
5625:^
5607:.
5601:.
5571:.
5466:.
5456:^
5446:.
5390:.
5367:.
5348:.
5333:^
5311:.
5240:.
5214:.
5210:.
5177:.
5147:.
5118:.
5114:.
5053:.
5027:.
5023:.
4993:.
4860:^
4838:.
4797:.
4759:^
4743:.
4704:.
4692:^
4678:.
4668:74
4666:.
4619:^
4570:.
4546:.
4507:.
4430:.
4426:.
4265::
4263:}}
4259:{{
4243:.
4239:.
4150:.
4075:.
4071:.
4060:^
4011:.
4003:.
3948:.
3944:.
3887:.
3861:,
3851:,
3839:,
3812:.
3808:.
3782:.
3778:.
3733:^
3719:.
3711:.
3703:.
3695:.
3683:23
3681:.
3432:.
3237:,
3233:,
3229:,
3225:,
3186:.
3091:.
2960:.
2836:).
2703:,
2557:,
2355:,
2351:,
1906:.
1781:.
1769:,
1507:).
1424:,
1385::
1009:.
934:,
930:,
755:.
618:,
614:,
610:,
606:,
594:.
570:A
485:.
473:,
457:,
385:.
377:,
365:,
330:.
306:.
161:A
8112::
7634:e
7627:t
7620:v
7209:)
7205:(
7037:2
6989:O
6987:2
6985:H
6913:2
6853:O
6851:2
6849:H
6758:O
6756:2
6754:D
5795:e
5788:t
5781:v
5684:.
5654:.
5619:.
5587:.
5515:.
5470:.
5450:.
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5288:.
5256:.
5226:.
5195:.
5163:.
5133:.
5096:.
5069:.
5039:.
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