Concentrated solar power

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found that the median water consumption during operations of concentrating solar power plants with wet cooling was 3.1 cubic metres per megawatt-hour (810 US gal/MWh) for power tower plants and 3.4 m/MWh (890 US gal/MWh) for trough plants. This was higher than the operational water consumption (with cooling towers) for nuclear at 2.7 m/MWh (720 US gal/MWh), coal at 2.0 m/MWh (530 US gal/MWh), or natural gas at 0.79 m/MWh (210 US gal/MWh). A 2011 study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory came to similar conclusions: for power plants with cooling towers, water consumption during operations was 3.27 m/MWh (865 US gal/MWh) for CSP trough, 2.98 m/MWh (786 US gal/MWh) for CSP tower, 2.60 m/MWh (687 US gal/MWh) for coal, 2.54 m/MWh (672 US gal/MWh) for nuclear, and 0.75 m/MWh (198 US gal/MWh) for natural gas. The Solar Energy Industries Association noted that the Nevada Solar One trough CSP plant consumes 3.2 m/MWh (850 US gal/MWh). The issue of water consumption is heightened because CSP plants are often located in arid environments where water is scarce.

436: 1391: 553:. Optically a solar power tower is the same as a circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500–1000 °C (773–1,273 K or 932–1,832 °F) and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted instead of the whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced than trough systems, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability. Beam down tower application is also feasible with heliostats to heat the working fluid. CSP with dual towers are also used to enhance the conversion efficiency by nearly 24%. 3900: 40: 428: 3559: 3675: 60: 3161: 7505: 515: 383:. Parabolic trough and concentrating linear Fresnel reflectors are classified as linear focus collector types, while dish and solar tower are point focus types. Linear focus collectors achieve medium concentration factors (50 suns and over), and point focus collectors achieve high concentration factors (over 500 suns). Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about 526: 7511: 9102: 8322: 3935: 86: 9112: 7517: 3949: 8601: 224: 71: 239:. In 1973 a Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, curious about whether Archimedes could really have destroyed the Roman fleet in 212 BC, lined up nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding an oblong mirror tipped to catch the sun's rays and direct them at a tar-covered plywood silhouette 49 m (160 ft) away. The ship caught fire after a few minutes; however, historians continue to doubt the Archimedes story. 648: 3661:

certificates can then be sold and transferred to liable entities (usually electricity retailers) to meet their obligations under this tradeable certificates scheme. However, as this legislation is technology neutral in its operation, it tends to favour more established RE technologies with a lower levelised cost of generation, such as large-scale onshore wind, rather than solar thermal and CSP. At state level,

8334: 3579: 1383:, with a projected minimum price of 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for the most advanced CSP stations against record lows of 1.32 cents per kWh for utility-scale PV. This five-fold price difference has been maintained since 2018. Some PV-CSP plants in China have sought to operate profitably on the regional coal tariff of 5 US cents per kWh in 2021. 6437: 1420:

efficiency of about 30%. Due to variation in sun incidence during the day, the average conversion efficiency achieved is not equal to these maximum efficiencies, and the net annual solar-to- electricity efficiencies are 7-20% for pilot power tower systems, and 12-25% for demonstration-scale Stirling dish systems.

1071:(GW) to more than 3.4 GW. The record for capacity installed was reached in 2014, corresponding to 925 MW, however, was followed by a decline caused by policy changes, the global financial crisis, and the rapid decrease in price of the photovoltaic cells. Nevertheless, total capacity reached 6800 MW in 2021. 3602:

In this context, the Spanish Government enacted the Royal Decree-Law 9/2013 in 2013, aimed at the adoption of urgent measures to guarantee the economic and financial stability of the electric system, laying the foundations of the new Law 24/2013 of the Spanish electricity sector. This new retroactive

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The capacity limits for the different system types were re-defined during the review of the application conditions every quarter (art. 5 RD 1578/2008, Annex III RD 1578/2008). Prior to the end of an application period, the market caps specified for each system type are published on the website of the

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accounted for almost one third of the world's capacity, at 2,300 MW, despite no new capacity entering commercial operation in the country since 2013. The United States follows with 1,740 MW. Interest is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East, as well as China and India. There is a

632:

Fresnel reflectors are sometimes regarded as a technology with a worse output than other methods. The cost efficiency of this model is what causes some to use this instead of others with higher output ratings. Some new models of Fresnel reflectors with Ray Tracing capabilities have begun to be tested

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solar (PV) since they both use solar energy. While solar PV experienced huge growth during the 2010s, due to falling prices, solar CSP growth has been slow due to technical difficulties and high prices. In 2017, CSP represented less than 2% of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants.

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In a CSP plant that includes storage, the solar energy is first used to heat the molten salt or synthetic oil which is stored providing thermal/heat energy at high temperature in insulated tanks. Later the hot molten salt (or oil) is used in a steam generator to produce steam to generate electricity

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positions the mirrors to retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate the sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to generate steam when intense

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Concentrating solar power plants with wet-cooling systems have the highest water-consumption intensities of any conventional type of electric power plant; only fossil-fuel plants with carbon-capture and storage may have higher water intensities. A 2013 study comparing various sources of electricity

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CSP has a number of environmental effects, particularly on water use, land use and the use of hazardous materials. Water is generally used for cooling and to clean mirrors. Some projects are looking into various approaches to reduce the water and cleaning agents used, including the use of barriers,

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1.5 per kWh. At the end of 2020, China operated a total of 545 MW in 12 CSP plants, seven plants (320 MW) are molten-salt towers; another two plants (150 MW) use the proven Eurotrough 150 parabolic trough design, three plants (75 MW) use linear Fresnel collectors. Plans to build a second batch

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The efficiency of a concentrating solar power system will depend on the technology used to convert the solar power to electrical energy, the operating temperature of the receiver and the heat rejection, thermal losses in the system, and the presence or absence of other system losses; in addition to

484:

The design encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended

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Professor Giovanni Francia (1911–1980) designed and built the first concentrated-solar plant, which entered into operation in Sant'Ilario, near Genoa, Italy in 1968. This plant had the architecture of today's power tower plants with a solar receiver in the center of a field of solar collectors. The

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proposal and Project Helios in Greece (10 GW), both now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh each year from very large-scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide was 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003).

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Carbon neutral synthetic fuel production using concentrated solar thermal energy at nearly 1500 °C temperature is technically feasible and will be commercially viable in the future if the costs of CSP plants decline. Also carbon neutral hydrogen can be produced with solar thermal energy (CSP)

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After a lost decade for CSP in Europe, Spain announced in its National Energy and Climate Plan with the intention of adding 5GW of CSP capacity between 2021 and 2030. Towards this end bi-annual auctions of 200 MW of CSP capacity starting in October 2022 are expected, but details are not yet known.

628:

Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes through which working fluid is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more reflective surface in the same amount of space than a parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available sunlight, and they are much

3765:. Solar power tower and parabolic troughs can be used to provide the steam which is used directly so no generators are required and no electricity is produced. Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil which would not otherwise be economical to pump. 3660:

At the federal level, under the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET), in operation under the Renewable Energy Electricity Act 2000, large-scale solar thermal electricity generation from accredited RET power stations may be entitled to create large-scale generation certificates (LGCs). These

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in South Australia at a record low rate of just AUD$ 0.08/kWh or close to USD$ 0.06/kWh. Unfortunately the company failed to secure financing and the project got cancelled. Another promising application for CSP in Australia are mines that need 24/7 electricity but often have no grid connection.

279:

in 1995, implementing a new design with a molten salt mixture (60% sodium nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate) as the receiver working fluid and as a storage medium. The molten salt approach proved effective, and Solar Two operated successfully until it was decommissioned in 1999. The parabolic-trough

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less water by evaporation. For instance, the median coal power plant in the US with once-through cooling uses 138 m/MWh (36,350 US gal/MWh), but only 0.95 m/MWh (250 US gal/MWh) (less than one percent) is lost through evaporation. Since the 1970s, the majority of US

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feed-in laws typically are capped by maximum generation capacity in kWp, and are open only to micro or medium scale generation and in a number of instances are only open to solar photovoltaic (PV) generation. This means that larger scale CSP projects would not be eligible for payment for feed-in

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The graph shows that the overall efficiency does not increase steadily with the receiver's temperature. Although the heat engine's efficiency (Carnot) increases with higher temperature, the receiver's efficiency does not. On the contrary, the receiver's efficiency is decreasing, as the amount of

1419:

Real-world systems claim a maximum conversion efficiency of 23-35% for "power tower" type systems, operating at temperatures from 250 to 565 °C, with the higher efficiency number assuming a combined cycle turbine. Dish Stirling systems, operating at temperatures of 550-750 °C, claim an

1386:

Even though overall deployment of CSP remains limited in the early 2020s, the levelized cost of power from commercial scale plants has decreased significantly since the 2010s. With a learning rate estimated at around 20% cost reduction of every doubling in capacity the cost were approaching the

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plants to supply both electricity and process steam round the clock. As of December 2018, CSP with thermal energy storage plants generation cost have ranged between 5 c € / kWh and 7 c € / kWh depending on good to medium solar radiation received at a location. Unlike solar PV

443:

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned at the longitudinal focal line of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector follows the sun

206:

The DEWA project in Dubai, under construction in 2019, held the world record for lowest CSP price in 2017 at US$ 73 per MWh for its 700 MW combined trough and tower project: 600 MW of trough, 100 MW of tower with 15 hours of thermal energy storage daily. Base-load CSP tariff in the extremely dry

146:

As of 2021, global installed capacity of concentrated solar power stood at 6.8 GW. As of 2023, the total was 8.1 GW, with the inclusion of three new CSP projects in construction in China and in Dubai in the UAE. The U.S.-based National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which maintains a global

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In 2007, the US Congress directed the Department of Energy to report on ways to reduce water consumption by CSP. The subsequent report noted that dry cooling technology was available that, although more expensive to build and operate, could reduce water consumption by CSP by 91 to 95 percent. A

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In 2008, Spain launched the first commercial scale CSP market in Europe. Until 2012, solar-thermal electricity generation was initially eligible for feed-in tariff payments (art. 2 RD 661/2007) – leading to the creation of the largest CSP fleet in the world which at 2.3 GW of installed capacity

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Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade (art. 5 RD 1578/2008). Because of cost concerns Spain has halted acceptance of new projects for the feed-in-tariff on 27 January 2012 Already accepted projects were affected by a 6% "solar-tax" on feed-in-tariffs, effectively reducing the feed-in-tariff.

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plants. The last SEGS plant was completed in 1990. From 1991 to 2005, no CSP plants were built anywhere in the world. Global installed CSP-capacity increased nearly tenfold between 2004 and 2013 and grew at an average of 50 percent per year during the last five of those years, as the number of

1749: 404:

Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly varying thermodynamic efficiencies, due to differences in the way that they track the sun and focus light. New innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more cost-effective.

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of contemporary CSP contracts. However, increasingly, CSP was being bid with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage, making CSP a dispatchable form of solar energy. As such, it is increasingly seen as competing with natural gas and PV with batteries for flexible, dispatchable power.

