221:, which refers to consent decree, and allows the court to "direct entry of a final judgment" when multiple parties are involved, and Rule 58 describes the procedure of how parties may enter judgment. Additionally, Rule 60 describes conditions under which parties can be granted "relief from a judgment or order" (such as a consent decree). As Rule 48 in the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure stipulates that dismissals in criminal cases may not occur without "leave of court", Rule 41 allows, if all the parties agree, the court to dismiss any suit besides
563:
enter consent decrees typically resulting in a payment from the corporation to those wronged, which may serve to discourage future discrimination, in addition to a change in policy to avoid future payouts. Examples of altered practices through the use of a decree have included restructuring building property or the removal of barriers to allow for physical accessibility for all persons, providing supplemental communication tools such as
423:, which requires that states must not "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws". To properly enforce this legislation, the Supreme Court allowed district courts to use desegregation decrees obligating states to actively transition into racially nondiscriminatory school systems, with "all deliberate speed". Since the original decree did not include specific ways this could be done, beginning with
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provide monetary awards or introduce policies and programs that eliminate and prevent future discrimination. These may include decrees that require the creation of new recruitment and hiring procedures to gain a more diverse pool of job applicants, upgrading job and promotion assignment systems, or offering training programs focusing on discrimination and diversity. Under the
562:
The
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was a civil rights law passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination and ensures that people with disabilities have equal access to the opportunities and benefits available to the wider American population. Institutions that violate the requirements of the ADA
178:
used "fines" as a form of court orders to settle land disputes among litigants with the punitive power and legitimacy of courts through the use of consent decree. In the United States, 19th and 20th century legal treatises show that consent decrees and the role of the court in the parties' settlement
98:
of the contested issues; a lawsuit is filed and actively contested, and the parties reach an agreement after the court has ruled on some issues; or the parties settle their dispute prior to the filing of a lawsuit and they simultaneously file a lawsuit and request that the court agree to the entry of
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compromised on a consent decree that phased out discrimination within recruiting, hiring and employment methods in regard to minorities and women. This established a precedent for other large, private U.S. companies to avoid litigation and government oversight by creating decrees in cooperation with
321:
used consent decrees (which are amended according to the times and technology) to regulate how they issued blanket licenses to ensure that trade is not restrained and that the prices of licenses would not be competitive. The
Department of Justice reviewed the music consent decrees starting 2019, and
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The usual consent decree is not self-executing. A consent decree is implemented when the parties transform their agreements from paper to reality. The judge who signed the decree may have no involvement or may monitor the implementation. The judge can only step in to assist in enforcement if a party
237:
Many of the early court cases involving consent decree set precedents for the roles that judges would play in the negotiating, approving, interpreting, and modifying a settlement between two parties. The role of the judge in regard to consent decree wavers between "rubber stamping" versus applying
536:
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination by employers on the basis of race, sex, color, religion, or national origin. Most often, the remedies to workplace discrimination carried out under this Act take place in the form of consent decrees, where employers may have to
259:, the Supreme Court ruled that a consent decree could be modified or terminated only when new developments over time bring out a "grievous wrong" in how the ruling of the consent decree affects the parties of the suit. The Supreme Court supported this limited flexibility of consent decrees in
655:
Parties have control of the remedial plan: Consent decrees allow both parties to have greater latitude in deciding how to remedy their issues. This is an advantage "because the parties, not the court, determine the remedy, the assumption is that the remedy is better suited to the parties'
695:
Duration: Some argue that "consent decrees often last for too long a period". Although consent decrees are a solution to a particular issue, the context around that issue or the issue itself may change. However, the consent decree is neither as easy to modify nor adapt and thus can become
715:
Complexity: Consent decrees can be complex in questions of modification, either before or after it is enacted: "the decree issued by consent cannot be modified, except by consent. Only where the consent has been obtained by fraud or given by mistake will a bill be entertained to set it
583:, an environmental advocacy group. This decree, signed in 1976, highly restructured the way the EPA dealt with harmful substances by requiring the agency to list and regulate 65 toxic pollutants and to regulate pollutant discharges on an industry-by-industry basis (i.e.,
441:
and judicial placement of new schools, and the redrawing of school attendance zones. To stop judicial intervention in schools and end the consent decree through a court order, districts must demonstrate desegregation within six criteria defined in the
699:
Ambition: Consent decrees can be an avenue for those seeking to enact a future-oriented change that is more general and not case-specific. Consent decrees are thus used "as a tool of enforcement less expensive, and sometimes more far-reaching, than
519:
Consent decrees have been used to remedy various social issues that deal with public and private organizations, where a large number of people are often concerned even if they may not be members of either party involved. Examples have included
343:. This act began to address the complexities of antitrust economic regulation by recognizing the use of consent decrees as a method for the enforcement of federal antitrust legislation. In amending the antitrust statutes laid out in the
53:
ask the court to enter into their agreement, and the court maintains supervision over the implementation of the decree in monetary exchanges or restructured interactions between parties. It is similar to and sometimes referred to as an
201:, which both went into effect in 1938, lay many of the legal foundations that govern the use of consent decrees. Creating space for courts, which are important actors in implementing a consent decree, to enter into a settlement,
242:
bound the court's role in consent decrees to simply supporting to an agreement that parties have already established on their own. In regard to antitrust decrees, the first consent decree used in antitrust regulation under the
128:, or against an unwilling party, which are subject to modification by the same court, and reversal by higher courts. The decree issued by consent cannot be modified, except by consent. If the decree was obtained by means of
387:
had established. Other examples of antitrust consent decrees can be found in a wide range of areas, including their involvement in corporations specializing in technology, the film industry, and the motor vehicle industry.
288:, and they cannot modify a consent decree when one of the parties objects. The Supreme Court's position on how much authority a judge possesses in regard to influencing how the settlement is agreed upon is conflicting. In
103:. The court is meant to turn this agreement into a judicial decree. In many cases, the request for entry of a consent decree prompts judges to sign the documents presented then and there. In some cases, however, such as
1484:
First, Harry; Fox, Eleanor M.; Hemli, Daniel E. (July 20, 2012). Procedural and
Institutional Norms in Antitrust Enforcement: The U.S. System (Report). Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network.
