Concentrated solar power

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found that the median water consumption during operations of concentrating solar power plants with wet cooling was 3.1 cubic metres per megawatt-hour (810 US gal/MWh) for power tower plants and 3.4 m/MWh (890 US gal/MWh) for trough plants. This was higher than the operational water consumption (with cooling towers) for nuclear at 2.7 m/MWh (720 US gal/MWh), coal at 2.0 m/MWh (530 US gal/MWh), or natural gas at 0.79 m/MWh (210 US gal/MWh). A 2011 study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory came to similar conclusions: for power plants with cooling towers, water consumption during operations was 3.27 m/MWh (865 US gal/MWh) for CSP trough, 2.98 m/MWh (786 US gal/MWh) for CSP tower, 2.60 m/MWh (687 US gal/MWh) for coal, 2.54 m/MWh (672 US gal/MWh) for nuclear, and 0.75 m/MWh (198 US gal/MWh) for natural gas. The Solar Energy Industries Association noted that the Nevada Solar One trough CSP plant consumes 3.2 m/MWh (850 US gal/MWh). The issue of water consumption is heightened because CSP plants are often located in arid environments where water is scarce.

425: 1380: 542:. Optically a solar power tower is the same as a circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500–1000 °C (773–1,273 K or 932–1,832 °F) and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted instead of the whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced than trough systems, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability. Beam down tower application is also feasible with heliostats to heat the working fluid. CSP with dual towers are also used to enhance the conversion efficiency by nearly 24%. 3889: 29: 417: 3548: 3664: 49: 3150: 7494: 504: 372:. Parabolic trough and concentrating linear Fresnel reflectors are classified as linear focus collector types, while dish and solar tower are point focus types. Linear focus collectors achieve medium concentration factors (50 suns and over), and point focus collectors achieve high concentration factors (over 500 suns). Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about 515: 7500: 9076: 8296: 3924: 75: 9086: 7506: 3938: 8575: 213: 60: 228:. In 1973 a Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, curious about whether Archimedes could really have destroyed the Roman fleet in 212 BC, lined up nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding an oblong mirror tipped to catch the sun's rays and direct them at a tar-covered plywood silhouette 49 m (160 ft) away. The ship caught fire after a few minutes; however, historians continue to doubt the Archimedes story. 637: 3650:

certificates can then be sold and transferred to liable entities (usually electricity retailers) to meet their obligations under this tradeable certificates scheme. However, as this legislation is technology neutral in its operation, it tends to favour more established RE technologies with a lower levelised cost of generation, such as large-scale onshore wind, rather than solar thermal and CSP. At state level,

8308: 3568: 1372:, with a projected minimum price of 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for the most advanced CSP stations against record lows of 1.32 cents per kWh for utility-scale PV. This five-fold price difference has been maintained since 2018. Some PV-CSP plants in China have sought to operate profitably on the regional coal tariff of 5 US cents per kWh in 2021. 6426: 1409:

efficiency of about 30%. Due to variation in sun incidence during the day, the average conversion efficiency achieved is not equal to these maximum efficiencies, and the net annual solar-to- electricity efficiencies are 7-20% for pilot power tower systems, and 12-25% for demonstration-scale Stirling dish systems.

1060:(GW) to more than 3.4 GW. The record for capacity installed was reached in 2014, corresponding to 925 MW, however, was followed by a decline caused by policy changes, the global financial crisis, and the rapid decrease in price of the photovoltaic cells. Nevertheless, total capacity reached 6800 MW in 2021. 3591:

In this context, the Spanish Government enacted the Royal Decree-Law 9/2013 in 2013, aimed at the adoption of urgent measures to guarantee the economic and financial stability of the electric system, laying the foundations of the new Law 24/2013 of the Spanish electricity sector. This new retroactive

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The capacity limits for the different system types were re-defined during the review of the application conditions every quarter (art. 5 RD 1578/2008, Annex III RD 1578/2008). Prior to the end of an application period, the market caps specified for each system type are published on the website of the

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accounted for almost one third of the world's capacity, at 2,300 MW, despite no new capacity entering commercial operation in the country since 2013. The United States follows with 1,740 MW. Interest is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East, as well as China and India. There is a

621:

Fresnel reflectors are sometimes regarded as a technology with a worse output than other methods. The cost efficiency of this model is what causes some to use this instead of others with higher output ratings. Some new models of Fresnel reflectors with Ray Tracing capabilities have begun to be tested

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solar (PV) since they both use solar energy. While solar PV experienced huge growth during the 2010s, due to falling prices, solar CSP growth has been slow due to technical difficulties and high prices. In 2017, CSP represented less than 2% of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants.

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In a CSP plant that includes storage, the solar energy is first used to heat the molten salt or synthetic oil which is stored providing thermal/heat energy at high temperature in insulated tanks. Later the hot molten salt (or oil) is used in a steam generator to produce steam to generate electricity

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positions the mirrors to retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate the sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to generate steam when intense

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Concentrating solar power plants with wet-cooling systems have the highest water-consumption intensities of any conventional type of electric power plant; only fossil-fuel plants with carbon-capture and storage may have higher water intensities. A 2013 study comparing various sources of electricity

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CSP has a number of environmental effects, particularly on water use, land use and the use of hazardous materials. Water is generally used for cooling and to clean mirrors. Some projects are looking into various approaches to reduce the water and cleaning agents used, including the use of barriers,

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1.5 per kWh. At the end of 2020, China operated a total of 545 MW in 12 CSP plants, seven plants (320 MW) are molten-salt towers; another two plants (150 MW) use the proven Eurotrough 150 parabolic trough design, three plants (75 MW) use linear Fresnel collectors. Plans to build a second batch

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The efficiency of a concentrating solar power system will depend on the technology used to convert the solar power to electrical energy, the operating temperature of the receiver and the heat rejection, thermal losses in the system, and the presence or absence of other system losses; in addition to

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The design encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended

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Professor Giovanni Francia (1911–1980) designed and built the first concentrated-solar plant, which entered into operation in Sant'Ilario, near Genoa, Italy in 1968. This plant had the architecture of today's power tower plants with a solar receiver in the center of a field of solar collectors. The

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proposal and Project Helios in Greece (10 GW), both now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh each year from very large-scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide was 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003).