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CSP was originally treated as a competitor to photovoltaics, and Ivanpah was built without energy storage, although Solar Two had included several hours of thermal storage. By 2015, prices for photovoltaic plants had fallen and PV commercial power was selling for

3603:

legal-economic framework applied to all the renewable energy systems was developed in 2014 by the RD 413/2014, which abolished the former regulatory frameworks set by the RD 661/2007 and the RD 1578/2008 and defined a new remuneration scheme for these assets.

412:

tested a CSP arrangement in which tiny ceramic particles fall through the beam of concentrated solar energy, the ceramic particles capable of storing a greater amount of heat than molten salt, while not requiring a container that would diminish heat transfer.

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hybrid wet/dry cooling system could reduce water consumption by 32 to 58 percent. A 2015 report by NREL noted that of the 24 operating CSP power plants in the US, 4 used dry cooling systems. The four dry-cooled systems were the three power plants at the

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CSP deployment has slowed down considerably as most of the above-mentioned markets have cancelled their support, as the technology turned out to be more expensive on a per kWH basis than solar PV and wind power. CSP in combination with

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Since about 2010, central power tower CSP has been favored in new plants due to its higher temperature operation – up to 565 °C (1,049 °F) vs. trough's maximum of 400 °C (752 °F) – which promises greater efficiency.

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In 2024, China is offering second generation CSP technology to compete with other on-demand electricity generation methods based on renewable or non-renewable fossil fuels without any direct or indirect subsidies. In the current 14th

3456: 3700:, with the intention of building up an internationally competitive CSP industry. Since the first plants were completed in 2018, the generated electricity from the plants with thermal storage is supported with an administratively set 246:

used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine. The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by the Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in 1886. Over the following years, invеntors such as

1378:

lead to projections that CSP will no longer be economically viable. As of 2020, the least expensive utility-scale concentrated solar power stations in the United States and worldwide are five times more expensive than utility-scale

3907:

Insects can be attracted to the bright light caused by concentrated solar technology, and as a result birds that hunt them can be killed by being burned if they fly near the point where light is being focused. This can also affect

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that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250–700 °C (482–1,292 °F) and then used by a

6737: 3915:

Some media sources have reported that concentrated solar power plants have injured or killed large numbers of birds due to intense heat from the concentrated sunrays. Some of the claims may have been overstated or exaggerated.

5779: 3241: 1587: 3564:

Theoretical efficiencies aside, real-world experience of CSP reveals a 25%–60% shortfall in projected production, a good part of which is due to the practical Carnot cycle losses not included in the above analysis.

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Bulk power from CSP today is much more expensive than solar PV or Wind power, however developers are hoping that energy storage CSP can be a cheaper alternative. As early as 2011, the rapid decline of the price of

7298: 584:, was the largest CSP facility in the world, and uses three power towers. Ivanpah generated only 0.652 TWh (63%) of its energy from solar means, and the other 0.388 TWh (37%) was generated by burning 2499: 4115:

Law, Edward W.; Prasad, Abhnil A.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 October 2014). "Direct normal irradiance forecasting and its application to concentrated solar thermal output forecasting – A review".

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for the production of solar fuels, making solar a fully transportable form of energy in the future. These researchers use the solar heat of CSP as a catalyst for thermochemistry to break apart molecules of

298:

In 2007, 75 MW Nevada Solar One was built, a trough design and the first large plant since SEGS. Between 2010 and 2013, Spain built over 40 parabolic trough systems, standardized in 50 MW blocks.

3328: 2950: 452:) is heated to 150–350 °C (302–662 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The 6452: 769:

to generate electricity. These are also small in capacity (<0.4 MW) with flexibility to install in few acres area. Waste heat from the power plant can also be used for process steam generation and

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Chandra, Yogender Pal (17 April 2017). "Numerical optimization and convective thermal loss analysis of improved solar parabolic trough collector receiver system with one sided thermal insulation".

6024: 2015: 4151:

Law, Edward W.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 February 2016). "Calculating the financial value of a concentrated solar thermal plant operated using direct normal irradiance forecasts".

3841:, moderate hill slopes and crater depressions may be advantageous in the case of power tower CSP as the power tower can be located on the ground integral with the molten salt storage tank. 5708: 3801:

Around the turn of the millennium up to about 2010, there have been several proposals for gigawatt size, very-large-scale solar power plants using CSP. They include the Euro-Mediterranean

2365: 1902: 1955: 2007: 1846: 1387:

upper end of the fossil fuel cost range at the beginning of the 2020s driven by support schemes in several countries, including Spain, the US, Morocco, South Africa, China, and the UAE:

313:

Most concentrated solar power plants use the parabolic trough design, instead of the power tower or Fresnel systems. There have also been variations of parabolic trough systems like the

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Nathan Bracken and others, Concentrating Solar Power and Water Issues in the U.S. Southwest, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A50-61376, March 2015, p.10.

2577: 2997: 1796: 2738: 2261: 2211: 3045: 3171:) grows by the fourth power as a function of temperature. Hence, there is a maximum reachable temperature. When the receiver efficiency is null (blue curve on the figure below), T 2299: 6862: 3919:

According to rigorous reporting, in over six months, 133 songbirds were counted at Ivanpah. By focusing no more than four mirrors on any one place in the air during standby, at

1571: 5190: 1517: 698:(NSTTF) in New Mexico on 31 January 2008, a cold, bright day. According to its developer, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish firm, in 2015 its Dish Sterling system being tested in the 5863: 3653:

Vast Solar a startup company aiming to commercialize a novel modular third generation CSP design is looking to start construction of a 50 MW combines CSP and PV facility in

2639: 263:, who was already well known for his research on liquid-fueled rockets and wrote an article in 1929 in which he asserted that all the previous obstacles had been addressed. 5027:"Aussie scientists hit milestone in concentrated solar power They heated ceramic particles to a blistering 1450 F by dropping them through a beam of concentrated sunlight" 2999:= 1) and without considering the ultimate conversion step into electricity by a generator, collecting and reradiating areas equal and maximum absorptivity and emissivity ( 7294: 6395: 6350: 3037: 2878: 6540: 5991: 3017: 2682: 3758:, other much-used hydrocarbons – for example, the jet fuel used to fly commercial airplanes – could also be created with solar energy rather than from fossil fuels. 2504:

The real-world efficiencies of typical engines achieve 50% to at most 70% of the Carnot efficiency due to losses such as heat loss and windage in the moving parts.

2419: 2392: 1457: 702:

in South Africa showed 34% efficiency. The SES installation in Maricopa, Phoenix was the largest Stirling Dish power installation in the world until it was sold to

490:

solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors.

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more water than CSP, meaning that more water passes through their systems, most of the cooling water returns to the water body available for other uses, and they

2745: 8632: 5838: 3339: 500:(EOR) for about $ 5 per 290 kWh (1,000,000 BTU) in sunny regions, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies. 7226: 3479: 2659: 2597: 2530: 1390: 6725: 6449: 5687: 4080:

Boerema, Nicholas; Morrison, Graham; Taylor, Robert; Rosengarten, Gary (1 November 2013). "High temperature solar thermal central-receiver billboard design".

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to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-to-electric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability. The

397:, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on 7280: 4424: 3640:

So far no commercial scale CSP project has been commissioned in Australia, but several projects were suggested. In 2017, now bankrupt American CSP developer

7142: 255:

developed concentrating solar-powered dеvices for irrigation, refrigеration, and locomоtion. In 1913 Shuman finished a 55 horsepower (41 kW) parabolic

4186: 360:(solar thermoelectricity). The solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or cooling, such as in 6032: 5034: 4698: 3979: 6569: 4359: 3879:. Of 15 CSP projects under construction or development in the US as of March 2015, 6 were wet systems, 7 were dry systems, 1 hybrid, and 1 unspecified. 754:

plants, CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used economically round the clock to produce only process steam replacing pollution emitting

8625: 7160: 5433: 4837: 4446: 7327: 4249: 2853:

For simplicity's sake, one can assume that the losses are only radiative ones (a fair assumption for high temperatures), thus for a reradiating area

1744:{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }} 6328: 5487: 5415: 5177: 4973: 3178: 8372: 6591: 5951: 5907: 5712: 4855: 549:) that concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower; the receiver contains a heat-transfer fluid, which can consist of water-steam or 7105: 6200:

Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2017). "Empirically observed learning rates for concentrating solar power and their responses to regime change".

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systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for a conventional

6052: 675: 6179: 6426: 3696:

In 2016, China announced its intention to build a batch of 20 technologically diverse CSP demonstration projects in the context of the 13th

6887: 3790: 306:, was built in Spain in 2011, later renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Gemasolar's results paved the way for further plants of its type. 694:, Australia are representative of this technology. A world record for solar to electric efficiency was set at 31.25% by SES dishes at the 8862: 7048: 6580: 6468: 5164: 729:

as per requirement. Thus solar energy which is available in daylight only is used to generate electricity round the clock on demand as a

2427: 7262: 5364: 3912:

who hunt the birds. Federal wildlife officials were quoted by opponents as calling the Ivanpah power towers "mega traps" for wildlife.

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notable trend towards developing countries and regions with high solar radiation with several large plants under construction in 2017.

6863:

A Study of Very Large Solar Desert Systems with the Requirements and Benefits to those Nations Having High Solar Irradiation Potential

5734: 5578: 4306: 5115: 3819: 17: 5965: 5663: 3259: 2890: 7087: 6147: 1577:. The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator. For a solar receiver with a mechanical converter ( 7190: 6118: 5882: 1407:

expects that by 2030 PV with 10-hour storage lithium batteries will cost the same as PV with 4-hour storage used to cost in 2020.

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Solving this equation numerically allows us to obtain the optimum process temperature according to the solar concentration ratio

6568:

Kraemer, S. (2019). Sodium-based Vast Solar Combines the Best of Trough & Tower CSP to Win our Innovation Award, Solarpaces

8973: 8822: 8809: 8015: 7443: 5642: 4875: 6949: 5600: 4508: 4464: 3761:

Heat from the sun can be used to provide steam used to make heavy oil less viscous and easier to pump. This process is called

1403:(TES) is expected by some to become cheaper than PV with lithium batteries for storage durations above 4 hours per day, while 9020: 8958: 6528: 6347: 5935: 5876: 5099: 4955: 1329: 394: 292: 6278:"Making the sun shine at night: comparing the cost of dispatchable concentrating solar power and photovoltaics with storage" 6075: 5998: 4529: 291:

system at Liddell Power Station in Australia was built. Few other plants were built with this design although the 5 MW

9105: 9046: 9041: 6726:

http://helioscsp.com/china-mulls-withdrawal-of-subsidies-for-concentrated-solar-power-csp-and-offshore-wind-energy-in-2021/

5621: 5147: 3984: 3814:

for solar projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 GW. The largest single plant in operation is the 510 MW

1574: 1350: 793: 695: 284:(SEGS), begun in 1984, was more workable. The 354 MW SEGS was the largest solar power plant in the world, until 2014. 6410: 5377:

Abbas, R.; Muñoz-Antón, J.; Valdés, M.; Martínez-Val, J.M. (August 2013). "High concentration linear Fresnel reflectors".

5191:"Three solar modules of world's first commercial beam-down tower Concentrated Solar Power project to be connected to grid" 4279: 2154:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }={\frac {Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }-Q_{\mathrm {lost} }}{Q_{\mathrm {incident} }}}} 1342:

The global market was initially dominated by parabolic-trough plants, which accounted for 90% of CSP plants at one point.