754:
659:
More compliance and authoritativeness: Both parties more voluntarily implement their agreements if obtained by consent than by force. Moreover, to fail to act under the consent decree seems to be more a
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regulations) rather than by singular pollutants. This decree went on to shape the regulations and administration procedures of water policy within the United States, particularly through the
135:
Typically, a consent decree dispenses with the necessity of having proof in court, since by definition the defendant agrees to the order. Thus, the use of a consent decree does not involve a
505:
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should be taken into account when determining whether or not a change in fact warrants ... the decree". There is criticism that "the antitrust consent decree is an opaque form of
292:, the Supreme Court ruled that consent decrees "have attributes both of contracts and of judicial decrees", so consent decrees should be treated differently for different purposes. In
355:
further specified how consent decrees could be used by establishing that the courts must demonstrate that consent decrees serve the "public interest" in antitrust cases filed by the
265:: " decree will not be expanded by implication or intendment beyond the meaning of its terms when read in the light of the issues and the purposes for which the suit was brought."
2426:
322:
issued a statement in
January 2021 that they would not be terminating them as they still offered several efficiencies in music licensing that maintained benefits to the artists.
429:
in 1971, the
Supreme Court specifically defined the objective as eliminating "all vestiges of state imposed segregation" within school systems, including the limited use of
599:
Scholars find advantages and disadvantages to using the consent decree. In addition, consent decrees can affect those outside of the litigants, such as third parties and
2260:
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know exactly what they give or get when a consent decree is entered ... testimony to the negative consequences of the ambiguity that surrounds consent decrees".
296:, the Supreme Court decided that courts could take into account the changing times and circumstances for more flexibility in the administration of consent decrees.
2219:
837:, follows the lawyer Elsbeth Tascioni as she follows the NYPD where she is assigned to oversee a monitorship or consent decree after some controversial arrests.
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Save the time of prolonged litigation: The parties and the courts save the time it would take for a court trial to occur and the courts more quickly clear their
496:. On June 16, 2023, Minneapolis officials promised to enter into negotiations for a consent decree to be enforced by the DOJ in response to a scathing June 2023
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Ambiguity: There is ambiguity in the source of power of the consent decree, the role of judges, and the guidelines for a consent decree. Some see that "neither
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304:
676:" by the consent decree. Its authoritativeness is reinforced by the practice that a return to court for a consent decree has a priority in the court queue.
575:
Consent decrees have been used to alter environmental policy, one example being the "Flannery
Decision", or the Toxics Consent Decree, entered into by the
375:
229:, or bankruptcy action. Many of these rules create the space for consent decree by establishing the role of judges within the settlement of two parties.
2955:
2720:
425:
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949:"Kaleidoscopic Consent Decrees: School Desegregation and Prison Reform Consent Decrees After the Prison Litigation Reform Act and Freeman-Dowell"
545:(EEOC) was created to be a major advocate and enforcer of the previously mentioned Title VII remedies. In a landmark decision in 1973, the EEOC,
444:
3058:
2043:
261:
3549:"Justice Department Reaches Agreement with Hilton Worldwide Inc. Over ADA Violations at Hilton Hotels and Major Hotel Chains Owned by Hilton"
3077:
2300:
Kleit, An (October 1, 2000). "ASCAP versus BMI (versus CBS): Modeling competition between and bundling by performance rights organizations".
576:
3361:
2978:
2446:
1904:
Anderson, Lloyd C. (1996). "United States v. Microsoft, Antitrust
Consent Decrees, and the Need for a Proper Scope of Judicial Review".
3740:
Wyche, Bradford W. (1983). "The
Regulation of Toxic Pollutants Under the Clean Water Act: EPA's Ten Year Rulemaking Nears Completion".
3615:
4320:
202:
2526:
521:
272:, that to promote finality, a court's changes to consent a decree should be rare—but the courts can modify a consent decree or frame
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3841:
641:: The parties are able to obtain similar results of a court trial, specifically where a change is required to appease the dispute.
111:
complains to the court that an opponent has failed to perform as agreed. In this case, the offending party would be committed for
3004:
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542:
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or given by mistake, it may be set aside by a court. Errors of law or of inferences from the facts may invalidate it completely.
2480:
812:
Consent decrees have appeared in various forms of popular media, often as plot devices to explore legal and political themes.
185:
declares that although consent decrees are "not the judgment of the court", they do have the "force and effect of a judgment".
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3217:
2027:
1849:
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ruling – which include, student assignment, faculty, staff, transportation, extracurricular activities, and facilities.
276:
relief to ensure the litigation achieves its purpose. Before a judge can enter a consent decree, according to the rulings in
3335:
2551:
2142:"Averting Government by Consent Decree: Constitutional Limits on the Enforcement of Settlements with the Federal Government"
948:
159:
Because judicial decrees are part of government civil enforcement in settlements that two parties typically agree to before
4360:
2923:
4365:
2761:
Green, Preston Cary (1999). "Can State
Constitutional Provisions Eliminate de Facto Segregation in the Public Schools?".
356:
318:
198:
67:
3842:"Consent Decrees in Prison and Jail Reform: Relaxed Standard of Review for Government Motions to Modify Consent Decrees"
1080:
1009:
339:
are typically resolved through consent decrees, which began to be more widely used after 1914 with the enactment of the
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Parties avoid the uncertainties of a trial: Consent decrees forgo a trial and its unknown outcome, the necessity of
567:
for those that are hard of hearing, and eliminating discriminatory practices against those that have a disability.
206:
194:
1505:
3430:
Williams, Benton (October 2008). "AT&T and the
Private-sector Origins of Private-sector Affirmative Action".
525:
365:
300:
255:
249:
3274:
3256:
107:, the judge must make some sorts of assessments before the court's entry of the agreement as a consent decree.