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Carbon neutral synthetic fuel production using concentrated solar thermal energy at nearly 1500 °C temperature is technically feasible and will be commercially viable in the future if the costs of CSP plants decline. Also carbon neutral hydrogen can be produced with solar thermal energy (CSP)

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After a lost decade for CSP in Europe, Spain announced in its National Energy and Climate Plan with the intention of adding 5GW of CSP capacity between 2021 and 2030. Towards this end bi-annual auctions of 200 MW of CSP capacity starting in October 2022 are expected, but details are not yet known.

617:

Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes through which working fluid is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more reflective surface in the same amount of space than a parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available sunlight, and they are much

3754:. Solar power tower and parabolic troughs can be used to provide the steam which is used directly so no generators are required and no electricity is produced. Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil which would not otherwise be economical to pump. 3649:

At the federal level, under the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET), in operation under the Renewable Energy Electricity Act 2000, large-scale solar thermal electricity generation from accredited RET power stations may be entitled to create large-scale generation certificates (LGCs). These

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in South Australia at a record low rate of just AUD$ 0.08/kWh or close to USD$ 0.06/kWh. Unfortunately the company failed to secure financing and the project got cancelled. Another promising application for CSP in Australia are mines that need 24/7 electricity but often have no grid connection.

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in 1995, implementing a new design with a molten salt mixture (60% sodium nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate) as the receiver working fluid and as a storage medium. The molten salt approach proved effective, and Solar Two operated successfully until it was decommissioned in 1999. The parabolic-trough

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less water by evaporation. For instance, the median coal power plant in the US with once-through cooling uses 138 m/MWh (36,350 US gal/MWh), but only 0.95 m/MWh (250 US gal/MWh) (less than one percent) is lost through evaporation. Since the 1970s, the majority of US

3654:

feed-in laws typically are capped by maximum generation capacity in kWp, and are open only to micro or medium scale generation and in a number of instances are only open to solar photovoltaic (PV) generation. This means that larger scale CSP projects would not be eligible for payment for feed-in

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The graph shows that the overall efficiency does not increase steadily with the receiver's temperature. Although the heat engine's efficiency (Carnot) increases with higher temperature, the receiver's efficiency does not. On the contrary, the receiver's efficiency is decreasing, as the amount of

1408:

Real-world systems claim a maximum conversion efficiency of 23-35% for "power tower" type systems, operating at temperatures from 250 to 565 °C, with the higher efficiency number assuming a combined cycle turbine. Dish Stirling systems, operating at temperatures of 550-750 °C, claim an

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Even though overall deployment of CSP remains limited in the early 2020s, the levelized cost of power from commercial scale plants has decreased significantly since the 2010s. With a learning rate estimated at around 20% cost reduction of every doubling in capacity the cost were approaching the

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plants to supply both electricity and process steam round the clock. As of December 2018, CSP with thermal energy storage plants generation cost have ranged between 5 c € / kWh and 7 c € / kWh depending on good to medium solar radiation received at a location. Unlike solar PV

432:

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned at the longitudinal focal line of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector follows the sun

195:

The DEWA project in Dubai, under construction in 2019, held the world record for lowest CSP price in 2017 at US$ 73 per MWh for its 700 MW combined trough and tower project: 600 MW of trough, 100 MW of tower with 15 hours of thermal energy storage daily. Base-load CSP tariff in the extremely dry

135:

As of 2021, global installed capacity of concentrated solar power stood at 6.8 GW. As of 2023, the total was 8.1 GW, with the inclusion of three new CSP projects in construction in China and in Dubai in the UAE. The U.S.-based National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which maintains a global

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In 2007, the US Congress directed the Department of Energy to report on ways to reduce water consumption by CSP. The subsequent report noted that dry cooling technology was available that, although more expensive to build and operate, could reduce water consumption by CSP by 91 to 95 percent. A

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In 2008, Spain launched the first commercial scale CSP market in Europe. Until 2012, solar-thermal electricity generation was initially eligible for feed-in tariff payments (art. 2 RD 661/2007) – leading to the creation of the largest CSP fleet in the world which at 2.3 GW of installed capacity

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Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade (art. 5 RD 1578/2008). Because of cost concerns Spain has halted acceptance of new projects for the feed-in-tariff on 27 January 2012 Already accepted projects were affected by a 6% "solar-tax" on feed-in-tariffs, effectively reducing the feed-in-tariff.

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plants. The last SEGS plant was completed in 1990. From 1991 to 2005, no CSP plants were built anywhere in the world. Global installed CSP-capacity increased nearly tenfold between 2004 and 2013 and grew at an average of 50 percent per year during the last five of those years, as the number of

1738: 393:

Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly varying thermodynamic efficiencies, due to differences in the way that they track the sun and focus light. New innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more cost-effective.

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of contemporary CSP contracts. However, increasingly, CSP was being bid with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage, making CSP a dispatchable form of solar energy. As such, it is increasingly seen as competing with natural gas and PV with batteries for flexible, dispatchable power.

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CSP was originally treated as a competitor to photovoltaics, and Ivanpah was built without energy storage, although Solar Two had included several hours of thermal storage. By 2015, prices for photovoltaic plants had fallen and PV commercial power was selling for

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legal-economic framework applied to all the renewable energy systems was developed in 2014 by the RD 413/2014, which abolished the former regulatory frameworks set by the RD 661/2007 and the RD 1578/2008 and defined a new remuneration scheme for these assets.

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tested a CSP arrangement in which tiny ceramic particles fall through the beam of concentrated solar energy, the ceramic particles capable of storing a greater amount of heat than molten salt, while not requiring a container that would diminish heat transfer.