8887: 8777: 8365: 7403: 7352: 7313: 7068: 7020: 6724:

HeliosCSP (2020) China mulls withdrawal of subsidies for concentrated solar power (CSP) and offshore wind energy in 2021

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Johan Lilliestam, Richard Thonig, Alina Gilmanova, & Chuncheng Zang. (2020). CSP.guru (Version 2020-07-01) . Zenodo.

3920: 3762: 742: 48: 5535: 4619: 4933: 4906: 4823: 3649: 611: 6713: 773:

needs. In case land availability is not a limitation, any number of these modules can be installed up to 1000 MW with

765:

with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round the clock. These CSP plants are equipped with

314: 175:), which enables these plants to continue supplying electricity whenever it is needed, day or night. This makes CSP a 8527: 8126: 7917: 7787: 7237: 7036:

Utility-Scale Solar Power: Responsible Water Resource Management, Solar Energy Industries Association, 18 March 2010.

6909: 6096: 6060: 5922: 3722: 3587:

contributes about 5TWh of power to the Spanish grid every year. The initial requirements for plants in the FiT were:

1365:

in Morocco, which combines trough and tower technologies for a total of 510 MW with several hours of energy storage.

79: 3683: 521:, Israel, on its completion the tallest solar tower in the world. It concentrates light from over 50,000 heliostats. 8699: 7922: 7797: 4383: 3626: 2314: 1851: 703: 671: 623: 376: 288: 7276: 5805: 3709:

of demonstration projects were never enacted and further technology specific support for CSP in the upcoming 14th

1907: 187:, because demand for electric power peaks near sunset just as PV capacity ramps down (a phenomenon referred to as 9051: 8717: 8307: 7987: 7208: 6558: 4054: 1962: 1801: 1063: 679: 603: 453: 281: 4193: 2535: 1067:

countries with installed CSP were growing In 2013, worldwide installed capacity increased by 36% or nearly 0.9

435: 9005: 8877: 8752: 8722: 8694: 8512: 8358: 7857: 7463: 6613: 4777: 4684: 3989: 3815: 3591:

Systems registered in the register of systems prior to 29 September 2008: 50 MW for solar-thermal systems.

2958: 1757: 1416:

the conversion efficiency, the optical system which concentrates the sunlight will also add additional losses.

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was constructed at the same time but without thermal storage, using natural gas to preheat water each morning.

5306:"Land-Use competitiveness of photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technologies near the Tropic of Cancer" 5026: 4706: 3149:{\displaystyle \eta =\left(1-{\frac {\sigma T_{H}^{4}}{IC}}\right)\cdot \left(1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}\right)} 2690: 469: 9151: 9136: 9072: 9036: 8872: 8772: 8747: 8605: 8492: 8338: 8131: 8005: 7542: 5048:

Vignarooban, K.; Xinhai, Xu (2015). "Heat transfer fluids for concentrating solar power systems – A review".

4331: 2216: 2166: 777:

and cost advantage since the per MW cost of these units are cheaper than bigger size solar thermal stations.

706:. Subsequently, larger parts of the installation have been moved to China as part of the huge energy demand. 7168: 183:

is particularly valuable in places where there is already a high penetration of photovoltaics (PV), such as

9087: 9010: 8978: 8897: 8787: 8767: 8757: 8674: 6674:. Solarpaces 2020: 26th International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems. 6670:

Thonig, Richard; Gilmanova, Alina; Zhan, Jing; Lilliestam, Johan (May 2022). "Chinese CSP for the World?".

5839:"Concentrated Solar Power increasing cumulative global capacity more than 11% to just under 5.5 GW in 2018" 4597: 3876: 3872: 3864: 1354: 687: 591: 577: 307: 64: 4838:"eSolar Sierra SunTower: a History of Concentrating Solar Power Underperformance | Gunther Portfolio" 4550: 9141: 8968: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8857: 8847: 8837: 8832: 8817: 8792: 8689: 8684: 7892: 7882: 6841: 2266: 565: 303: 7066:

A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies

7018:

A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies

1522: 1432:, which represents a theoretical limit to the efficiency that can be achieved by any system, set by the 651: 642: 340:

CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through

9156: 9077: 9056: 9015: 9000: 8963: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8907: 8892: 8852: 8842: 8782: 8732: 8727: 8656: 8152: 7862: 7647: 7624: 7587: 7436: 6480: 5688:"247Solar and Masen Ink Agreement for First Operational Next Generation Concentrated Solar Power Plant" 5491: 4970: 4425:"As Concentrated Solar Power bids fall to record lows, prices seen diverging between different regions" 3974: 3968: 3811: 1380: 730: 287:

No commercial concentrated solar was constructed from 1990 when SEGS was completed until 2006 when the

31: 5820: 3899: 3891:

power plants have used recirculating systems such as cooling towers rather than once-through systems.

1474: 267:

plant was able to produce 1 MW with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500 °C. The 10 MW

259:

station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation. The first solar-power system using a mirror dish was built by

9082: 8902: 8882: 8867: 8762: 8742: 8737: 8679: 8669: 8414: 7689: 6978:"Life cycle water use for electricity generation: A review and harmonization of literature estimates" 6930: 6760: 4226: 3807: 3786: 3782: 3693:

CSP projects are developed in several provinces alongside large GW sized solar PV and wind projects.

1519:

and subsequently the heat is converted into mechanical energy by the heat engine with the efficiency

184: 147:

database of CSP plants, counts 6.6 GW of operational capacity and another 1.5 GW under construction.

8827: 2602: 8709: 8563: 8558: 8235: 7837: 7757: 7704: 4741: 3710: 3697: 3690: 3645: 3616: 2881: 602:

areas where solar power is usually located, it is impossible to cool down carbon dioxide below its

7124: 6786: 5755: 5461: 5449:

34% of the sun's energy hitting the mirrors is converted directly to grid-available electric power

4486: 3678:

The China Energy Engineering Corporation 50 MW Hami power tower has 8 hours of molten-salt storage

496:, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can produce heat for 9115: 8578: 8568: 8532: 8507: 8497: 8469: 7943: 7902: 7872: 7867: 7727: 7473: 7468: 7295:"California's new solar power plant is actually a death ray that's incinerating birds mid-flight" 6602:

A Dangerous Obsession with Least Cost? Climate Change, Renewable Energy Law and Emissions Trading

6346:

International Renewable Energy Agency, "Table 2.1: Comparison of different CSP Technologies", in

5709:"247 solar modular & scalable concentrated solar power tech to be marketed to mining by Rost" 5556: 4009: 3940: 3770: 733:

or solar peaker plant. The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at

667: 353: 200: 195: 176: 5513: 3806:

The gigawatt size projects would have been arrays of standard-sized single plants. In 2012, the

427: 236: 8537: 8302: 7982: 7912: 7887: 7877: 7852: 7847: 7802: 7792: 7767: 7762: 7752: 7747: 7739: 7597: 7547: 6357:, Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series, June 2012, p. 10. Retrieved 23 May 2019. 5411: 4019: 3999: 3738: 3022: 2863: 1433: 1400: 797: 715: 595: 576:, Spain, is the first commercial utility-scale solar power tower in the world. The 377 MW 569: 530: 361: 276: 272: 235:

used a "burning glass" to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from

160: 7045: 5352: 3713:

is unknown. Federal support projects from the demonstration batch ran out at the end of 2021.

8464: 8409: 8381: 8326: 8188: 8157: 7977: 7907: 7842: 7832: 7817: 7807: 7777: 7772: 7429: 4753: 3994: 3726: 3002: 2667: 1428:

The maximum conversion efficiency of any thermal to electrical energy system is given by the

746: 518: 497: 456:(SEGS) plants in California, the world's first commercial parabolic trough plants, Acciona's 199:

However, CSP can more easily store energy during the night, making it more competitive with

156: 8617: 7125:"Solar thermal plants have a PR problem, and that PR problem is dead birds catching on fire" 5412:

Sandia, Stirling Energy Systems set new world record for solar-to-grid conversion efficiency

5286: 5268: 5250: 2842:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }=\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\alpha Q_{\mathrm {solar} }} 9146: 7927: 7897: 7827: 7822: 7812: 7782: 7722: 7534: 6989: 6679: 6330:

US National Renewable Energy Lab forecasts rapid cost reduction for battery storage to 2030

6289: 6245:"The near- to mid-term outlook for concentrating solar power: mostly cloudy, chance of sun" 6209: 5386: 5317: 5057: 4999: 4160: 4125: 4089: 4024: 4004: 3882:

Although many older thermoelectric power plants with once-through cooling or cooling ponds

3830:

The locations with highest direct irradiance are dry, at high altitude, and located in the

3451:{\displaystyle T_{opt}^{5}-(0.75T^{0})T_{\mathrm {opt} }^{4}-{\frac {T^{0}IC}{4\sigma }}=0} 2397: 2370: 1442: 1074: 967: 781: 719: 473: 461: 256: 124: 6557:

Kraemer, S. (2017). SolarReserve Breaks CSP Price Record with 6 Cent Contract, Solarpaces

6529:

https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/ec_courtesy_translation_es_necp.pdf

5232: 5119: 3558: 8: 8517: 8502: 8454: 8424: 8282: 8056: 7972: 7699: 7613: 7607: 7562: 5969: 4014: 3868: 3774: 2367:

is at most the Carnot efficiency, which is determined by the temperature of the receiver

1375: 658: 561: 7084: 6993: 6683: 6293: 6213: 6155: 5390: 5321: 5061: 5003: 4790: 4164: 4129: 4093: 3674: 749:, but without the pollution. CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used as 629:

cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various size CSPs.

8110: 7694: 7602: 7002: 6977: 6695: 6225: 6126: 5945: 5901: 5335: 4658: 3622: 3464: 2644: 2582: 2515: 734: 6180:"Three Gorges Seeks EPC Bids for 200 MW of Concentrated Solar Power Under 5 cents/kWh" 9111: 8272: 8230: 8136: 8036: 7662: 7256: 6811: 6699: 6609: 6229: 6056: 5931: 5872: 5339: 5095: 4951: 4929: 4902: 4773: 4680: 4029: 1468: 1460: 1429: 1358: 573: 509: 398: 380: 268: 260: 44: 39: 5622:"Controllable solar power – competitively priced for the first time in North Africa" 119:

by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver.