1318:"Public Law by Private Bargain: Title VII Consent Decrees and the Fairness of Negotiated Institutional Reform"
3687:
3616:"The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: Twenty Years of ADA Enforcement, Twenty Significant Cases"
3518:
501:
415:
Supreme Court case established that racial segregation of children in public schools was in violation of the
1978:
1564:
Civil Procedure of the Trial Court in Historical Perspective: Publ. by the Law Center of New York University
3134:
3100:
1586:
1566:. The Judicial Administration Series. New York: The national Conference of Judicial Councils. p. 356.
2816:
Williams, G. Scott (1987). "Unitary School Systems and Underlying Vestiges of State-Imposed Segregation".
2513:
1611:
2695:
2670:
789:
749:
705:
407:
336:
285:
3654:
3598:"Justice Department Settles Americans with Disabilities Act Lawsuit with Virginia's Inova Health System"
564:
75:
90:
The process of introducing a consent decree begins with negotiation. One of three things happens: a
4350:
3387:
Green, Venus (April 26, 2012). "Flawed Remedies: EEOC, AT&T, and Sears Outcomes Reconsidered".
538:
497:
79:
1158:
Isenbergh, Maxwell S.; Rubin, Seymour J. (1940). "Antitrust Enforcement Through Consent Decrees".
359:. In regard to antitrust decrees, the first consent decree used in antitrust regulation under the
4355:
2736:
914:
Karst, Kenneth (2000). "Consent Decree". In Levy, Leonard; Karst, Kenneth; Winkler, Adam (eds.).
797:
769:
684:
416:
168:
26:
3548:
3210:
Ending Sex and Race Discrimination in the Workplace: Legal Interventions That Push the Envelope
1005:
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313:
210:
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2199:
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1958:
1930:
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report resulting from a multiyear federal investigation into the "patterns and practices" of
360:
348:
344:
340:
308:
244:
181:
3619:
3597:
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Consent decrees have been signed by a number of cities concerning their police departments'
2707:
2682:
2538:
2238:
Transactions Costs and Administered Markets: License Contracts for Music Performance Rights
430:
8:
2928:
2818:
2146:
1811:
1781:
1737:
817:
781:
584:
469:
384:
3277:, 1364 (United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia 2001).
3241:, 11 (United States District Court for the Eastern District of California 1986).
2732:
1387:
1081:"Federal Policy Making by Consent Decree: An Analysis of Agency and Judicial Discretion"
687:: Courts can supervise that consent decrees are upheld for an indefinite period of time.
3934:"Settling through Consent Decree in Prison Reform Litigation: Exploring the Effects of
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3757:
3722:
3455:
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2885:
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2017:
1961:
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Frederick Pollock and Frederic Maitland describe how courts during the 12th century of
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settlements as long as they are "fair, reasonable, and adequate". Rule 54(b) defines
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to ensure that businesses and industries adhere to regulatory laws in areas such as
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3669:
3506:
3498:
3490:
3439:
3396:
3101:"Minneapolis Police Used Illegal, Abusive Practices for Years, Justice Dept. Finds"
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2438:
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2155:
1862:
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1329:
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140:
3238:
1588:
A Treatise on Equity Pleading and Practice, With Illustrative Forms and Precedents
3339:
3310:
3292:
3074:"APD specialized squads, Internal Affairs getting overhaul in DOJ consent decree"
2337:"DOJ Won't Seek To Terminate Or Modify Consent Decrees Governing Music Licensing"
1829:
1719:
1701:
1542:
1423:
1217:
801:
773:
600:
588:
370:
226:
175:
119:
30:
2240:(Report). Rochester, New York: Social Science Research Network. pp. 61–74.
3673:
1762:
Zitko, Robert R. (1994). "The Appealability of Conditional Consent Judgments".
1048:
Mengler, Thomas M. (1987). "Consent Decree Paradigms: Models without Meaning".
833:
822:
631:
164:
136:
100:
3690:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). April 8, 2019.
3194:
2261:"Intellectual Property and Antitrust: Music Performing Rights in Broadcasting"
4344:
3753:
3718:
3451:
3408:
3309:, p. 21 (United States District Court for the District of Columbia),
3146:
3112:
3099:
Londoño, Ernesto; Thrush, Glenn; Smith, Mitch; Simmons, Dan (June 16, 2023).
2952:"Residents say consent decree changes are negatively impacting the community"
2839:
2782:
2578:
2388:
2321:
2167:
1874:
1649:
1571:
1538:
1515:
1441:
1341:
1285:
1235:
1181:
1096:
1025:
918:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 507.
889:
827:
825:, the intricacies of consent decrees are highlighted. The show, a spinoff of
624:
438:
402:
104:
71:
42:
34:
3567:"United States' Opposition to Defendant United Artists Theatre Circuit, Inc"
1547:
1144:
933:
3566:
3525:. United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. Archived from
3024:
2237:
1596:
744:, who resolve their disputes with a consent decree, especially in settling
701:
531:
457:
434:
222:
214:
146:
95:
741:
728:
649:
620:
493:
473:
465:
4013:
3761:
3726:
1666:
Chayes, Abram (1976). "The Role of the Judge in Public Law Litigation".
373:
to regulate the Chicago meat trust as an unlawful economic monopoly. In
3865:
3443:
2847:
2790:
2396:
2365:"Modification of Consent Decrees: A Proposal to the Antitrust Division"
2175:
1882:
1687:
1349:
1294:
1189:
897:
691:
In contrast, the following are disadvantages of using consent decrees:
661:
652:
is taken for granted (because no one is accused by the consent decree).
616:
352:
273:
160:
38:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3898:
3896:
2922:
Kelly, Kimbriell; Childress, Sarah; Rich, Steven (November 13, 2015).
2656:
2586:
3259:, 980 (United States District Court for the District of Arizona).
2442:
477:
50:
46:
3857:
3476:. Civil Rights Division, U.S. Department of Justice. April 12, 2023.
3473:
2831:
2774:
2408:
2406:
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2159:
1866:
1679:
1333:
1277:
1173:
881:
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3908:
3893:
3583:
3526:
2648:
2570:
669:
2903:
2019:
Antitrust Consent Decrees in Theory and Practice: Why Less Is More
139:
or an admission of guilt. Likewise, the consent decree prevents a
4167:
4165:
3306:
Kosen, et al. v. American Express Financial Advisors, Inc. et al.