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hybrid wet/dry cooling system could reduce water consumption by 32 to 58 percent. A 2015 report by NREL noted that of the 24 operating CSP power plants in the US, 4 used dry cooling systems. The four dry-cooled systems were the three power plants at the

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CSP deployment has slowed down considerably as most of the above-mentioned markets have cancelled their support, as the technology turned out to be more expensive on a per kWH basis than solar PV and wind power. CSP in combination with

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Since about 2010, central power tower CSP has been favored in new plants due to its higher temperature operation – up to 565 °C (1,049 °F) vs. trough's maximum of 400 °C (752 °F) – which promises greater efficiency.

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In 2024, China is offering second generation CSP technology to compete with other on-demand electricity generation methods based on renewable or non-renewable fossil fuels without any direct or indirect subsidies. In the current 14th

3445: 3689:, with the intention of building up an internationally competitive CSP industry. Since the first plants were completed in 2018, the generated electricity from the plants with thermal storage is supported with an administratively set 235:

used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine. The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by the Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in 1886. Over the following years, invеntors such as

1367:

lead to projections that CSP will no longer be economically viable. As of 2020, the least expensive utility-scale concentrated solar power stations in the United States and worldwide are five times more expensive than utility-scale

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Insects can be attracted to the bright light caused by concentrated solar technology, and as a result birds that hunt them can be killed by being burned if they fly near the point where light is being focused. This can also affect

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that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250–700 °C (482–1,292 °F) and then used by a

6726: 3904:

Some media sources have reported that concentrated solar power plants have injured or killed large numbers of birds due to intense heat from the concentrated sunrays. Some of the claims may have been overstated or exaggerated.

5768: 3230: 1576: 3553:

Theoretical efficiencies aside, real-world experience of CSP reveals a 25%–60% shortfall in projected production, a good part of which is due to the practical Carnot cycle losses not included in the above analysis.

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Bulk power from CSP today is much more expensive than solar PV or Wind power, however developers are hoping that energy storage CSP can be a cheaper alternative. As early as 2011, the rapid decline of the price of

7287: 573:, was the largest CSP facility in the world, and uses three power towers. Ivanpah generated only 0.652 TWh (63%) of its energy from solar means, and the other 0.388 TWh (37%) was generated by burning 2488: 4104:

Law, Edward W.; Prasad, Abhnil A.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 October 2014). "Direct normal irradiance forecasting and its application to concentrated solar thermal output forecasting – A review".

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for the production of solar fuels, making solar a fully transportable form of energy in the future. These researchers use the solar heat of CSP as a catalyst for thermochemistry to break apart molecules of

287:

In 2007, 75 MW Nevada Solar One was built, a trough design and the first large plant since SEGS. Between 2010 and 2013, Spain built over 40 parabolic trough systems, standardized in 50 MW blocks.

3317: 2939: 441:) is heated to 150–350 °C (302–662 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The 6441: 758:

to generate electricity. These are also small in capacity (<0.4 MW) with flexibility to install in few acres area. Waste heat from the power plant can also be used for process steam generation and

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Chandra, Yogender Pal (17 April 2017). "Numerical optimization and convective thermal loss analysis of improved solar parabolic trough collector receiver system with one sided thermal insulation".

6013: 2004: 4140:

Law, Edward W.; Kay, Merlinde; Taylor, Robert A. (1 February 2016). "Calculating the financial value of a concentrated solar thermal plant operated using direct normal irradiance forecasts".

3830:, moderate hill slopes and crater depressions may be advantageous in the case of power tower CSP as the power tower can be located on the ground integral with the molten salt storage tank. 5697: 3790:

Around the turn of the millennium up to about 2010, there have been several proposals for gigawatt size, very-large-scale solar power plants using CSP. They include the Euro-Mediterranean

2354: 1891: 1944: 1996: 1835: 1376:

upper end of the fossil fuel cost range at the beginning of the 2020s driven by support schemes in several countries, including Spain, the US, Morocco, South Africa, China, and the UAE:

302:

Most concentrated solar power plants use the parabolic trough design, instead of the power tower or Fresnel systems. There have also been variations of parabolic trough systems like the

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Nathan Bracken and others, Concentrating Solar Power and Water Issues in the U.S. Southwest, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A50-61376, March 2015, p.10.

2566: 2986: 1785: 2727: 2250: 2200: 3034: 3160:) grows by the fourth power as a function of temperature. Hence, there is a maximum reachable temperature. When the receiver efficiency is null (blue curve on the figure below), T 2288: 6851: 3908:

According to rigorous reporting, in over six months, 133 songbirds were counted at Ivanpah. By focusing no more than four mirrors on any one place in the air during standby, at

1560: 5179: 1506: 687:(NSTTF) in New Mexico on 31 January 2008, a cold, bright day. According to its developer, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish firm, in 2015 its Dish Sterling system being tested in the 5852: 3642:

Vast Solar a startup company aiming to commercialize a novel modular third generation CSP design is looking to start construction of a 50 MW combines CSP and PV facility in

2628: 252:, who was already well known for his research on liquid-fueled rockets and wrote an article in 1929 in which he asserted that all the previous obstacles had been addressed. 5016:"Aussie scientists hit milestone in concentrated solar power They heated ceramic particles to a blistering 1450 F by dropping them through a beam of concentrated sunlight" 2988:= 1) and without considering the ultimate conversion step into electricity by a generator, collecting and reradiating areas equal and maximum absorptivity and emissivity ( 7283: 6384: 6339: 3026: 2867: 6529: 5980: 3006: 2671: 3747:, other much-used hydrocarbons – for example, the jet fuel used to fly commercial airplanes – could also be created with solar energy rather than from fossil fuels. 2493:

The real-world efficiencies of typical engines achieve 50% to at most 70% of the Carnot efficiency due to losses such as heat loss and windage in the moving parts.

2408: 2381: 1446: 691:

in South Africa showed 34% efficiency. The SES installation in Maricopa, Phoenix was the largest Stirling Dish power installation in the world until it was sold to

479:

solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors.