8522: 8459: 8449: 8444: 8277: 7657: 7494: 6997: 6714:

https://www.solarpaces.org/eurotrough-cut-ramp-up-in-china-100-mw-urat-csp%E2%80%A8

6687: 6637: 6590:

PV magazine (2020). Vast Solar eyes $ 600 million solar hybrid plant for Mount Isa

6376: 6307: 6297: 6256: 6217: 5398: 5394: 5325: 5069: 5065: 5007: 4650: 4168: 4133: 4097: 3778: 3662: 1848:

the fraction of light incident on the receiver that is converted into heat energy,

493: 457: 422: 368: 243: 180: 59: 27:

Use of mirror or lens assemblies to heat a working fluid for electricity generation

6302: 6277: 6261: 6244: 5330: 5305: 5212:"World's First Dual-Tower Concentrated Solar Power Plant Boosts Efficiency by 24%" 5211: 5011: 4172: 4137: 4101: 741:

or CSP without storage, the power generation from solar thermal storage plants is

468:, Europe's first commercial parabolic trough plant are representative, along with 439:

Diagram of linear parabolic reflector concentrating sun rays to heat working fluid

7091: 7072: 7052: 7024: 6712:

Solarpaces (2021), EuroTrough Helped Cut Ramp-Up Time of China's 100 MW Urat CSP

6579:

New Energy Update (2019). CSP mini tower developer predicts costs below $ 50/MWh

6456: 6354: 6079: 6072: 5419: 5151: 5089: 4977: 4892: 3963: 3160: 726: 699: 663: 136: 7504: 6505: 5144: 8542: 8484: 8439: 8010: 7685: 7592: 7065: 6428:

Generation from Spain's Existing 2.3 GW of CSP Showing Steady Annual Increases.

5735:"Capex of modular Concentrated Solar Power plants could halve if 1 GW deployed" 4728: 3701: 3253:. when the efficiency derivative relative to the receiver temperature is null: 208: 140: 7017: 6812:"A solar tower fuel plant for the thermochemical production of kerosene from H 6517: 6312: 5997:. International Renewable Energy Agency. June 2012. p. 11. Archived from 5365:

Ausra's Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) and Lower Temperature Approach

9130: 8474: 8193: 8051: 8046: 8041: 7712: 7667: 7577: 7552: 7381: 6493: 3954: 3838: 902: 762: 738: 581: 514: 486: 445: 372: 349: 248: 164: 132: 90: 7027:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900. 6471:. Instituteforenergyresearch.org (9 April 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 6221: 3834:. These locations have a higher potential for CSP than areas with less sun. 3621:

Several CSP dishes have been set up in remote Aboriginal settlements in the

3236:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {max} }=\left({\frac {IC}{\sigma }}\right)^{0.25}} 633:

and have initially proved to yield higher output than the standard version.

8434: 8251: 8214: 8090: 8082: 8020: 7567: 7452: 6931:"Environmental Impacts of Solar Power | Union of Concerned Scientists" 3909: 3641: 1581:, a turbine), the overall conversion efficiency can be defined as follows: 980: 915: 755: 750: 545:

A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors (

252: 94: 6738:"SECI to issue tender for 500-MW concentrated solar-thermal power project" 6624:

The dragon awakens: Will China save or conquer concentrating solar power?

6606:

Climate Change Law: Comparative, Contractual and Regulatory Considerations

1957:

the efficiency of converting the mechanical energy into electrical power.

1798:

represents the fraction of incident light concentrated onto the receiver,

155:

As a thermal energy generating power station, CSP has more in common with

8256: 8077: 7618: 7525: 7510: 6976:

Meldrum, J.; Nettles-Anderson, S.; Heath, G.; MacKnick, J. (March 2013).

6874: 6658: 6638:"2018 Review: China concentrated solar power pilot projects' development" 6046: 766: 585: 550: 525: 449: 357: 172: 168: 128: 120: 116: 8350: 5601:"2018, the year in which the Concentrated Solar Power returned to shine" 5116:"Linear-focusing Concentrator Facilities: DCS, DISS, EUROTROUGH and LS3" 1904:

the efficiency of conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy, and

8573: 8198: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8100: 8095: 7717: 7629: 7557: 5664:"Morocco Pioneers PV with Thermal Storage at 800 MW Midelt CSP Project" 4662: 2858: 2662: 2302: 1471:

is first converted into heat by the solar receiver with the efficiency

607: 232: 188: 150: 6691: 6380: 4572:"ACWA Power scales up tower-trough design to set record-low CSP price" 4530:"UAE's push on concentrated solar power should open eyes across world" 647: 568:

Almeria, Spain, are the most representative demonstration plants. The

85: 8105: 7652: 5579:"Aurora: What you should know about Port Augusta's solar power-tower" 5536:"Concentrating Solar Power Isn't Viable Without Storage, Say Experts" 4980:. Popularmechanics.com (1 November 2008). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4898: 3810:

made available 97,921,069 acres (39,627,251 hectares) of land in the

1019: 758:. CSP plant can also be integrated with solar PV for better synergy. 557: 546: 538: 534: 52: 7516: 6975: 6625: 6601: 5434:"Could this be the world's most efficient solar electricity system?" 5087: 4654: 4465:"After the Desertec hype: is concentrating solar power still alive?" 3934: 2394:

and the temperature of the heat rejection ("heat sink temperature")

1459:

of the incident solar radiation into mechanical work depends on the

7106:"Burned birds become new environmental victims of the energy quest" 6541:"El Miteco aprueba la orden para iniciar el calendario de subastas" 4816:"Ivanpah Solar Project Faces Risk of Default on PG&E Contracts" 4384:"New Chance for US CSP? California Outlaws Gas-Fired Peaker Plants" 3802: 3737:

CSP has other uses than electricity. Researchers are investigating

3705: 3634: 3630: 1068: 1032: 780:

Centralized district heating round the clock is also feasible with

691: 223: 5643:"Morocco Breaks New Record with 800 MW Midelt 1 CSP-PV at 7 Cents" 5376: 3850:

non-stick coatings on mirrors, water misting systems, and others.

2494:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Carnot} }=1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}} 594:

can be used instead of steam as heat-transfer fluid for increased

317:

which combines troughs and conventional fossil fuel heat systems.

302:

Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called

8419: 6888:"Solar heads for the hills as tower technology turns upside down" 6761:"CSP is the Most Efficient Renewable to Split Water for Hydrogen" 6492:

Royal Decree-Law 9/2013, of 12 July, BOE no. 167, July 13; 2013.

6403:

Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology, R.A. Meyers Ed

5355:. Physics.usyd.edu.au (12 June 2002). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4641:

Thomas W. Africa (1975). "Archimedes through the Looking Glass".

3948: 3831: 3750:) from solar energy with no carbon emissions. By splitting both H 3654: 993: 928: 465: 227:

Solar steam engine for water pumping, near Los Angeles circa 1901

70: 7314:"Bird deaths from solar plant exaggerated by some media sources" 6950:"Smart cooling and cleaning for concentrated solar power plants" 6459:. Solarserver.com (30 January 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4770:

A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology

4677:

A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology

4079: 657:

A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone

7421: 6608:, W. Gumley & T. Daya-Winterbottom (eds.) Lawbook Company, 5178:"Chevron Uses Solar-Thermal Steam to Extract Oil in California" 4280:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry, 2021" 1059: 614:

with higher critical temperature are currently in development.

367:

Concentrating technologies exist in four optical types, namely

345: 123:

is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat (

6516:

Royal Decree 413/2014, of 6 June, BOE no. 140, June 10; 2014.

4360:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry 2023" 4055:"Photovoltaic vs concentrated solar power the key differences" 3822:

in Dubai will become the largest solar complex featuring CSP.

3323:{\displaystyle {\frac {d\eta }{dT_{H}}}(T_{\mathrm {opt} })=0} 2945:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }=A\epsilon \sigma T_{H}^{4}} 2305:

and the fluxes absorbed and lost by the system solar receiver.

159:

such as coal, gas, or geothermal. A CSP plant can incorporate

8647: 7085:

Many newer power plants have cooling systems that Reuse Water

6910:"Beam-Down Demos First Direct Solar Storage at 1/2 MWh Scale" 6669: 6504:

Law 24/2013, of 26 December, BOE no. 310, December 27; 2013.

6367:

E. A. Fletcher (2001). "Solar thermal processing: A review".

3666:

incentives in many of the State and Territory jurisdictions.

1317: 1049: 1006: 954: 941: 889: 444:

during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A

409: 341: 212: 6483:. Evwind.es (14 September 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 6393: 6025:"Renewables Bounced Back in 2010, Finds REN21 Global Report" 5233:"Ivanpah - World's Largest Solar Plant in California Desert" 3578: 3903:

Dead warbler burned in mid-air by solar thermal power plant

2955:

Simplifying these equations by considering perfect optics (

1436:. Real-world systems do not achieve the Carnot efficiency. 1404: 1062:. The US deployment of CSP plants started by 1984 with the 774: 770: 599: 75: 7386: 6048:

Energy Transition in Metropolises, Rural Areas and Deserts

6023:

Sawin, Janet L. & Martinot, Eric (29 September 2011).

761:

CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using

271:

power tower was developed in Southern California in 1981.

7489: 1463:

properties of the solar receiver and on the heat engine (

598:

efficiency. However, because of the high temperatures in

55:

spanning thirteen million sq ft (1.21 km).

7328:"For the birds: How speculation trumped fact at Ivanpah" 7213:

IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News

4924:

Roland Winston, Juan C. Miñano, Pablo G. Benitez (2004)

4856:"Why Concentrating Solar Power Needs Storage to Survive" 4598:"SolarReserve Bids CSP Under 5 Cents in Chilean Auction" 4509:"Concentrated Solar Power Costs Fell 46% From 2010–2018" 431:

Parabolic trough at a plant near Harper Lake, California

7397:

ISFOC (Institute of Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems)

4620:"SolarReserve Bids 24-Hour Solar At 6.3 Cents In Chile" 3333:

Consequently, this leads us to the following equation:

7396: 7353:"One weird trick prevents bird deaths at solar towers" 7046:

Concentrating Solar Power Commercial Application Study

5414:, Sandia, Feb. 12, 2008. Retrieved on 21 October 2021. 4878:. Tomkonrad.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 5462:"How CSP's Thermal Energy Storage Works - SolarPACES" 3594:

Systems registered after 29 September 2008 (PV only).