3208:
Hegewisch, Ariane; Deitch, Cynthia H.; Murphy, Evelyn F. (2011).
3135:"Consent Decrees Force Changes to Policing. But Do Reforms Last?"
2403:
1356:
550:
485:
461:
91:
1634:"Public Law Litigation and the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure"
1455:
1453:
1451:
188:
4189:
724:
94:
is filed and the parties concerned reach an agreement prior to
4177:
4162:
4138:
3768:
3618:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from
3364:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from
3338:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from
2979:"Oakland police misconduct cases raise questions on oversight"
2427:"Consent Decrees and the Private Action: An Antitrust Dilemma"
846:
3043:
1465:
1448:
1368:
788:
programs". So, some argue that the use of consent decrees in
720:
638:
129:
4300:
4150:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3586:. United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division.
3572:. United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division.
3555:. The United States Department of Justice. November 9, 2010.
3160:
3059:"Seattle's Decade of Attempts to Fix the Police: A Timeline"
1125:
Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005). "Consent Decree".
4240:
4044:
4042:
4040:
868:
Dabney, Seth M. (1963). "Consent Decrees without Consent".
4128:
4126:
4124:
4074:
4072:
4059:
4057:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3604:. The United States Department of Justice. March 29, 2011.
2495:
2461:
4252:
3872:
3703:"The Courts and the EPA: The Amazing "Flannery Decision""
3688:"Toxic and Priority Pollutants Under the Clean Water Act"
3098:
1986:
1616:. Vol. XLIX. The American Law Book Co. § 178 p. 308.
665:
4206:
4204:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
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4037:
3991:
3989:
3957:
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3811:
3809:
3807:
532:
Actions under Title VII of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964
4276:
4264:
4228:
4121:
4069:
4054:
3967:
3821:
3780:
2633:"Antitrust Consent Decrees: How Protective an Umbrella"
2552:"Legislation by Consent in the Motion Picture Industry"
1504:
Pollock, Frederick; Maitland, Frederic William (1899).
611:
The following are advantages of using consent decrees:
238:
their own judgments to a proposed settlement. In 1879,
1507:
The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I
379:, the government used consent decrees to dissolve the
4216:
4201:
4096:
4025:
3986:
3952:
3804:
3792:
3584:"Settlement Agreement Concerning the Olympic Stadium"
3207:
1792:
1129:. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Thomson/Gale.
1060:
735:
305:
American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers
41:). Most often it is such a type of settlement in the
3325:, Case Number: C 95-2182 SI; C 94-4335 SI, pp. 33–36
3092:
623:
that allows for both parties and the courts to save
29:
that resolves a dispute between two parties without
2485:
The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law
740:The consent decree can impact those outside of the
376:
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States
171:without a party conceding criminal responsibility.
4090:
4019:
3919:
3126:
3039:"The damage done by Jeff Sessions' last act as AG"
2921:
2909:
1848:
946:
807:
557:
2721:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
1818:. Legal Information Institute. November 30, 2011.
1788:. Legal Information Institute. November 30, 2011.
1744:. Legal Information Institute. November 30, 2011.
1533:(5th ed.). San Francisco: Bankroft-Whitney.
426:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
4342:
768:acknowledges that "the effects of the decree on
4195:
3902:
3662:Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation
3655:"Constituents of Emerging Concern: An Overview"
3197:. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
2874:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
2220:"Music Licenses: Rhyme or Reason for Antitrust"
1503:
1263:
606:
445:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
4321:"'Elsbeth' is a well-executed, frothy delight"
4294:
4183:
4171:
4144:
4007:
3774:
3234:Bockman, et al. and EEOC v. Lucky Stores, Inc.
2412:
2044:United States v. Terminal Railroad Association
1610:Ludes, Francis J.; Gilbert, Harold J. (1947).
1471:
1459:
1374:
1362:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1157:
262:United States v. Terminal Railroad Association
3166:
1528:
1483:
1315:
1151:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
189:Federal Rules of Civil and Criminal Procedure
2139:
2068:United States v. United Shoe Machinery Corp.
1609:
1510:. Vol. 2. Cambridge: University Press.
1124:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
852:
369:in which the Court used its power under the
270:United States v. United Shoe Machinery Corp.
3700:
2140:Rabkin, Jeremy A.; Devins, Neal E. (1987).
1782:"Rule 60: Relief from a Judgement or Order"
1242:
476:(whose consent decree was lifted in 2013),
405:American public schools began in 1954 with
144:
123:
4318:
3641:Natural Resources Defense Council v. Train
2268:Columbia-VLA Journal of Law & the Arts
1316:Schwarzschild, Maimon (November 1, 1984).
1032:
755:Rufo v. Inmates of the Suffolk County Jail
3643:, No. 74 Civ. 4617 (S.D.N.Y., March 1976)
3212:. Institute for Women's Policy Research.
3005:"Federal judge lifts LAPD consent decree"
2527:United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
1546:
1293:
963:
916:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution
672:because the parties are "bound" and not "
522:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
451:
163:is filed, they act as a hybrid between a
66:. Consent decrees are frequently used by
4258:
3887:
3839:
3652:
3519:"ADA Settlements and Consent Agreements"
3429:
3195:"Remedies for Employment Discrimination"
2815:
1903:
1584:
1529:Freeman, A. C; Tuttle, Edward W (1925).
4306:
4282:
4270:
4246:
4234:
4156:
4132:
4115:
4078:
4063:
3980:
3931:
3846:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
3815:
3786:
3653:Trussell, R. Rhodes (January 1, 2006).
3071:
2501:
2467:
2424:
2334:
2258:
2235:
2217:
2187:
2185:
2015:
1976:
1923:Pacific Railroad of Missouri v. Ketchum
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1066:
1047:
543:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
528:, and environmental safety provisions.
396:
240:Pacific Railroad of Missouri v. Ketchum
4343:
4319:Loofbourow, Lili (February 29, 2024).