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more water than CSP, meaning that more water passes through their systems, most of the cooling water returns to the water body available for other uses, and they

2734: 8606: 5827: 3328: 489:(EOR) for about $ 5 per 290 kWh (1,000,000 BTU) in sunny regions, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies. 7215: 3468: 2648: 2586: 2519: 1379: 6714: 6438: 5676: 4069:

Boerema, Nicholas; Morrison, Graham; Taylor, Robert; Rosengarten, Gary (1 November 2013). "High temperature solar thermal central-receiver billboard design".

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to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-to-electric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability. The

386:, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on 7269: 4413: 3629:

So far no commercial scale CSP project has been commissioned in Australia, but several projects were suggested. In 2017, now bankrupt American CSP developer

7131: 244:

developed concentrating solar-powered dеvices for irrigation, refrigеration, and locomоtion. In 1913 Shuman finished a 55 horsepower (41 kW) parabolic

4175: 349:(solar thermoelectricity). The solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or cooling, such as in 6021: 5023: 4687: 3968: 6558: 4348: 3868:. Of 15 CSP projects under construction or development in the US as of March 2015, 6 were wet systems, 7 were dry systems, 1 hybrid, and 1 unspecified. 743:

plants, CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used economically round the clock to produce only process steam replacing pollution emitting

8599: 7149: 5422: 4826: 4435: 7316: 4238: 2842:

For simplicity's sake, one can assume that the losses are only radiative ones (a fair assumption for high temperatures), thus for a reradiating area

1733:{\displaystyle \eta =\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }\cdot \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }} 6317: 5476: 5404: 5166: 4962: 3167: 8346: 6580: 5940: 5896: 5701: 4844: 538:) that concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower; the receiver contains a heat-transfer fluid, which can consist of water-steam or 7094: 6189:

Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2017). "Empirically observed learning rates for concentrating solar power and their responses to regime change".

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systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for a conventional

6041: 664: 6168: 6415: 3685:

In 2016, China announced its intention to build a batch of 20 technologically diverse CSP demonstration projects in the context of the 13th

6876: 3779: 295:, was built in Spain in 2011, later renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. Gemasolar's results paved the way for further plants of its type. 683:, Australia are representative of this technology. A world record for solar to electric efficiency was set at 31.25% by SES dishes at the 8836: 7037: 6569: 6457: 5153: 718:

as per requirement. Thus solar energy which is available in daylight only is used to generate electricity round the clock on demand as a

2416: 7251: 5353: 3901:

who hunt the birds. Federal wildlife officials were quoted by opponents as calling the Ivanpah power towers "mega traps" for wildlife.

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notable trend towards developing countries and regions with high solar radiation with several large plants under construction in 2017.

6852:

A Study of Very Large Solar Desert Systems with the Requirements and Benefits to those Nations Having High Solar Irradiation Potential

5723: 5567: 4295: 5104: 3808: 5954: 5652: 3248: 2879: 7076: 6136: 1566:. The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator. For a solar receiver with a mechanical converter ( 7179: 6107: 5871: 1396:

expects that by 2030 PV with 10-hour storage lithium batteries will cost the same as PV with 4-hour storage used to cost in 2020.

4395: 3450:

Solving this equation numerically allows us to obtain the optimum process temperature according to the solar concentration ratio

6557:

Kraemer, S. (2019). Sodium-based Vast Solar Combines the Best of Trough & Tower CSP to Win our Innovation Award, Solarpaces

8947: 8796: 8783: 7989: 7432: 5631: 4864: 6938: 5589: 4497: 4453: 3750:

Heat from the sun can be used to provide steam used to make heavy oil less viscous and easier to pump. This process is called

1392:(TES) is expected by some to become cheaper than PV with lithium batteries for storage durations above 4 hours per day, while 8994: 8932: 6517: 6336: 5924: 5865: 5088: 4944: 1318: 383: 281: 6267:"Making the sun shine at night: comparing the cost of dispatchable concentrating solar power and photovoltaics with storage" 6064: 5987: 4518: 280:

system at Liddell Power Station in Australia was built. Few other plants were built with this design although the 5 MW

9079: 9020: 9015: 6715:

http://helioscsp.com/china-mulls-withdrawal-of-subsidies-for-concentrated-solar-power-csp-and-offshore-wind-energy-in-2021/

5610: 5136: 3973: 3803:

for solar projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 GW. The largest single plant in operation is the 510 MW

1563: 1339: 782: 684: 273:(SEGS), begun in 1984, was more workable. The 354 MW SEGS was the largest solar power plant in the world, until 2014. 6399: 5366:

Abbas, R.; Muñoz-Antón, J.; Valdés, M.; Martínez-Val, J.M. (August 2013). "High concentration linear Fresnel reflectors".

5180:"Three solar modules of world's first commercial beam-down tower Concentrated Solar Power project to be connected to grid" 4268: 2143:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }={\frac {Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }-Q_{\mathrm {lost} }}{Q_{\mathrm {incident} }}}} 1331:

The global market was initially dominated by parabolic-trough plants, which accounted for 90% of CSP plants at one point.

8861: 8751: 8339: 7392: 7341: 7302: 7057: 7009: 6713:

HeliosCSP (2020) China mulls withdrawal of subsidies for concentrated solar power (CSP) and offshore wind energy in 2021

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Johan Lilliestam, Richard Thonig, Alina Gilmanova, & Chuncheng Zang. (2020). CSP.guru (Version 2020-07-01) . Zenodo.

3909: 3751: 731: 37: 5524: 4608: 4922: 4895: 4812: 3638: 600: 6702: 762:

needs. In case land availability is not a limitation, any number of these modules can be installed up to 1000 MW with

754:

with air instead of steam for generating electricity and/or steam round the clock. These CSP plants are equipped with

303: 164:), which enables these plants to continue supplying electricity whenever it is needed, day or night. This makes CSP a 8501: 8100: 7891: 7761: 7226: 7025:

Utility-Scale Solar Power: Responsible Water Resource Management, Solar Energy Industries Association, 18 March 2010.

6898: 6085: 6049: 5911: 3711: 3576:

contributes about 5TWh of power to the Spanish grid every year. The initial requirements for plants in the FiT were:

1354:

in Morocco, which combines trough and tower technologies for a total of 510 MW with several hours of energy storage.