3467: 3342: 3262: 3181: 3048: 3025: 3005: 2961: 2893: 2866: 2748: 2693: 2670: 2647: 2605: 2585: 2538: 2518: 2430: 2400: 2373: 2317: 2269: 2219: 2169: 2018: 1965: 1910: 1854: 1804: 1760: 1590: 1525: 1477: 1445: 676:

Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)

7391: 4983: 4551:"Concentrated Solar Power Dropped 50% in Six Months" 4487:"CSP Doesn't Compete With PV – it Competes with Gas" 3930: 3796: 3684:

Solar power in China § Concentrated solar power

2641:

on the system solar receiver with a collecting area

151:

Comparison between CSP and other electricity sources

6969: 5557:"How Solar Peaker Plants Could Replace Gas Peakers" 4407:"Concentrated Solar Power Quietly Makes a Comeback" 3980:

List of concentrating solar thermal power companies

3923:, in three months, the death rate dropped to zero. 3818:. In 2022 the 700 MW CSP 4th phase of the 5GW 3039:= 1) then substituting in the first equation gives 1394:

LCOE of Concentrating Solar Power from 2006 to 2019

1361:technology without thermal energy storage, and the 7277:"Solar plant's downside? Birds igniting in midair" 5780:"Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2024, Irena" 5018: 4114: 3473: 3450: 3322: 3235: 3148: 3031: 3011: 2991: 2944: 2872: 2841: 2732: 2676: 2653: 2633: 2591: 2571: 2524: 2493: 2413: 2386: 2359: 2293: 2255: 2205: 2153: 2001: 1949: 1896: 1840: 1790: 1743: 1565: 1511: 1451: 709: 7404:"Innovations on Concentrated Solar Thermal Power" 6348:Concentrating Solar Power, Volume 1: Power Sector 5857: 5855: 5801: 5799: 5047: 4894:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 4219:"Integrated Solar Thermochemical Reaction System" 4179: 9128: 7392:Plataforma Solar de Almeria, CSP research center 6469:Spain Halts Feed-in-Tariffs for Renewable Energy 6450:Spanish government halts PV, CSP feed-in tariffs 6242: 6199: 5682: 5680: 4640: 4250:"New Solar Process Gets More Out of Natural Gas" 7311: 7191:"How a solar farm set hundreds of birds ablaze" 7143:"Emerging solar plants scorch birds in mid-air" 6877:. Solareis.anl.gov. Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 5088:Christopher L. Martin; D. Yogi Goswami (2005). 1357:(392 MW) in the United States, which uses 485:from the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A 6787:"Desert solar to fuel centuries of air travel" 6366: 6326: 5914: 5852: 5796: 5083: 5081: 5079: 4447:"Are Solar Power Towers Doomed in California?" 4192:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from 787: 537:, Spain concentrates sunlight from a field of 8633: 8366: 7437: 6506:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/l/2013/12/26/24/con 6022: 5677: 5425: 5170: 5118:. Plataforma Solar de Almería. Archived from 4886: 4884: 3729:for 500 MW would be called in the year 2024. 2360:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }} 1897:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }} 408:In 2023, Australia’s national science agency 344:). Concentrated-solar technology systems use 7075:, NREL, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900. 6394:Aldo Steinfeld & Robert Palumbo (2001). 6342: 6340: 6073:Google cans concentrated solar power project 6045:Louis Boisgibault, Fahad Al Kabbani (2020): 5833: 5831: 5829: 5756:"Tibet's first solar district heating plant" 4444: 4150: 1950:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }} 163:, which stores energy either in the form of 6784: 6663: 6518:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2014/06/06/413 6097:"New Record-Low Solar Price Bid — 1.3¢/kWh" 5950:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5906:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5139: 5137: 5076: 2002:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} 1841:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} 8640: 8626: 8600: 8373: 8359: 7444: 7430: 6494:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rdl/2013/07/12/9 6276:Schöniger, Franziska; et al. (2021). 6174: 6172: 5968:. csp-world.com. June 2012. Archived from 5816: 5814: 5108: 4881: 2572:{\displaystyle I=1000\,\mathrm {W/m^{2}} } 393:of the theoretical maximum for the design 8649:Renewable energy by country and territory 8380: 7001: 6842:"The Sahara: a solar battery for Europe?" 6409:. Academic Press: 237–256. Archived from 6396:"Solar Thermochemical Process Technology" 6337: 6311: 6301: 6275: 6260: 5826: 5329: 5145:"Energy & Resources Predictions 2012" 4869: 4274: 4272: 4270: 3820:Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park 3732: 3568: 2992:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Optics} }} 2548: 1791:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {optics} }} 215:reached below $ 50/MWh in 2017 auctions. 7055:, US Department of Energy, 20 Feb. 2008. 5134: 4354: 4352: 3898: 3844: 3791:cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle 3673: 3577: 2733:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {solar} }=ICA} 646: 643:Solar thermal energy § Dish designs 524: 513: 434: 426: 222: 84: 69: 58: 51:concentrating light via 10,000 mirrored 38: 6947: 6758: 6169: 6066: 6016: 5811: 5303: 4989: 4699:"From Troughs to Triumph: SEGS and Gas" 4612: 4241: 2256:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }} 2206:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {incident} }} 859:Worldwide CSP capacity since 1984 in MW 14: 9129: 8016:Financial incentives for photovoltaics 7387:NREL Concentrating Solar Power Program 7261:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 7122: 6243:Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2020). 6094: 5774: 5772: 5514:"The Latest in Thermal Energy Storage" 5431: 5037:from the original on 15 November 2023. 5024: 4945: 4920: 4918: 4890: 4727:Cutler J. Cleveland (23 August 2008). 4301: 4299: 4267: 4211: 3894: 1082:Worldwide Concentrated Solar Power (MW 377:concentrating linear Fresnel reflector 315:integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) 8621: 8354: 7425: 7301:from the original on 19 October 2014. 7103: 6659:http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4297966 6085:, 24 Nov 2011. Accessed: 25 Nov 2011. 5924:Renewables 2016: Global Status Report 5920: 5865:Renewables 2014: Global Status Report 5861: 5821:Renewables 2017: Global Status Report 4590: 4404: 4349: 3249:for which the efficiency is maximum, 1058:An early plant operated in Sicily at 617: 335: 293:Kimberlina Solar Thermal Energy Plant 8333: 7283:from the original on 19 August 2014. 5304:Marzouk, Osama A. (September 2022). 5025:Houser, Kristin (12 November 2023). 4754:"A New Invention To Harness The Sun" 4247: 4048: 4046: 3985:List of solar thermal power stations 3582:Andasol Solar Power Station in Spain 1052:Global Status Report, 2017 and 2018 794:List of solar thermal power stations 696:National Solar Thermal Test Facility 503: 7297:. ExtremeTech.com. 20 August 2014. 6759:Kraemer, Susan (21 December 2017). 6369:Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 5769: 4915: 4522: 4296: 3921:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project 3763:solar thermal enhanced oil recovery 2294:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }} 869:National CSP capacities in 2023 (MW 612:supercritical carbon dioxide blends 416: 49:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project 24: 7402:Baldizon, Roberto (5 March 2019). 7312:Jake Richardson (22 August 2014). 7123:Howard, Michael (20 August 2014). 6440:. res-legal.de (12 December 2011). 6095:Shahan, Zachary (30 August 2020). 4445:Chris Clarke (25 September 2015). 4248:Wald, Matthew L. (10 April 2013). 3657:of North-West Queensland in 2021. 3650:Aurora Solar Thermal Power Project 3398: 3395: 3392: 3305: 3302: 3299: 3194: 3191: 3188: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2806: 2803: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2559: 2550: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2440: 2437: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 1993: 1990: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1723: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1566:{\displaystyle \eta _{mechanical}} 1389: 479: 25: 9168: 8528:Research in lithium-ion batteries 8127:Building-integrated photovoltaics 7382:Concentrating Solar Power Utility 7375: 6626:https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5117648 6438:Feed-in tariff (Régimen Especial) 4876:Types of solar thermal CSP plants 4696: 4043: 3825: 3797:Gigawatt-scale solar power plants 743:dispatchable and self-sustainable 541:onto a central solar power tower. 80:San Bernardino County, California 9110: 9101: 9100: 8665:Democratic Republic of the Congo 8599: 8332: 8321: 8320: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7451: 7345: 7320: 7305: 7287: 7269: 7219: 7201: 7183: 7153: 7135: 7116: 7097: 7078: 7058: 7039: 7030: 7010: 6960: 6941: 6923: 6902: 6880: 6868: 6856: 6834: 6804: 6785:EurekAlert! (15 November 2017). 6778: 6752: 6730: 6718: 6706: 6651: 6630: 6618: 6595: 6584: 6573: 6562: 6551: 6533: 6522: 6510: 6498: 6486: 6474: 5379:Energy Conversion and Management 4971:New innovations in solar thermal 4052: 3947: 3933: 3557: 3481:(red curve on the figure below) 3159: 1512:{\displaystyle \eta _{Receiver}} 636: 624:Compact linear Fresnel reflector 289:Compact linear Fresnel reflector 6948:Bolitho, Andrea (20 May 2019). 6462: 6443: 6431: 6420: 6387: 6360: 6327:Andy Colthorpe (14 July 2021), 6320: 6269: 6236: 6193: 6152:NERL Annual Technology Baseline 6140: 6123:NERL Annual Technology Baseline 6111: 6088: 6039: 5984: 5958: 5806:Renewables Global Status Report 5748: 5727: 5701: 5656: 5635: 5614: 5593: 5571: 5549: 5528: 5506: 5480: 5454: 5432:Barbee, Jeffrey (13 May 2015). 5405: 5370: 5358: 5346: 5297: 5279: 5261: 5243: 5225: 5204: 5183: 5157: 5041: 4964: 4939: 4848: 4830: 4808: 4783: 4762: 4747: 4734: 4721: 4690: 4669: 4634: 4564: 4543: 4501: 4479: 4457: 4438: 4417: 4398: 4376: 4332:"CSP Projects Around the World" 4324: 710:CSP with thermal energy storage 564:, California and the CESA-1 in 472:'s SSPS-DCS test facilities in 454:Solar Energy Generating Systems 282:Solar Energy Generating Systems 8513:Lithium iron phosphate battery 7104:Roach, John (20 August 2014). 6982:Environmental Research Letters 6481:Spain introduces 6% energy tax 5399:10.1016/j.enconman.2013.01.039 5143:Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Ltd, 5070:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.125 4768:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980) 4679:, Cheshire Books, pp. 66–100, 4675:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980) 4622:. CleanTechnica. 13 March 2017 4144: 4108: 4073: 3990:Luminescent solar concentrator 3383: 3367: 3311: 3290: 2634:{\displaystyle \eta _{Optics}} 1363:Ouarzazate Solar Power Station 684:Australian National University 13: 1: 8493:Compressed-air energy storage 8132:Passive solar building design 7543:Passive solar building design 6303:10.1080/15567249.2020.1843565 6262:10.1080/15567249.2020.1773580 5331:10.1016/j.solener.2022.07.051 5180:, "Bloomberg", 3 October 2011 5091:Solar energy pocket reference 5012:10.1016/j.solener.2017.02.051 4576:New Energy Update / CSP Today 4405:Deign, Jason (24 June 2019). 4173:10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.031 4138:10.1016/j.solener.2014.07.008 4102:10.1016/j.solener.2013.09.008 4036: 2507: 1410: 135:) connected to an electrical 7279:. CBS News. 18 August 2014. 7003:10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/015031 6875:Solar Resource Data and Maps 5488:"Molten salt energy storage" 4744:. Cabinet Magazine, Issue 6. 3877:Riverside County, California 3873:Genesis Solar Energy Project 3865:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 3853: 3610: 1355:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 592:Supercritical carbon dioxide 578:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 308:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 179:form of solar. Dispatchable 65:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 7: 6148:"Concentrating Solar Power" 6119:"Concentrating Solar Power" 5992:"Concentrating Solar Power" 5930:. REN21 Secretariat, UNEP. 4740:Paul Collins (Spring 2002) 3926: 1381:photovoltaic power stations 788:Deployment around the world 566:Plataforma Solar de Almeria 487:single-axis tracking system 470:Plataforma Solar de Almería 10: 9173: 7648:Concentrator photovoltaics 7625:Photovoltaic power station 7588:Concentrator photovoltaics 7064:John Macknick and others, 7016:John Macknick and others, 6672:AIP Conference Proceedings 5287:"Electricity Data Browser" 5269:"Electricity Data Browser" 5251:"Electricity Data Browser" 3969:Concentrator photovoltaics 3812:southwestern United States 3681: 3614: 3167:energy it cannot absorb (Q 2311:The conversion efficiency 2301:respectively the incoming 1439:The conversion efficiency 1312: 1031: 1018: 1005: 992: 979: 966: 953: 940: 927: 914: 901: 888: 791: 782:concentrated solar thermal 731:load following power plant 713: 640: 621: 507: 420: 218: 113:concentrated solar thermal 78:solar complex in northern 32:concentrator photovoltaics 29: 9096: 9065: 9029: 8993: 8916: 8808: 8801: 8708: 8655: 8595: 8551: 8483: 8415:Artificial photosynthesis 8402: 8395: 8388: 8316: 8295: 8265: 8244: 8223: 8207: 8181: 8145: 8119: 8076: 8069: 8029: 7998: 7965: 7956: 7936: 7738: 7690:artificial photosynthesis 7676: 7638: 7576: 7533: 7524: 7501: 7482: 7459: 5966:"CSP Facts & Figures" 5167:, "Forbes", 25 April 2011 5094:. Earthscan. p. 45. 