4222:
4210:
4048:
4031:
3995:
3961:
3936:Rufo v. Inmates of Suffolk County Jail
3827:
3798:
2630:
2362:
2213:
2211:
2192:Rufo v. Inmates of Suffolk County Jail
1846:
1798:
1665:
1631:
1591:. Saint Paul: Keefe Davidson Company.
1561:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1004:
867:
294:Rufo v. Inmates of Suffolk County Jail
3840:Fieweger, Michael (January 1, 1993).
3739:
3386:
3132:
3002:
2760:
2299:
2236:Einhorn, Michael A. (June 13, 2008).
2089:
2087:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1972:
1970:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1855:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
1761:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1661:
1659:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1422:(4th ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1078:
913:
325:
143:, so the decree cannot be pleaded as
2976:
2949:
2487:. September 25, 2015. Archived from
2182:
1415:
1209:
1196:
909:
907:
863:
861:
570:
391:
268:In 1968, the Supreme Court ruled in
3707:Natural Resources & Environment
2218:Curtner, Gregory L.; Kaur, Atleen.
2208:
1127:West's Encyclopedia of American Law
1103:
953:Brigham Young University Law Review
199:Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
13:
3389:Black Women, Gender & Families
3072:Proctor, Jeff (October 31, 2014).
3025:"City of Baltimore Consent Decree"
2481:"Swift & Co. v. United States"
2314:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2000.tb00037.x
2084:
2000:
1967:
1939:
1748:
1656:
1620:
1531:A Treatise on the Law of Judgments
1302:
947:Baradaran-Robinson, Shima (2003).
784:that constrain and shape ordinary
780:that operates without many of the
736:Third parties and public interests
460:policies and practices, including
14:
4377:
3401:10.5406/blacwomegendfami.6.1.0043
3295:, 50–56 (M.D. Fla. 2000).
3288:Dorman v. Winn-Dixie Stores, Inc.
2335:Johnson, Ted (January 15, 2021).
2094:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
1764:University of Illinois Law Review
1085:University of Chicago Legal Forum
1079:Shane, Peter (December 7, 2015).
1014:University of Chicago Legal Forum
904:
858:
581:Natural Resources Defense Council
290:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
278:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
4312:
3925:
3833:
3733:
3694:
3680:
3646:
3634:
3608:
3590:
3576:
3559:
3541:
3511:
3480:
2425:Stedman, Robert (May 31, 1965).
1979:"Swift & Co. v. U.S. (1905)"
1834:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1816:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1786:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1742:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1724:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1706:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1632:Tobias, Carl (January 1, 1989).
1585:Fletcher, William Meade (1902).
761:Swift & Co. v. United States
366:Swift & Co. v. United States
330:
301:performance rights organizations
256:Swift & Co. v. United States
250:Swift & Co. v. United States
207:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
195:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
85:
3523:Americans with Disabilities Act
3466:
3423:
3380:
3354:
3328:
3316:
3298:
3280:
3262:
3244:
3226:
3201:
3187:
3172:
3133:Dewan, Shaila (June 17, 2023).
3065:
3051:
3031:
3017:
2996:
2970:
2943:
2924:"Forced Reforms, Mixed Results"
2915:
2891:
2866:
2854:
2809:
2797:
2754:
2742:
2713:
2688:
2663:
2624:
2608:Chrysler Corp. v. United States
2601:
2544:
2519:
2507:
2473:
2418:
2356:
2328:
2293:
2252:
2229:
2133:
2110:
2061:
2036:
1916:
1897:
1840:
1830:"Rule 41: Dismissal of Actions"
1822:
1804:
1774:
1730:
1712:
1694:
1603:
1578:
1555:
1522:
1497:
1477:
1409:
1380:
808:Consent decree in popular media
577:Environmental Protection Agency
558:Americans with Disabilities Act
526:Americans with Disabilities Act
347:(1890) and its supplement, the
2977:Swan, Rachel (July 10, 2016).
2950:Dall, Tania (April 20, 2016).
2763:The Journal of Negro Education
1836:. Legal Information Institute.
1726:. Legal Information Institute.
1708:. Legal Information Institute.
1072:
940:
1:
3252:EEOC v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.
1738:"Rule 58: Entering Judgement"
1562:Millar, Robert Wymes (1952).
1419:Civil Procedure in a Nutshell
1213:Civil Procedure in a Nutshell
840:
514:
502:Minneapolis Police Department
232:
3932:Keating, Gregory C. (1992).
3003:Rubin, Joel (May 16, 2013).
2259:Einhorn, Michael A. (2000).
2022:. Washington DC: AEI Press.
2016:Epstein, Richard A. (2007).
637:Ability to get results of a
607:Advantages and disadvantages
227:shareholder derivative suits
118:Decrees by consent are more
7:
4361:United States antitrust law
2696:Brown v. Board of Education
2671:Brown v. Board of Education
2516: (D.C. Circ. 2001).
2225:. American Bar Association.
1983:Thirteen: Media with Impact
1720:"Rule 54: Judgement; Costs"
408:Brown v. Board of Education
317:, which began in 1941, the
299:In regard to litigation in
286:subject-matter jurisdiction
10:
4382:
4366:American legal terminology
4295:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
4184:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
4172:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
4145:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
4008:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
3775:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
3701:O'Leary, Rosemary (1990).
3674:10.2175/193864706783749585
2413:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
2363:Kramer, Victor H. (1958).
1472:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
1460:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
1375:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
1363:Isenbergh & Rubin 1940
708:cases and those involving
619:: Consent decrees forgo a
594:
565:sign language interpreters
154:
3942:Boston College Law Review
3474:"Introduction to the ADA"
3432:Journal of Policy History
3270:Abdallah v. Coca-Cola Co.
1050:Boston College Law Review
76:employment discrimination
3742:Natural Resources Lawyer
2631:Dabney, Seth M. (1958).
1702:"Rule 23. Class Actions"
853:Lehman & Phelps 2005
615:Save financial costs of
539:Civil Rights Act of 1964
498:US Department of Justice
179:was ambiguous. The 1947
80:environmental regulation
16:Type of legal settlement
4091:Baradaran-Robinson 2003
4020:Baradaran-Robinson 2003
3920:Baradaran-Robinson 2003
2983:San Francisco Chronicle
2910:Baradaran-Robinson 2003
1847:Resnik, Judith (1989).