68: 3672: 510:, Israel, on its completion the tallest solar tower in the world. It concentrates light from over 50,000 heliostats. 8673: 7896: 7771: 4372: 3615: 2303: 1840: 692: 660: 612: 365: 277: 7265: 5794: 3698:

of demonstration projects were never enacted and further technology specific support for CSP in the upcoming 14th

1896: 176:, because demand for electric power peaks near sunset just as PV capacity ramps down (a phenomenon referred to as 9025: 8691: 8281: 7961: 7197: 6547: 4043: 1951: 1790: 1052: 668: 592: 442: 270: 4182: 2524: 1056:

countries with installed CSP were growing In 2013, worldwide installed capacity increased by 36% or nearly 0.9

424: 8979: 8851: 8726: 8696: 8668: 8486: 8332: 7831: 7452: 6602: 4766: 4673: 3978: 3804: 3580:

Systems registered in the register of systems prior to 29 September 2008: 50 MW for solar-thermal systems.

2947: 1746: 1405:

the conversion efficiency, the optical system which concentrates the sunlight will also add additional losses.

1351: 672: 299:

was constructed at the same time but without thermal storage, using natural gas to preheat water each morning.

5295:"Land-Use competitiveness of photovoltaic and concentrated solar power technologies near the Tropic of Cancer" 5015: 4695: 3138:{\displaystyle \eta =\left(1-{\frac {\sigma T_{H}^{4}}{IC}}\right)\cdot \left(1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}\right)} 2679: 458: 9125: 9110: 9046: 9010: 8846: 8746: 8721: 8579: 8466: 8312: 8105: 7979: 7531: 5037:

Vignarooban, K.; Xinhai, Xu (2015). "Heat transfer fluids for concentrating solar power systems – A review".

4320: 2205: 2155: 766:

and cost advantage since the per MW cost of these units are cheaper than bigger size solar thermal stations.

695:. Subsequently, larger parts of the installation have been moved to China as part of the huge energy demand. 7157: 172:

is particularly valuable in places where there is already a high penetration of photovoltaics (PV), such as

9061: 8984: 8952: 8871: 8761: 8741: 8731: 8648: 6663:. Solarpaces 2020: 26th International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems. 6659:

Thonig, Richard; Gilmanova, Alina; Zhan, Jing; Lilliestam, Johan (May 2022). "Chinese CSP for the World?".

5828:"Concentrated Solar Power increasing cumulative global capacity more than 11% to just under 5.5 GW in 2018" 4586: 3865: 3861: 3853: 1343: 676: 580: 566: 296: 53: 4827:"eSolar Sierra SunTower: a History of Concentrating Solar Power Underperformance | Gunther Portfolio" 4539: 9115: 8942: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8831: 8821: 8811: 8806: 8791: 8766: 8663: 8658: 7866: 7856: 6830: 2255: 554: 292: 7055:

A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies

7007:

A Review of Operational Water Consumption and Withdrawal Factors for Electricity Generating Technologies

1511: 1421:, which represents a theoretical limit to the efficiency that can be achieved by any system, set by the 640: 631: 329:

CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through

9130: 9051: 9030: 8989: 8974: 8937: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8881: 8866: 8826: 8816: 8756: 8706: 8701: 8630: 8126: 7836: 7608: 7425: 6469: 5677:"247Solar and Masen Ink Agreement for First Operational Next Generation Concentrated Solar Power Plant" 5480: 4959: 4414:"As Concentrated Solar Power bids fall to record lows, prices seen diverging between different regions" 3963: 3957: 3800: 1369: 719: 276:

No commercial concentrated solar was constructed from 1990 when SEGS was completed until 2006 when the

20: 5809: 3888: 3880:

power plants have used recirculating systems such as cooling towers rather than once-through systems.

1463: 256:

plant was able to produce 1 MW with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500 °C. The 10 MW

248:

station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation. The first solar-power system using a mirror dish was built by

9056: 8876: 8856: 8841: 8736: 8716: 8711: 8653: 8643: 8388: 7673: 6967:"Life cycle water use for electricity generation: A review and harmonization of literature estimates" 6919: 6749: 4215: 3796: 3775: 3771: 3682:

CSP projects are developed in several provinces alongside large GW sized solar PV and wind projects.

1508:

and subsequently the heat is converted into mechanical energy by the heat engine with the efficiency

173: 136:

database of CSP plants, counts 6.6 GW of operational capacity and another 1.5 GW under construction.

8801: 2591: 8683: 8537: 8532: 8209: 7811: 7731: 7703: 4730: 3699: 3686: 3679: 3634: 3605: 2870: 591:

areas where solar power is usually located, it is impossible to cool down carbon dioxide below its

7113: 6775: 5744: 5450: 5438:

34% of the sun's energy hitting the mirrors is converted directly to grid-available electric power

4475: 3667:

The China Energy Engineering Corporation 50 MW Hami power tower has 8 hours of molten-salt storage

485:, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can produce heat for 9089: 8552: 8542: 8506: 8481: 8471: 8443: 7917: 7876: 7846: 7841: 7698: 7462: 7457: 7284:"California's new solar power plant is actually a death ray that's incinerating birds mid-flight" 6591:

A Dangerous Obsession with Least Cost? Climate Change, Renewable Energy Law and Emissions Trading

6335:

International Renewable Energy Agency, "Table 2.1: Comparison of different CSP Technologies", in

5698:"247 solar modular & scalable concentrated solar power tech to be marketed to mining by Rost" 5545: 3998: 3929: 3759: 722:

or solar peaker plant. The thermal storage capacity is indicated in hours of power generation at

656: 342: 189: 184: 165: 5502: 3795:

The gigawatt size projects would have been arrays of standard-sized single plants. In 2012, the

416: 225: 8511: 8276: 7956: 7886: 7861: 7851: 7826: 7821: 7776: 7766: 7741: 7736: 7726: 7721: 7713: 7581: 7536: 6346:, Renewable energy technologies: Cost analysis series, June 2012, p. 10. Retrieved 23 May 2019. 5400: 4008: 3988: 3727: 3011: 2852: 1422: 1389: 786: 704: 584: 565:, Spain, is the first commercial utility-scale solar power tower in the world. The 377 MW 558: 519: 350: 265: 261: 224:

used a "burning glass" to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from

149: 7034: 5341: 3702:

is unknown. Federal support projects from the demonstration batch ran out at the end of 2021.