4772:, Cheshire Books, p. 68, 4742:The Beautiful Possibility 4223:U.S. Department of Energy 3532: 3509: 3486: 3032:{\displaystyle \epsilon } 2873:{\displaystyle \epsilon } 2599:times with an efficiency 1423: 1044: 280:technology of the nearby 194:CSP is often compared to 109:concentrating solar power 18:Concentrating solar power 8564:Battery electric vehicle 8559:Alternative fuel vehicle 8430:Concentrated solar power 8236:Solar water disinfection 7705:Thermoelectric generator 7332:RenewableEnergyWorld.com 7090:26 December 2017 at the 7051:26 December 2017 at the 5418:19 February 2013 at the 4731:. Encyclopedia of Earth. 3816:Noor Solar Power Station 3746:O, to create hydrogen (H 3716: 3669: 3617:Solar power in Australia 3573: 3245:There is a temperature T 1324: CSP-world.com 101:Concentrated solar power 74:Part of the 354 MW 63:The three towers of the 30:Not to be confused with 8569:Hybrid electric vehicle 8498:Flywheel energy storage 8470:Space-based solar power 7944:Solar Shade Control Act 7728:Space-based solar power 7161:"Associated Press News" 7094:, US EIA, 11 Feb. 2014. 6222:10.1038/nenergy.2017.94 4010:Solar thermal collector 3941:Renewable energy portal 3012:{\displaystyle \alpha } 2677:{\displaystyle \alpha } 1368: 668:Stirling Energy Systems 201:dispatchable generators 8538:Thermal energy storage 8308:Solar power by country 7983:Thermal energy storage 7598:Nanocrystal solar cell 7548:Solar air conditioning 6282:Energy Sources, Part B 6249:Energy Sources, Part B 6154:, 2018, archived from 6125:, 2020, archived from 6029:Renewable Energy World 5237:BrightSourceEnergy.com 5150:6 January 2013 at the 4946:Norton, Brian (2013). 4891:Chaves, Julio (2015). 4020:Thermal energy storage 4000:Solar air conditioning 3904: 3739:solar thermal reactors 3733:Solar thermal reactors 3679: 3648:to realize the 150 MW 3583: 3569:Incentives and markets 3475: 3452: 3324: 3237: 3150: 3033: 3013: 2993: 2946: 2874: 2843: 2734: 2678: 2655: 2635: 2593: 2573: 2526: 2495: 2415: 2388: 2361: 2295: 2257: 2207: 2155: 2003: 1951: 1898: 1842: 1792: 1745: 1567: 1513: 1453: 1434:laws of thermodynamics 1401:Thermal Energy Storage 1395: 798:Solar power by country 747:gas-fired power plants 716:Thermal energy storage 654: 596:electricity production 542: 531:PS10 solar power plant 522: 440: 432: 362:solar air conditioning 304:Solar Tres Power Tower 228: 161:thermal energy storage 157:thermal power stations 97: 82: 67: 56: 8465:Photovoltaic pavement 8410:Airborne wind turbine 8382:Emerging technologies 8189:Salt evaporation pond 8158:Hybrid solar lighting 7978:Phase-change material 7071:9 August 2017 at the 6604:Prest, J. (2009). in 6455:5 August 2012 at the 6333:, Solar Media Limited 4976:21 April 2009 at the 4948:Harnessing Solar Heat 4791:"Molten Salt Storage" 3995:Salt evaporation pond 3902: 3845:Environmental effects 3787:zinc–zinc oxide cycle 3783:copper–chlorine cycle 3677: 3581: 3476: 3453: 3325: 3238: 3151: 3034: 3014: 2994: 2947: 2875: 2844: 2735: 2679: 2656: 2636: 2594: 2574: 2527: 2496: 2416: 2414:{\displaystyle T^{0}} 2389: 2387:{\displaystyle T_{H}} 2362: 2296: 2258: 2208: 2156: 2004: 1952: 1899: 1843: 1793: 1746: 1568: 1514: 1454: 1452:{\displaystyle \eta } 1393: 650: 528: 519:Ashalim Power Station 517: 498:Enhanced Oil Recovery 438: 430: 231:A legend has it that 226: 203:and baseload plants. 88: 73: 62: 42: 9152:Solar power stations 9137:Solar thermal energy 7723:Solar thermal rocket 7316:. Cleantechnica.com. 7023:6 April 2015 at the 5888:on 15 September 2014 5122:on 28 September 2007 4842:guntherportfolio.com 4187:"Sunshine to Petrol" 4025:Thermochemical cycle 4005:Solar thermal energy 3465: 3340: 3260: 3179: 3046: 3023: 3003: 2959: 2891: 2882:Stefan–Boltzmann law 2864: 2746: 2691: 2668: 2645: 2603: 2583: 2536: 2516: 2428: 2398: 2371: 2315: 2267: 2217: 2167: 2016: 1963: 1908: 1852: 1802: 1758: 1588: 1523: 1475: 1443: 1376:photovoltaic systems 968:United Arab Emirates 720:Solar thermal energy 604:critical temperature 462:Boulder City, Nevada 257:solar thermal energy 171:(for example, using 125:solar thermal energy 8533:Silicon–air battery 8518:Molten-salt battery 8508:Lithium–air battery 8503:Grid energy storage 8455:Molten salt reactor 8425:Carbon-neutral fuel 8283:Solar water heating 8057:Solar water heating 7973:Grid energy storage 7700:Solar updraft tower 7619:Photovoltaic module 7614:Photovoltaic effect 7563:Solar water heating 7171:on 8 September 2014 6994:2013ERL.....8a5031M 6684:2022AIPC.2445e0007T 6353:23 May 2019 at the 6294:2021EneSB..16...55S 6214:2017NatEn...217094L 6035:on 2 November 2011. 6004:on 22 November 2012 5468:. 10 September 2017 5391:2013ECM....72...60A 5322:2022SoEn..243..103M 5062:2015ApEn..146..383V 5004:2017SoEn..148...36C 4643:The Classical World 4578:. 20 September 2017 4467:. 24 September 2017 4199:on 19 February 2013 4165:2016SoEn..125..267L 4130:2014SoEn..108..287L 4094:2013SoEn...97..356B 4015:Solar water heating 3895:Effects on wildlife 3869:Barstow, California 3775:hybrid sulfur cycle 3771:sulfur–iodine cycle 3408: 3363: 3086: 2941: 1351:larger CSP projects 1087: 874: 659:parabolic reflector 275:was converted into 115:) systems generate 89:Bird's eye view of 9142:Solar architecture 8111:Solar-powered pump 7695:Solar-pumped laser 7608:Photovoltaic array 7603:Organic solar cell 7581:and related topics 7209:"Full Page Reload" 6844:. 20 December 2017 6313:20.500.12708/18282 6078:2012-06-15 at the 6055:. (Energy series) 5715:on 28 October 2019 5165:"Oil from the sun" 4928:, Academic Press, 4795:large.stanford.edu 4703:EEPublishers.co.za 4411:GreenTechMedia.com 4254:The New York Times 3905: 3680: 3623:Northern Territory 3584: 3471: 3448: 3386: 3343: 3320: 3233: 3146: 3072: 3029: 3009: 2989: 2942: 2927: 2870: 2839: 2730: 2674: 2651: 2631: 2589: 2569: 2522: 2491: 2411: 2384: 2357: 2291: 2253: 2203: 2151: 1999: 1947: 1894: 1838: 1788: 1741: 1575:Carnot's principle 1563: 1509: 1449: 1396: 1081: 868: 735:nameplate capacity 704:United Sun Systems 672:United Sun Systems 655: 618:Fresnel reflectors 610:inlet. Therefore, 543: 523: 441: 433: 336:Current technology 229: 127:), which drives a 98: 83: 68: 57: 9157:French inventions 9124: 9123: 8989: 8988: 8615: 8614: 8591: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8348: 8347: 8291: 8290: 8273:Solar combisystem 8231:Soil solarization 8137:Urban heat island 8065: 8064: 8037:Electric aircraft 7952: 7951: 7663:Solar power tower 7357:CleanTechnica.com 7215:. 20 August 2014. 7195:Nature World News 6890:. 30 January 2012 6692:10.1063/5.0085752 6381:10.1115/1.1349552 5937:978-3-9818107-0-7 5878:978-3-9815934-2-6 5559:. 19 October 2017 5494:on 29 August 2017 5176:Goossens, Ehren, 5154:, 2 November 2011 5101:978-1-84407-306-1 4957:978-94-007-7275-5 4926:Nonimaging Optics 4826:on 25 March 2016. 4600:. 29 October 2017 4489:. 11 October 2017 4386:. 13 October 2017 4030:Particle receiver 3725:announced that a 3555: 3554: 3505: 3474:{\displaystyle C} 3440: 3288: 3221: 3139: 3096: 2654:{\displaystyle A} 2592:{\displaystyle C} 2525:{\displaystyle I} 2512:For a solar flux 2489: 2149: 1469:Solar irradiation 1467:steam turbine). 1461:thermal radiation 1430:Carnot efficiency 1359:solar power tower 1340: 1339: 1056: 1055: 580:, located in the 574:Sanlucar la Mayor 510:Solar power tower 504:Solar power tower 399:nonimaging optics 381:solar power tower 45:solar power tower 16:(Redirected from 9164: 9114: 9104: 9103: 9047:French Polynesia 8806: 8805: 8642: 8635: 8628: 8619: 8618: 8603: 8602: 8523:Nanowire battery 8450:Methanol economy 8445:Hydrogen economy 8400: 8399: 8393: 8392: 8375: 8368: 8361: 8352: 8351: 8336: 8335: 8324: 8323: 8278:Solar controller 8074: 8073: 7963: 7962: 7658:Parabolic trough 7531: 7530: 7519: 7513: 7507: 7495:Solar irradiance 7446: 7439: 7432: 7423: 7422: 7418: 7416: 7414: 7369: 7368: 7366: 7364: 7349: 7343: 7342: 7340: 7338: 7324: 7318: 7317: 7309: 7303: 7302: 7291: 7285: 7284: 7273: 7267: 7266: 7260: 7252: 7250: 7248: 7242: 7236:. Archived from 7231: 7223: 7217: 7216: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7187: 7181: 7180: 7178: 7176: 7167:. Archived from 7157: 7151: 7150: 7149:. 24 March 2015. 7139: 7133: 7132: 7120: 7114: 7113: 7101: 7095: 7082: 7076: 7062: 7056: 7043: 7037: 7034: 7028: 7014: 7008: 7007: 7005: 6973: 6967: 6964: 6958: 6957: 6945: 6939: 6938: 6927: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6916: 6906: 6900: 6899: 6897: 6895: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6849: 6838: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6799: 6797: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6771: 6756: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6710: 6704: 6703: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6634: 6628: 6622: 6616: 6599: 6593: 6588: 6582: 6577: 6571: 6566: 6560: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6537: 6531: 6526: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6472: 6466: 6460: 6447: 6441: 6435: 6429: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6416:on 19 July 2014. 6415: 6400: 6391: 6385: 6384: 6364: 6358: 6344: 6335: 6334: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6305: 6273: 6267: 6266: 6264: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6208:(17094): 17094. 6197: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6176: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6158:on 23 April 2021 6144: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6129:on 21 April 2021 6115: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6092: 6086: 6070: 6064: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6031:. 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Archived from 5484: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5444: 5429: 5423: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5374: 5368: 5367:. ese.iitb.ac.in 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5333: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5265: 5259: 5258: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5199: 5197: 5187: 5181: 5174: 5168: 5161: 5155: 5141: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5112: 5106: 5105: 5085: 5074: 5073: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5022: 5016: 5015: 4987: 4981: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4943: 4937: 4922: 4913: 4912: 4888: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4822:. Archived from 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4787: 4781: 4766: 4760: 4751: 4745: 4738: 4732: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4716: 4714: 4709:on 7 August 2011 4705:. Archived from 4694: 4688: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4369: 4364: 4356: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4303: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4284: 4276: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4229:on 15 April 2013 4225:. Archived from 4215: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4198: 4191: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4050: 3957: 3952: 3951: 3943: 3938: 3937: 3779:iron oxide cycle 3663:renewable energy 3561: 3504:(max. for Earth) 3503: 3484: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3477: 3472: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3441: 3439: 3431: 3424: 3423: 3413: 3407: 3402: 3401: 3382: 3381: 3362: 3357: 3329: 3327: 3326: 3321: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3289: 3287: 3286: 3285: 3272: 3264: 3242: 3240: 3239: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3209: 3199: 3198: 3197: 3163: 3155: 3153: 3152: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3118: 3102: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3087: 3085: 3080: 3067: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3018: 3016: 3015: 3010: 2998: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2988: 2987: 2986: 2951: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2940: 2935: 2914: 2913: 2912: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2871: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2739: 2737: 2736: 2731: 2717: 2716: 2715: 2683: 2681: 2680: 2675: 2660: 2658: 2657: 2652: 2640: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2630: 2629: 2598: 2596: 2595: 2590: 2578: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2557: 2531: 2529: 2528: 2523: 2500: 2498: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2487: 2478: 2477: 2468: 2457: 2456: 2455: 2420: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2409: 2393: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2383: 2382: 2366: 2364: 2363: 2358: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2300: 2298: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2262: 2260: 2259: 2254: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2212: 2210: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2160: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2147: 2146: 2115: 2114: 2113: 2112: 2090: 2089: 2088: 2056: 2051: 2050: 2049: 2008: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1903: 1901: 1900: 1895: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1847: 1845: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1797: 1795: 1794: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1785: 1750: 1748: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1701: 1700: 1699: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1572: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1561: 1518: 1516: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1507: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1336: HeliosCSP 1088: 1080: 875: 867: 784:storage plants. 