1416:Kane, Mary Kay (1996).
1216:. St. Paul, Minnesota:
1210:Kane, Mary Kay (2001).
417:Equal Protection Clause
211:federal district courts
3076:. KRQE. Archived from
2491:on September 25, 2015.
2117:Firefighters v. Stotts
1977:McBride, Alez (2006).
1850:"The Domain of Courts"
815:In the 2024 TV series
796:can negatively affect
509:murder of George Floyd
452:Police use of violence
314:United States v. ASCAP
282:Firefighters v. Stotts
145:
124:
4022:, pp. 1339–1340.
2954:. WWL. Archived from
2431:California Law Review
2274:: 349. Archived from
1906:Antitrust Law Journal
1613:Corpus Juris Secundum
778:government regulation
361:Sherman Antitrust Act
349:Clayton Antitrust Act
345:Sherman Antitrust Act
341:Clayton Antitrust Act
319:Department of Justice
309:Broadcast Music, Inc.
245:Sherman Antitrust Act
213:the power to approve
182:Corpus Juris Secundum
37:) or liability (in a
4297:, pp. 407, 409.
4196:Consent Decrees 1922
4159:, pp. 164, 187.
4010:, pp. 387, 405.
3903:Consent Decrees 1922
3323:Butler v. Home Depot
3080:on November 11, 2016
2958:on November 11, 2016
2863:, 402 U.S. at 27–29.
2806:, 402 U.S. at 22–25.
2751:, 402 U.S. at 29–31.
2565:(5): 854–875. 1941.
2559:The Yale Law Journal
2449:on February 12, 2018
2281:on February 12, 2018
1812:"Rule 48: Dismissal"
1272:(4): 344–348. 1922.
1008:(December 7, 2015).
421:Fourteenth Amendment
397:School desegregation
4309:, p. 165, 187.
4249:, pp. 186–187.
3905:, pp. 345–346.
3275:133 F. Supp. 2d
3257:147 F. Supp. 2d
2929:The Washington Post
2819:Columbia Law Review
2514:253 F.3d 34
2504:, pp. 631–632.
2470:, pp. 291–346.
2415:, pp. 386–414.
2369:Michigan Law Review
2147:Stanford Law Review
1396:Merriam-Webster.com
1365:, pp. 388–389.
1266:Columbia Law Review
1264:"Consent Decrees".
870:Columbia Law Review
855:, pp. 103–104.
794:public institutions
782:checks and balances
710:public institutions
585:effluent guidelines
547:Department of Labor
385:John D. Rockefeller
381:horizontal monopoly
60:stipulated judgment
25:is an agreement or
3444:10.1353/jph.0.0027
3167:Schwarzschild 1984
3139:The New York Times
3105:The New York Times
2900:, 391 U.S. at 435.
2342:Deadline Hollywood
1668:Harvard Law Review
1638:Cornell Law Review
1161:Harvard Law Review
681:judicial oversight
668:" than if under a
482:Ferguson, Missouri
437:, the creation of
357:Justice Department
326:Most frequent uses
223:class action suits
122:than those issued
31:admission of guilt
4051:, pp. 63–64.
3668:(12): 1460–1467.
3622:on April 22, 2014
3219:978-1-933161-06-8
3010:Los Angeles Times
2029:978-0-8447-4250-2
1433:978-0-314-06641-1
1227:978-0-314-09398-1
1136:978-0-7876-6370-4
1010:"Judging Consent"
925:978-0-02-865986-2
704:", especially in
571:Environmental law
511:by MPD officers.
392:Structural reform
4373:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4316:
4310:
4304:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4208:
4199:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4160:
4154:
4148:
4142:
4136:
4130:
4119:
4113:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4067:
4061:
4052:
4046:
4035:
4029:
4023:
4017:
4011:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3984:
3978:
3965:
3959:
3950:
3949:
3929:
3923:
3917:
3906:
3900:
3891:
3885:
3870:
3869:
3852:(4): 1024–1054.
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3802:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3659:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3529:on July 21, 2014
3515:
3509:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3427:
3421:
3420:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3358:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3332:
3326:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3302:
3296:
3290:
3284:
3278:
3272:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3191:
3185:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2717:
2711:
2692:
2686:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2643:(7): 1391–1407.
2637:Yale Law Journal
2628:
2622:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2556:
2548:
2542:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2445:. Archived from
2443:10.15779/Z38647H
2422:
2416:
2410:
2401:
2400:
2375:(7): 1051–1066.
2360:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2302:Economic Inquiry
2297:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2280:
2265:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2215:
2206:
2189:
2180:
2179:
2137:
2131:
2114:
2108:
2091:
2082:
2065:
2059:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2013:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1974:
1965:
1952:
1937:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1861:(6): 2219–2230.
1852:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1759:
1746:
1745:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1674:(7): 1281–1316.
1663:
1654:
1653:
1629:
1618:
1617:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1446:
1445:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1322:Duke Law Journal
1313:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1261:
1240:
1239:
1207:
1194:
1193:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1122:
1101:
1100:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1045:
1030:
1029:
1002:
961:
960:
944:
938:
937:
911:
902:
901:
876:(6): 1053–1064.
865:
856:
850:
802:public interests
601:public interests
150:
141:finding of facts
127:
64:consent judgment
56:antitrust decree
4381:
4380:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4351:Legal procedure
4341:
4340:
4339:
4329:
4327:
4325:Washington Post
4317:
4313:
4305:
4301:
4293:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4269:
4265:
4261:, p. 1024.
4257:
4253:
4245:
4241:
4233:
4229:
4221:
4217:
4209:
4202:
4194:
4190:
4182:
4178:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4143:
4139:
4131:
4122:
4114:
4097:
4093:, p. 1338.
4089:
4085:
4077:
4070:
4062:
4055:
4047:
4038:
4030:
4026:
4018:
4014:
4006:
4002:
3994:
3987:
3979:
3968:
3960:
3953:
3930:
3926:
3922:, p. 1340.