8438: 8383: 8355: 8300: 8162: 8131: 7951: 7881: 7816: 7806: 7791: 7781: 7751: 7746: 7418: 4742: 3983: 3715: 2991: 2656: 1417:

The maximum conversion efficiency of any thermal to electrical energy system is given by the

735: 507: 486: 445:(SEGS) plants in California, the world's first commercial parabolic trough plants, Acciona's 188:

However, CSP can more easily store energy during the night, making it more competitive with

145: 8591: 7114:"Solar thermal plants have a PR problem, and that PR problem is dead birds catching on fire" 5401:

Sandia, Stirling Energy Systems set new world record for solar-to-grid conversion efficiency

5275: 5257: 5239: 2831:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }=\eta _{\mathrm {optics} }\alpha Q_{\mathrm {solar} }} 9120: 7901: 7871: 7801: 7796: 7786: 7756: 7688: 7523: 6978: 6668: 6319:

US National Renewable Energy Lab forecasts rapid cost reduction for battery storage to 2030

6278: 6234:"The near- to mid-term outlook for concentrating solar power: mostly cloudy, chance of sun" 6198: 5375: 5306: 5046: 4988: 4149: 4114: 4078: 4013: 3993: 3871:

Although many older thermoelectric power plants with once-through cooling or cooling ponds

3819:

The locations with highest direct irradiance are dry, at high altitude, and located in the

3440:{\displaystyle T_{opt}^{5}-(0.75T^{0})T_{\mathrm {opt} }^{4}-{\frac {T^{0}IC}{4\sigma }}=0} 2386: 2359: 1431: 1063: 956: 770: 708: 462: 450: 245: 113: 6546:

Kraemer, S. (2017). SolarReserve Breaks CSP Price Record with 6 Cent Contract, Solarpaces

6518:

https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/ec_courtesy_translation_es_necp.pdf

5221: 5108: 3547: 8: 8491: 8476: 8428: 8398: 8256: 8030: 7946: 7693: 7597: 7591: 7551: 5958: 4003: 3857: 3763: 2356:

is at most the Carnot efficiency, which is determined by the temperature of the receiver

1364: 647: 550: 7073: 6982: 6672: 6282: 6202: 6144: 5379: 5310: 5050: 4992: 4779: 4153: 4118: 4082: 3663: 738:, but without the pollution. CSP with thermal energy storage plants can also be used as 618:

cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various size CSPs.

8084: 7678: 7586: 6991: 6966: 6684: 6214: 6115: 5934: 5890: 5324: 4647: 3611: 3453: 2633: 2571: 2504: 723: 6169:"Three Gorges Seeks EPC Bids for 200 MW of Concentrated Solar Power Under 5 cents/kWh" 9085: 8246: 8204: 8110: 8010: 7641: 7245: 6800: 6688: 6598: 6218: 6045: 5920: 5861: 5328: 5084: 4940: 4918: 4891: 4762: 4669: 4018: 1457: 1449: 1418: 1347: 562: 498: 387: 369: 257: 249: 33: 28: 5611:"Controllable solar power – competitively priced for the first time in North Africa" 108:

by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver.

8496: 8433: 8423: 8418: 8251: 7636: 7483: 6986: 6703:

https://www.solarpaces.org/eurotrough-cut-ramp-up-in-china-100-mw-urat-csp%E2%80%A8

6676: 6626: 6579:

PV magazine (2020). Vast Solar eyes $ 600 million solar hybrid plant for Mount Isa

6365: 6296: 6286: 6245: 6206: 5387: 5383: 5314: 5058: 5054: 4996: 4639: 4157: 4122: 4086: 3767: 3651: 1837:

the fraction of light incident on the receiver that is converted into heat energy,

482: 446: 411: 357: 232: 169: 48: 16:

Use of mirror or lens assemblies to heat a working fluid for electricity generation

6291: 6266: 6250: 6233: 5319: 5294: 5201:"World's First Dual-Tower Concentrated Solar Power Plant Boosts Efficiency by 24%" 5200: 5000: 4161: 4126: 4090: 730:

or CSP without storage, the power generation from solar thermal storage plants is

457:, Europe's first commercial parabolic trough plant are representative, along with 428:

Diagram of linear parabolic reflector concentrating sun rays to heat working fluid

7080: 7061: 7041: 7013: 6701:

Solarpaces (2021), EuroTrough Helped Cut Ramp-Up Time of China's 100 MW Urat CSP

6568:

New Energy Update (2019). CSP mini tower developer predicts costs below $ 50/MWh

6445: 6343: 6068: 6061: 5408: 5140: 5078: 4966: 4881: 3952: 3149: 715: 688: 652: 125: 7493: 6494: 5133: 8516: 8458: 8413: 7984: 7669: 7576: 7054: 6417:

Generation from Spain's Existing 2.3 GW of CSP Showing Steady Annual Increases.

5724:"Capex of modular Concentrated Solar Power plants could halve if 1 GW deployed" 4717: 3690: 3242:. when the efficiency derivative relative to the receiver temperature is null: 197: 129: 7006: 6801:"A solar tower fuel plant for the thermochemical production of kerosene from H 6506: 6301: 5986:. International Renewable Energy Agency. June 2012. p. 11. Archived from 5354:

Ausra's Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) and Lower Temperature Approach

9104: 8448: 8167: 8025: 8020: 8015: 7664: 7646: 7566: 7541: 7370: 6482: 3943: 3827: 891: 751: 727: 570: 503: 475: 434: 361: 338: 237: 153: 121: 79: 7016:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900. 6460:. Instituteforenergyresearch.org (9 April 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 6210: 3823:. These locations have a higher potential for CSP than areas with less sun. 3610:

Several CSP dishes have been set up in remote Aboriginal settlements in the

3225:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {max} }=\left({\frac {IC}{\sigma }}\right)^{0.25}} 622:

and have initially proved to yield higher output than the standard version.