745:similar to coal/ 494:GlassPoint Solar 458:Nevada Solar One 423:Parabolic trough 417:Parabolic trough 395:acceptance angle 392: 391: 387: 369:parabolic trough 330: 329: 325: 295:opened in 2009. 261:Dr. R.H. Goddard 244:Auguste Mouchout 181:renewable energy 107:, also known as 21: 9172: 9171: 9167: 9166: 9165: 9163: 9162: 9161: 9127: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9092: 9061: 9025: 8985: 8912: 8797: 8704: 8651: 8646: 8616: 8611: 8583: 8547: 8479: 8384: 8379: 8349: 8344: 8312: 8287: 8261: 8240: 8219: 8203: 8177: 8141: 8115: 8080: 8061: 8025: 7994: 7958: 7948: 7932: 7734: 7678: 7672: 7634: 7580: 7572: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7499: 7478: 7455: 7450: 7412: 7410: 7401: 7378: 7373: 7372: 7362: 7360: 7359:. 16 April 2015 7351: 7350: 7346: 7336: 7334: 7326: 7325: 7321: 7310: 7306: 7293: 7292: 7288: 7275: 7274: 7270: 7254: 7253: 7246: 7244: 7243:on 3 March 2015 7240: 7229: 7227:"Archived copy" 7225: 7224: 7220: 7207: 7206: 7202: 7189: 7188: 7184: 7174: 7172: 7165:bigstory.ap.org 7159: 7158: 7154: 7141: 7140: 7136: 7121: 7117: 7102: 7098: 7092:Wayback Machine 7083: 7079: 7073:Wayback Machine 7063: 7059: 7053:Wayback Machine 7044: 7040: 7035: 7031: 7025:Wayback Machine 7015: 7011: 6974: 6970: 6965: 6961: 6946: 6942: 6929: 6928: 6924: 6914: 6912: 6908: 6907: 6903: 6893: 6891: 6886: 6885: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6861: 6857: 6847: 6845: 6840: 6839: 6835: 6825: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6810: 6809: 6805: 6795: 6793: 6783: 6779: 6769: 6767: 6757: 6753: 6743: 6741: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6723: 6719: 6711: 6707: 6668: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6631: 6623: 6619: 6600: 6596: 6589: 6585: 6578: 6574: 6567: 6563: 6556: 6552: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6527: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6503: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6457:Wayback Machine 6448: 6444: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6421: 6413: 6398: 6392: 6388: 6365: 6361: 6355:Wayback Machine 6345: 6338: 6325: 6321: 6274: 6270: 6241: 6237: 6198: 6194: 6184: 6182: 6178: 6177: 6170: 6161: 6159: 6146: 6145: 6141: 6132: 6130: 6117: 6116: 6112: 6102: 6100: 6099:. CleanTechnica 6093: 6089: 6080:Wayback Machine 6071: 6067: 6044: 6040: 6021: 6017: 6007: 6005: 6001: 5994: 5990: 5989: 5985: 5975: 5973: 5964: 5963: 5959: 5943: 5942: 5938: 5927: 5919: 5915: 5899: 5898: 5891: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5868: 5860: 5853: 5843: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5827: 5819: 5812: 5804: 5797: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5778: 5777: 5770: 5760: 5758: 5754: 5753: 5749: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5718: 5716: 5707: 5706: 5702: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5685: 5678: 5668: 5666: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5636: 5626: 5624: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5605: 5603: 5599: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5582: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5562: 5560: 5555: 5554: 5550: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5529: 5519: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5497: 5495: 5486: 5485: 5481: 5471: 5469: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5442: 5440: 5430: 5426: 5420:Wayback Machine 5410: 5406: 5375: 5371: 5363: 5359: 5351: 5347: 5302: 5298: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5267: 5266: 5262: 5249: 5248: 5244: 5231: 5230: 5226: 5216: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5188: 5184: 5175: 5171: 5162: 5158: 5152:Wayback Machine 5142: 5135: 5125: 5123: 5114: 5113: 5109: 5102: 5086: 5077: 5046: 5042: 5023: 5019: 4988: 4984: 4978:Wayback Machine 4969: 4965: 4958: 4944: 4940: 4923: 4916: 4909: 4889: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4849: 4844:. 5 April 2013. 4836: 4835: 4831: 4814: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4767: 4763: 4759:, November 1929 4757:Popular Science 4752: 4748: 4739: 4735: 4726: 4722: 4712: 4710: 4695: 4691: 4674: 4670: 4655:10.2307/4348211 4639: 4635: 4625: 4623: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4603: 4601: 4596: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4579: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4555: 4553: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4513: 4511: 4507: 4506: 4502: 4492: 4490: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4468: 4463: 4462: 4458: 4443: 4439: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4403: 4399: 4389: 4387: 4382: 4381: 4377: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4350: 4340: 4338: 4330: 4329: 4325: 4315: 4313: 4305: 4304: 4297: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4278: 4277: 4268: 4258: 4256: 4246: 4242: 4232: 4230: 4217: 4216: 4212: 4202: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4149: 4145: 4113: 4109: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4051: 4044: 4039: 4034: 3964:Dover Sun House 3953: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3929: 3897: 3856: 3847: 3828: 3799: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3721:In March 2024, 3719: 3686: 3672: 3619: 3613: 3576: 3571: 3536: 3513: 3466: 3463: 3462: 3432: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3403: 3391: 3390: 3377: 3373: 3358: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3337: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3248: 3227: 3210: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3133: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3117: 3110: 3106: 3088: 3081: 3076: 3068: 3066: 3059: 3055: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3024: 3021: 3020: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2956: 2936: 2931: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2820: 2819: 2815: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2688: 2669: 2666: 2665: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2610: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2600: 2584: 2581: 2580: 2579:) concentrated 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2537: 2534: 2533: 2517: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2483: 2479: 2473: 2469: 2467: 2436: 2435: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2425: 2405: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2395: 2378: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2312: 2275: 2274: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2164: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2063: 2062: 2058: 2057: 2055: 2024: 2023: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2013: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1960: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1710: 1709: 1705: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1530: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1482: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1426: 1413: 1371: 1085: 872: 866: 865: 864: 862: 856: 855: 854: 853: 852: 851: 848: 845: 842: 839: 836: 833: 829: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 813: 810: 800: 792:Main articles: 790: 727:turbo generator 722: 712: 700:Kalahari Desert 664:Stirling engine 652:A dish Stirling 645: 639: 626: 620: 570:Planta Solar 10 512: 506: 482: 480:Enclosed trough 425: 419: 389: 385: 384: 338: 327: 323: 322: 221: 153: 137:power generator 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9170: 9160: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9122: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9108: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9091: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9069: 9067: 9063: 9062: 9060: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9033: 9031: 9027: 9026: 9024: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8997: 8995: 8991: 8990: 8987: 8986: 8984: 8983: 8982: 8981: 8974:United Kingdom 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8920: 8918: 8914: 8913: 8911: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8823:Czech Republic 8820: 8814: 8812: 8810:European Union 8803: 8799: 8798: 8796: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8714: 8712: 8706: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8661: 8659: 8653: 8652: 8645: 8644: 8637: 8630: 8622: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8609: 8596: 8593: 8592: 8589: 8588: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8581: 8579:Wireless power 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8555: 8553: 8549: 8548: 8546: 8545: 8543:Ultracapacitor 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8489: 8487: 8481: 8480: 8478: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8440:Home fuel cell 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8406: 8404: 8397: 8390: 8386: 8385: 8378: 8377: 8370: 8363: 8355: 8346: 8345: 8343: 8342: 8330: 8317: 8314: 8313: 8311: 8310: 8305: 8299: 8297: 8293: 8292: 8289: 8288: 8286: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8269: 8267: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8248: 8246: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8227: 8225: 8221: 8220: 8218: 8217: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8185: 8183: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8149: 8147: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8123: 8121: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8087: 8085: 8071: 8067: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8060: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8033: 8031: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8011:Feed-in tariff 8008: 8006:Cost by source 8002: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7980: 7975: 7969: 7967: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7940: 7938: 7934: 7933: 7931: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7918:United Kingdom 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7788:Czech Republic 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7744: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7732: 7731: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7709:Space-related 7707: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7686:Solar chemical 7682: 7680: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7644: 7642: 7636: 7635: 7633: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7616: 7611: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7593:Floating solar 7590: 7584: 7582: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7539: 7537: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7502: 7500: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7486: 7484: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7449: 7448: 7441: 7434: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7377: 7376:External links 7374: 7371: 7370: 7344: 7319: 7304: 7286: 7268: 7218: 7200: 7182: 7152: 7134: 7115: 7096: 7077: 7057: 7038: 7029: 7009: 6968: 6959: 6940: 6922: 6901: 6879: 6867: 6855: 6833: 6817: 6813: 6803: 6777: 6765:SolarPACES.org 6751: 6740:. 4 March 2024 6729: 6717: 6705: 6662: 6650: 6629: 6617: 6594: 6583: 6572: 6561: 6550: 6532: 6521: 6509: 6497: 6485: 6473: 6461: 6442: 6430: 6419: 6386: 6359: 6336: 6319: 6268: 6235: 6192: 6168: 6139: 6110: 6087: 6065: 6038: 6015: 5983: 5957: 5936: 5921:REN21 (2016). 5913: 5877: 5862:REN21 (2014). 5851: 5825: 5810: 5795: 5768: 5747: 5726: 5700: 5676: 5655: 5634: 5613: 5592: 5570: 5548: 5527: 5505: 5479: 5453: 5424: 5404: 5369: 5357: 5345: 5296: 5278: 5260: 5242: 5224: 5203: 5182: 5169: 5156: 5133: 5107: 5100: 5075: 5050:Applied Energy 5040: 5017: 4982: 4963: 4956: 4938: 4934:978-0127597515 4914: 4908:978-1482206739 4907: 4880: 4868: 4847: 4829: 4807: 4782: 4761: 4746: 4733: 4720: 4689: 4668: 4649:(5): 305–308. 