3918:
3909:
3901:
3894:
3890:, p. 1025.
3886:
3873:
3858:10.2307/1143880
3838:
3834:
3830:, p. 1053.
3826:
3822:
3814:
3805:
3797:
3793:
3785:
3781:
3773:
3769:
3738:
3734:
3699:
3695:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3657:
3651:
3647:
3639:
3635:
3625:
3623:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3582:
3581:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3532:
3530:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3485:
3481:
3472:
3471:
3467:
3428:
3424:
3385:
3381:
3371:
3369:
3368:on July 8, 2017
3360:
3359:
3355:
3345:
3343:
3342:on May 15, 2017
3334:
3333:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3304:
3303:
3299:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3268:
3267:
3263:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3206:
3202:
3193:
3192:
3188:
3177:
3173:
3165:
3161:
3151:
3149:
3131:
3127:
3117:
3115:
3097:
3093:
3083:
3081:
3070:
3066:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2959:
2948:
2944:
2934:
2932:
2920:
2916:
2912:, p. 1346.
2908:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2871:
2867:
2859:
2855:
2832:10.2307/1122610
2814:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2775:10.2307/2668121
2759:
2755:
2747:
2743:
2718:
2714:
2693:
2689:
2668:
2664:
2629:
2625:
2606:
2602:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2524:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2462:
2452:
2450:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2404:
2381:10.2307/1285759
2361:
2357:
2347:
2345:
2333:
2329:
2298:
2294:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2263:
2257:
2253:
2234:
2230:
2222:
2216:
2209:
2190:
2183:
2160:10.2307/1228830
2138:
2134:
2115:
2111:
2092:
2085:
2066:
2062:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2014:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1975:
1968:
1953:
1940:
1921:
1917:
1902:
1898:
1867:10.2307/3312214
1845:
1841:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1760:
1749:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1680:10.2307/1340256
1664:
1657:
1630:
1621:
1608:
1604:
1583:
1579:
1560:
1556:
1527:
1523:
1502:
1498:
1482:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1458:
1449:
1434:
1424:West Publishing
1414:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1334:10.2307/1372392
1314:
1303:
1278:10.2307/1111304
1262:
1243:
1228:
1218:West Publishing
1208:
1197:
1174:10.2307/1333475
1156:
1152:
1137:
1123:
1104:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1046:
1033:
1003:
964:
945:
941:
926:
912:
905:
882:10.2307/1120423
866:
859:
851:
847:
843:
810:
792:cases and with
774:public interest
738:
609:
597:
589:Clean Water Act
573:
560:
534:
517:
454:
399:
394:
371:Commerce Clause
333:
328:
284:they must have
235:
191:
176:Medieval Europe
157:
88:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4379:
4369:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4356:Judgment (law)
4353:
4338:
4337:
4311:
4299:
4287:
4285:, p. 629.
4275:
4273:, p. vii.
4263:
4251:
4239:
4237:, p. 647.
4227:
4215:
4200:
4198:, p. 346.
4188:
4186:, p. 409.
4176:
4174:, p. 407.
4161:
4149:
4147:, p. 408.
4137:
4135:, p. 167.
4120:
4095:
4083:
4081:, p. 292.
4068:
4066:, p. 191.
4053:
4036:
4024:
4012:
4000:
3985:
3983:, p. 164.
3966:
3951:
3924:
3907:
3892:
3871:
3832:
3820:
3803:
3791:
3789:, p. 294.
3779:
3777:, p. 386.
3767:
3748:(3): 511–536.
3732:
3693:
3679:
3645:
3633:
3607:
3589:
3575:
3558:
3540:
3510:
3503:42 U.S.C.
3495:42 U.S.C.
3487:42 U.S.C.
3479:
3465:
3438:(4): 542–568.
3422:
3379:
3353:
3327:
3315:
3297:
3279:
3261:
3243:
3239:108 F.R.D.
3225:
3218:
3200:
3186:
3183:§ 2000e-2
3179:42 U.S.C.
3171:
3169:, p. 887.
3159:
3125:
3091:
3064:
3050:
3030:
3016:
2995:
2969:
2942:
2914:
2902:
2890:
2865:
2853:
2826:(4): 794–816.
2808:
2796:
2769:(2): 138–153.
2753:
2741:
2712:
2687:
2662:
2649:10.2307/794370
2623:
2600:
2571:10.2307/792512
2543:
2518:
2506:
2494:
2472:
2460:
2437:(2): 627–654.
2417:
2402:
2355:
2327:
2308:(4): 579–590.
2292:
2251:
2228:
2207:
2181:
2132:
2109:
2083:
2060:
2035:
2028:
1999:
1966:
1938:
1915:
1896:
1839:
1821:
1803:
1801:, p. 320.
1791:
1773:
1747:
1729:
1711:
1693:
1655:
1619:
1602:
1577:
1554:
1521:
1496:
1476:
1474:, p. 394.
1464:
1462:, p. 387.
1447:
1432:
1408:
1379:
1377:, p. 392.
1367:
1355:
1328:(5): 887–936.
1301:
1241:
1226:
1195:
1168:(3): 386–414.
1150:
1135:
1102:
1071:
1069:, p. 291.
1059:
1031:
1006:Resnik, Judith
962:
939:
924:
903:
857:
844:
842:
839:
834:The Good Fight
823:Carrie Preston
809:
806:
737:
734:
733:
732:
717:
713:
697:
689:
688:
685:interpretation
677:
657:
653:
642:
635:
628:
625:legal expenses
608:
605:
596:
593:
572:
569:
559:
556:
533:
530:
516:
513:
504:following the
453:
450:
439:magnet schools
401:The effort to
398:
395:
393:
390:
335:Violations of
332:
329:
327:
324:
234:
231:
190:
187:
165:judicial order
156:
153:
147:res adjudicata
105:criminal cases
87:
84:
68:federal courts
23:consent decree
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4378:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4303:
4296:
4291:
4284:
4279:
4272:
4267:
4260:
4259:Fieweger 1993
4255:
4248:
4243:
4236:
4231:
4225:, p. 62.