8408: 8225: 8188: 8064: 8056: 7994: 7556: 7441: 6920:"Environmental Impacts of Solar Power | Union of Concerned Scientists" 3898: 3630: 1570:, a turbine), the overall conversion efficiency can be defined as follows: 969: 904: 744: 739: 534:

A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors (

241: 83: 6727:"SECI to issue tender for 500-MW concentrated solar-thermal power project" 6613:

The dragon awakens: Will China save or conquer concentrating solar power?

6595:

Climate Change Law: Comparative, Contractual and Regulatory Considerations

1946:

the efficiency of converting the mechanical energy into electrical power.

1787:

represents the fraction of incident light concentrated onto the receiver,

144:

As a thermal energy generating power station, CSP has more in common with

8230: 8051: 7602: 7514: 7499: 6965:

Meldrum, J.; Nettles-Anderson, S.; Heath, G.; MacKnick, J. (March 2013).

6863: 6647: 6627:"2018 Review: China concentrated solar power pilot projects' development" 6035: 755: 574: 539: 514: 438: 346: 161: 157: 117: 109: 105: 8324: 5590:"2018, the year in which the Concentrated Solar Power returned to shine" 5105:"Linear-focusing Concentrator Facilities: DCS, DISS, EUROTROUGH and LS3" 1893:

the efficiency of conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy, and

8547: 8172: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8074: 8069: 7683: 7613: 7546: 5653:"Morocco Pioneers PV with Thermal Storage at 800 MW Midelt CSP Project" 4651: 2847: 2651: 2291: 1460:

is first converted into heat by the solar receiver with the efficiency

596: 221: 177: 139: 6680: 6369: 4561:"ACWA Power scales up tower-trough design to set record-low CSP price" 4519:"UAE's push on concentrated solar power should open eyes across world" 636: 557:

Almeria, Spain, are the most representative demonstration plants. The

74: 8079: 7631: 5568:"Aurora: What you should know about Port Augusta's solar power-tower" 5525:"Concentrating Solar Power Isn't Viable Without Storage, Say Experts" 4969:. Popularmechanics.com (1 November 2008). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4887: 3799:

made available 97,921,069 acres (39,627,251 hectares) of land in the

1008: 747:. CSP plant can also be integrated with solar PV for better synergy. 546: 535: 527: 523: 41: 7505: 6964: 6614: 6590: 5423:"Could this be the world's most efficient solar electricity system?" 5076: 4643: 4454:"After the Desertec hype: is concentrating solar power still alive?" 3923: 2383:

and the temperature of the heat rejection ("heat sink temperature")

1448:

of the incident solar radiation into mechanical work depends on the

7095:"Burned birds become new environmental victims of the energy quest" 6530:"El Miteco aprueba la orden para iniciar el calendario de subastas" 4805:"Ivanpah Solar Project Faces Risk of Default on PG&E Contracts" 4373:"New Chance for US CSP? California Outlaws Gas-Fired Peaker Plants" 3791: 3726:

CSP has other uses than electricity. Researchers are investigating

3694: 3623: 3619: 1057: 1021: 769:

Centralized district heating round the clock is also feasible with

680: 212: 5632:"Morocco Breaks New Record with 800 MW Midelt 1 CSP-PV at 7 Cents" 5365: 3839:

non-stick coatings on mirrors, water misting systems, and others.

2483:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Carnot} }=1-{\frac {T^{0}}{T_{H}}}} 583:

can be used instead of steam as heat-transfer fluid for increased

306:

which combines troughs and conventional fossil fuel heat systems.

291:

Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called

8393: 6877:"Solar heads for the hills as tower technology turns upside down" 6750:"CSP is the Most Efficient Renewable to Split Water for Hydrogen" 6481:

Royal Decree-Law 9/2013, of 12 July, BOE no. 167, July 13; 2013.

6392:

Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology, R.A. Meyers Ed

5344:. Physics.usyd.edu.au (12 June 2002). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4630:

Thomas W. Africa (1975). "Archimedes through the Looking Glass".

3937: 3820: 3739:) from solar energy with no carbon emissions. By splitting both H 3643: 982: 917: 454: 216:

Solar steam engine for water pumping, near Los Angeles circa 1901

59: 7303:"Bird deaths from solar plant exaggerated by some media sources" 6939:"Smart cooling and cleaning for concentrated solar power plants" 6448:. Solarserver.com (30 January 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 4759:

A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology

4666:

A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology

4068: 646:

A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone

7410: 6597:, W. Gumley & T. Daya-Winterbottom (eds.) Lawbook Company, 5167:"Chevron Uses Solar-Thermal Steam to Extract Oil in California" 4269:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry, 2021" 1048: 603:

with higher critical temperature are currently in development.

356:

Concentrating technologies exist in four optical types, namely

334: 112:

is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat (

6505:

Royal Decree 413/2014, of 6 June, BOE no. 140, June 10; 2014.

4349:"Blue Book of China's Concentrating Solar Power Industry 2023" 4044:"Photovoltaic vs concentrated solar power the key differences" 3811:

in Dubai will become the largest solar complex featuring CSP.

3312:{\displaystyle {\frac {d\eta }{dT_{H}}}(T_{\mathrm {opt} })=0} 2934:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }=A\epsilon \sigma T_{H}^{4}} 2294:

and the fluxes absorbed and lost by the system solar receiver.

148:

such as coal, gas, or geothermal. A CSP plant can incorporate

8621: 7074:

Many newer power plants have cooling systems that Reuse Water

6899:"Beam-Down Demos First Direct Solar Storage at 1/2 MWh Scale" 6658: 6493:

Law 24/2013, of 26 December, BOE no. 310, December 27; 2013.

6356:

E. A. Fletcher (2001). "Solar thermal processing: A review".

3655:

incentives in many of the State and Territory jurisdictions.