4633: 4611: 4589: 4563: 4542: 4521: 4500: 4478: 4456: 4437: 4416: 4397: 4375: 4348: 4323: 4295: 4266: 4240: 4210: 4178: 4143: 4107: 4072: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3958: 3944: 3928: 3925: 3896: 3893: 3855: 3852: 3846: 3843: 3839:opencast mines 3827: 3826:Suitable sites 3824: 3798: 3795: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3734: 3731: 3718: 3715: 3711:five-year plan 3698:five-year plan 3691:five-year plan 3682:Main article: 3671: 3668: 3644:got awarded a 3615:Main article: 3612: 3609: 3596: 3595: 3592: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3553: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3530: 3529: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3470: 3459: 3458: 3447: 3444: 3438: 3435: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3406: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 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1529: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1448: 1425: 1422: 1412: 1409: 1370: 1367: 1338: 1337: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1162: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1083: 1054: 1053: 1042: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 990: 989: 986: 983: 977: 976: 973: 970: 964: 963: 960: 957: 951: 950: 947: 944: 938: 937: 934: 931: 925: 924: 921: 918: 912: 911: 908: 905: 899: 898: 895: 892: 886: 885: 882: 879: 870: 860: 857: 849: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 830: 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 808: 807: 806: 805: 804: 803: 802: 801: 789: 786: 711: 708: 638: 635: 622:Main article: 619: 616: 508:Main article: 505: 502: 481: 478: 421:Main article: 418: 415: 337: 334: 220: 217: 209:Atacama region 152: 149: 141:thermochemical 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9169: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9134: 9132: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9107: 9099: 9098: 9095: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9070: 9068: 9066:South America 9064: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9034: 9032: 9028: 9022: 9021:United States 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8994:North America 8992: 8980: 8977: 8976: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8921: 8919: 8915: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8813: 8811: 8807: 8804: 8800: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8715: 8713: 8711: 8707: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8643: 8638: 8636: 8631: 8629: 8624: 8623: 8620: 8608: 8607: 8598: 8597: 8594: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8556: 8554: 8550: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8486: 8482: 8476: 8475:Vortex engine 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8405: 8401: 8398: 8394: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8376: 8371: 8369: 8364: 8362: 8357: 8356: 8353: 8341: 8340: 8331: 8329: 8328: 8319: 8318: 8315: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8303:Photovoltaics 8301: 8300: 8298: 8294: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8268: 8266:Water heating 8264: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8228: 8226: 8222: 8216: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8206: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8194:Solar furnace 8192: 8190: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8144: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8124: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8084: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8052:Solar vehicle 8050: 8048: 8047:Solar balloon 8045: 8043: 8042:Electric boat 8040: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8032: 8028: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7997: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7964: 7961: 7955: 7945: 7942: 7941: 7939: 7935: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7923:United States 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7743: 7741: 7737: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7713:Magnetic sail 7711: 7710: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7675: 7669: 7668:Solar tracker 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621:(solar panel) 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610:(and systems) 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7579: 7578:Photovoltaics 7575: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7553:Solar chimney 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7523: 7518: 7512: 7506: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7481: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7447: 7442: 7440: 7435: 7433: 7428: 7427: 7424: 7409: 7405: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7358: 7354: 7348: 7333: 7329: 7323: 7315: 7308: 7300: 7296: 7290: 7282: 7278: 7272: 7264: 7258: 7239: 7235: 7228: 7222: 7214: 7210: 7204: 7196: 7192: 7186: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7156: 7148: 7144: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7119: 7111: 7107: 7100: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7081: 7074: 7070: 7067: 7061: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7042: 7033: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7013: 7004: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6988:(1): 015031. 6987: 6983: 6979: 6972: 6963: 6955: 6951: 6944: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6911: 6905: 6889: 6883: 6876: 6871: 6864: 6859: 6843: 6837: 6821: 6807: 6792: 6788: 6781: 6766: 6762: 6755: 6739: 6733: 6727: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6678:(1): 050007. 6677: 6673: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6639: 6633: 6627: 6621: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6576: 6570: 6565: 6559: 6554: 6546: 6545:Miteco.gob.es 6542: 6536: 6530: 6525: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6501: 6495: 6489: 6482: 6477: 6470: 6465: 6458: 6454: 6451: 6446: 6439: 6434: 6427: 6423: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6390: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6363: 6356: 6352: 6349: 6343: 6341: 6332: 6331: 6323: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6272: 6263: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6239: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6202:Nature Energy 6196: 6181: 6175: 6173: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6114: 6098: 6091: 6084: 6081: 6077: 6074: 6069: 6062: 6061:9781786304995 6058: 6054: 6050: 6049: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6019: 6000: 5993: 5987: 5971: 5967: 5961: 5953: 5947: 5939: 5933: 5926: 5925: 5917: 5909: 5903: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5867: 5866: 5858: 5856: 5840: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5823:, REN21, 2018 5822: 5817: 5815: 5808:, REN21, 2017 5807: 5802: 5800: 5781: 5775: 5773: 5757: 5751: 5736: 5730: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5689: 5683: 5681: 5665: 5659: 5644: 5638: 5623: 5617: 5602: 5596: 5580: 5574: 5558: 5552: 5537: 5531: 5515: 5509: 5493: 5489: 5483: 5467: 5463: 5457: 5450: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5373: 5366: 5361: 5354: 5349: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5288: 5282: 5274: 5270: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5213: 5207: 5192: 5186: 5179: 5173: 5166: 5160: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5140: 5138: 5121: 5117: 5111: 5103: 5097: 5093: 5092: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4986: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4967: 4959: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4921: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4887: 4885: 4877: 4872: 4857: 4851: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4765: 4758: 4755: 4750: 4743: 4737: 4730: 4729:Shuman, Frank 4724: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4672: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4621: 4615: 4599: 4593: 4577: 4573: 4567: 4552: 4546: 4531: 4525: 4510: 4504: 4488: 4482: 4466: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4441: 4426: 4420: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4385: 4379: 4361: 4355: 4353: 4337: 4333: 4327: 4312: 4308: 4302: 4300: 4281: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4255: 4251: 4244: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4214: 4195: 4188: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4111: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4047: 4042: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3955:Energy portal 3950: 3945: 3942: 3936: 3931: 3924: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3911: 3901: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3860: 3851: 3842: 3840: 3835: 3833: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3766: 3764: 3759: 3740: 3730: 3728: 3724: 3714: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3685: 3676: 3667: 3664: 3658: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3588: 3580: 3566: 3562: 3560: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3531: 3527: 3524: 3521: 3518: 3515: 3508: 3501: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3468: 3445: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3428: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3404: 3387: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3336: 3335: 3334: 3317: 3314: 3294: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3266: 3256: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3243: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3211: 3205: 3200: 3183: 3164: 3162: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3092: 3089: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3042: 3041: 3040: 3026: 3006: 2963: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2895: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2880:applying the 2867: 2860: 2856: 2816: 2812: 2786: 2782: 2750: 2742: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2695: 2687: 2686: 2685: 2671: 2664: 2648: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2607: 2586: 2563: 2554: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2519: 2505: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2470: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2432: 2424: 2423: 2422: 2406: 2402: 2379: 2375: 2319: 2304: 2271: 2221: 2171: 2162: 2161: 2117: 2095: 2091: 2059: 2052: 2020: 2012: 2011: 2010: 1967: 1958: 1912: 1856: 1806: 1762: 1706: 1702: 1664: 1660: 1628: 1624: 1598: 1594: 1591: 1584: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1479: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1446: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1421: 1417: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1382: 1377: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1343: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1079: 1076: 1072: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 997: 995: 991: 987: 984: 982: 978: 974: 971: 969: 965: 961: 958: 956: 952: 948: 945: 943: 939: 935: 932: 930: 926: 922: 919: 917: 913: 909: 906: 904: 903:United States 900: 896: 893: 891: 887: 883: 880: 877: 876: 863: 799: 795: 785: 783: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 763:Brayton cycle 759: 757: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 721: 717: 707: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 660: 653: 649: 644: 637:Dish Stirling 634: 630: 625: 615: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 587: 583: 582:Mojave Desert 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 554: 552: 548: 540: 536: 532: 527: 520: 516: 511: 501: 499: 495: 491: 488: 477: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 446:working fluid 437: 429: 424: 414: 411: 406: 402: 400: 396: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 333: 318: 316: 311: 309: 305: 300: 296: 294: 290: 285: 283: 278: 274: 270: 264: 262: 258: 254: 250: 249:John Ericsson 245: 240: 238: 234: 225: 216: 214: 210: 204: 202: 197: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 165:sensible heat 162: 158: 148: 144: 142: 138: 134: 133:steam turbine 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 96: 92: 91:Khi Solar One 87: 81: 77: 72: 66: 61: 54: 50: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 9042:Cook Islands 8700:South Africa 8604: 8435:Fusion power 8429: 8337: 8325: 8252:Desalination 8245:Desalination 8224:Disinfection 8215:Solar cooker 8182:Process heat 8083:horticulture 8070:Applications 8030:Applications 8021:Net metering 7957:Distribution 7893:South Africa 7883:Saudi Arabia 7679:and proposed 7677:Experimental 7640:Concentrated 7639: 7568:Thermal mass 7453:Solar energy 7411:. 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