4224:
4219:
4213:, p. 54.
4212:
4207:
4205:
4197:
4192:
4185:
4180:
4173:
4168:
4166:
4158:
4153:
4146:
4141:
4134:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4117:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4092:
4087:
4080:
4075:
4073:
4065:
4060:
4058:
4050:
4045:
4043:
4041:
4034:, p. 64.
4033:
4028:
4021:
4016:
4009:
4004:
3998:, p. 63.
3997:
3992:
3990:
3982:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3964:, p. 67.
3963:
3958:
3956:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3937:
3928:
3921:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3904:
3899:
3897:
3889:
3888:Fieweger 1993
3884:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3829:
3824:
3817:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3801:, p. 85.
3800:
3795:
3788:
3783:
3776:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3697:
3689:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3649:
3642:
3637:
3621:
3617:
3611:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3585:
3579:
3568:
3562:
3554:
3550:
3544:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3475:
3469:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3367:
3363:
3357:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3324:
3319:
3312:
3307:
3301:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3276:
3271:
3265:
3258:
3253:
3247:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3221:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3168:
3163:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3060:
3054:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2999:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2906:
2899:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2857:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2812:
2805:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2745:
2738:
2735: (1971).
2734:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2691:
2684:
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2673:
2672:
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2654:
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2638:
2634:
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2596:
2592:
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2584:
2580:
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2572:
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2564:
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2515:
2510:
2503:
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2414:
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2378:
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2338:
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2323:
2319:
2315:
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2269:
2262:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2221:
2214:
2212:
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2201:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2186:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2136:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2106:
2103:
2099:
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2088:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2057:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2039:
2031:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1971:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1900:
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1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
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1843:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1817:
1813:
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1795:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1758:
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1754:
1752:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1660:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1615:
1614:
1606:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1480:
1473:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1412:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1383:
1376:
1371:
1364:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
958:
954:
950:
943:
935:
931:
927:
921:
917:
910:
908:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
864:
862:
854:
849:
845:
838:
836:
835:
830:
829:
828:The Good Wife
824:
820:
819:
813:
805:
803:
799:
798:third parties
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
770:third parties
767:
766:Supreme Court
763:
762:
757:
756:
751:
747:
746:institutional
743:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
711:
707:
703:
698:
694:
693:
692:
686:
682:
678:
675:
671:
667:
663:
658:
654:
651:
647:
643:
640:
636:
633:
629:
626:
622:
618:
614:
613:
612:
604:
602:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
568:
566:
555:
552:
548:
544:
540:
529:
527:
523:
512:
510:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
449:
447:
446:
440:
436:
435:racial quotas
432:
428:
427:
422:
418:
414:
410:
409:
404:
389:
386:
382:
378:
377:
372:
368:
367:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
337:antitrust law
331:Antitrust law
323:
320:
316:
315:
310:
306:
302:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
264:
263:
258:
257:
252:
251:
246:
241:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
186:
184:
183:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
152:
149:
148:
142:
138:
133:
131:
126:
121:
116:
114:
108:
106:
102:
97:
93:
86:Legal process
83:
81:
77:
73:
72:antitrust law
69:
65:
61:
57:
52:
48:
44:
43:United States
40:
36:
35:criminal case
32:
28:
24:
19:
4328:. Retrieved
4324:
4314:
4307:Keating 1992
4302:
4290:
4283:Stedman 1965
4278:
4271:Epstein 2007
4266:
4254:
4247:Keating 1992
4242:
4235:Stedman 1965
4230:
4218:
4191:
4179:
4157:Keating 1992
4152:
4140:
4133:Keating 1992
4118:, p. 6.
4116:Epstein 2007
4086:
4079:Mengler 1987
4064:Keating 1992
4027:
4015:
4003:
3981:Keating 1992
3945:
3941:
3935:
3927:
3849:
3845:
3835:
3823:
3818:, p. 4.
3816:Epstein 2007
3794:
3787:Mengler 1987
3782:
3770:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3713:(1): 18–55.
3710:
3706:
3696:
3682:
3665:
3661:
3648:
3636:
3624:. Retrieved
3620:the original
3610:
3602:Justice News
3601:
3592:
3578:
3561:
3553:Justice News
3552:
3543:
3531:. Retrieved
3527:the original
3522:
3513:
3507:§ 12114
3499:§ 12113
3491:§ 12112
3482:
3468:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3372:February 12,
3370:. Retrieved
3366:the original
3362:"Milestones"
3356:
3346:February 12,
3344:. Retrieved
3340:the original
3330:
3322:
3318:
3305:
3300:
3293: So. 2d.
3287:
3282:
3269:
3264:
3251:
3246:
3233:
3228:
3209:
3203:
3189:
3174:
3162:
3150:. Retrieved
3138:
3128:
3116:. Retrieved
3104:
3094:
3084:November 11,
3082:. Retrieved
3078:the original
3067:
3053:
3042:
3033:
3019:
3008:
2998:
2988:November 10,
2986:. Retrieved
2982:
2972:
2962:November 11,
2960:. Retrieved
2956:the original
2945:
2935:November 10,
2933:. Retrieved
2927:
2917:
2905:
2897:
2893:
2888: (1968).
2872:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2748:
2744:
2719:
2715:
2710: (1954).
2694:
2690:
2685: (1954).
2669:
2665:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2621: (1942).
2607:
2603:
2562:
2558:
2546:
2541: (1948).
2525:
2521:
2509:
2502:Stedman 1965
2497:
2489:the original
2484:
2475:
2468:Mengler 1987
2463:
2453:February 12,
2451:. Retrieved
2447:the original
2434:
2430:
2420:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2346:. Retrieved
2340:
2330:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2285:February 12,
2283:. Retrieved
2276:the original
2271:
2267:
2254:
2231:
2205: (1992).
2191:
2151:
2145:
2135:
2130: (1984).
2116:
2112:
2107: (1986).
2093:
2081: (1968).
2067:
2063:
2058: (1912).
2042:
2038:
2018:
1990:. Retrieved
1982:
1964: (1905).
1936: (1884).
1922:
1918:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1858:
1854:
1842:
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