1306: 1038: 995: 943: 930: 878: 433:

during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A

398: 330: 201: 6472:. Evwind.es (14 September 2012). Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 6382: 6014:"Renewables Bounced Back in 2010, Finds REN21 Global Report" 5222:"Ivanpah - World's Largest Solar Plant in California Desert" 3567: 3892:

Dead warbler burned in mid-air by solar thermal power plant

2944:

Simplifying these equations by considering perfect optics (

1425:. Real-world systems do not achieve the Carnot efficiency. 1393: 1051:. The US deployment of CSP plants started by 1984 with the 763: 759: 588: 64: 7375: 6037:

Energy Transition in Metropolises, Rural Areas and Deserts

6012:

Sawin, Janet L. & Martinot, Eric (29 September 2011).

750:

CSP with thermal storage systems are also available using

260:

power tower was developed in Southern California in 1981.

7478: 1452:

properties of the solar receiver and on the heat engine (

587:

efficiency. However, because of the high temperatures in

44:

spanning thirteen million sq ft (1.21 km).

7317:"For the birds: How speculation trumped fact at Ivanpah" 7202:

IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News

4913:

Roland Winston, Juan C. Miñano, Pablo G. Benitez (2004)

4845:"Why Concentrating Solar Power Needs Storage to Survive" 4587:"SolarReserve Bids CSP Under 5 Cents in Chilean Auction" 4498:"Concentrated Solar Power Costs Fell 46% From 2010–2018" 420:

Parabolic trough at a plant near Harper Lake, California

7386:

ISFOC (Institute of Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems)

4609:"SolarReserve Bids 24-Hour Solar At 6.3 Cents In Chile" 3322:

Consequently, this leads us to the following equation:

7385: 7342:"One weird trick prevents bird deaths at solar towers" 7035:

Concentrating Solar Power Commercial Application Study

5403:, Sandia, Feb. 12, 2008. Retrieved on 21 October 2021. 4867:. Tomkonrad.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 5451:"How CSP's Thermal Energy Storage Works - SolarPACES" 3583:

Systems registered after 29 September 2008 (PV only).

3456: 3331: 3251: 3170: 3037: 3014: 2994: 2950: 2882: 2855: 2737: 2682: 2659: 2636: 2594: 2574: 2527: 2507: 2419: 2389: 2362: 2306: 2258: 2208: 2158: 2007: 1954: 1899: 1843: 1793: 1749: 1579: 1514: 1466: 1434: 665:

Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)

7380: 4972: 4540:"Concentrated Solar Power Dropped 50% in Six Months" 4476:"CSP Doesn't Compete With PV – it Competes with Gas" 3919: 3785: 3673:

Solar power in China § Concentrated solar power

2630:

on the system solar receiver with a collecting area

140:

Comparison between CSP and other electricity sources

6958: 5546:"How Solar Peaker Plants Could Replace Gas Peakers" 4396:"Concentrated Solar Power Quietly Makes a Comeback" 3969:

List of concentrating solar thermal power companies

3912:, in three months, the death rate dropped to zero. 3807:. In 2022 the 700 MW CSP 4th phase of the 5GW 3028:= 1) then substituting in the first equation gives 1383:

LCOE of Concentrating Solar Power from 2006 to 2019

1350:technology without thermal energy storage, and the 7266:"Solar plant's downside? Birds igniting in midair" 5769:"Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2024, Irena" 5007: 4103: 3462: 3439: 3311: 3224: 3137: 3020: 3000: 2980: 2933: 2861: 2830: 2721: 2665: 2642: 2622: 2580: 2560: 2513: 2482: 2402: 2375: 2348: 2282: 2244: 2194: 2142: 1990: 1938: 1885: 1829: 1779: 1732: 1554: 1500: 1440: 698: 7393:"Innovations on Concentrated Solar Thermal Power" 6337:Concentrating Solar Power, Volume 1: Power Sector 5846: 5844: 5790: 5788: 5036: 4883:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 4208:"Integrated Solar Thermochemical Reaction System" 4168: 9102: 7381:Plataforma Solar de Almeria, CSP research center 6458:Spain Halts Feed-in-Tariffs for Renewable Energy 6439:Spanish government halts PV, CSP feed-in tariffs 6231: 6188: 5671: 5669: 4629: 4239:"New Solar Process Gets More Out of Natural Gas" 7300: 7180:"How a solar farm set hundreds of birds ablaze" 7132:"Emerging solar plants scorch birds in mid-air" 6866:. Solareis.anl.gov. Retrieved on 22 April 2013. 5077:Christopher L. Martin; D. Yogi Goswami (2005). 1346:(392 MW) in the United States, which uses 474:from the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A 6776:"Desert solar to fuel centuries of air travel" 6355: 6315: 5903: 5841: 5785: 5072: 5070: 5068: 4436:"Are Solar Power Towers Doomed in California?" 4181:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from 776: 526:, Spain concentrates sunlight from a field of 8607: 8340: 7426: 6495:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/l/2013/12/26/24/con 6011: 5666: 5414: 5159: 5107:. Plataforma Solar de Almería. Archived from 4875: 4873: 3718:for 500 MW would be called in the year 2024. 2349:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }} 1886:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {mechanical} }} 397:In 2023, Australia’s national science agency 333:). Concentrated-solar technology systems use 7064:, NREL, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-50900. 6383:Aldo Steinfeld & Robert Palumbo (2001). 6331: 6329: 6062:Google cans concentrated solar power project 6034:Louis Boisgibault, Fahad Al Kabbani (2020): 5822: 5820: 5818: 5745:"Tibet's first solar district heating plant" 4433: 4139: 1939:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {generator} }} 152:, which stores energy either in the form of 6773: 6652: 6507:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rd/2014/06/06/413 6086:"New Record-Low Solar Price Bid — 1.3¢/kWh" 5939:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5895:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5128: 5126: 5065: 1991:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} 1830:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {receiver} }} 8614: 8600: 8574: 8347: 8333: 7433: 7419: 6483:https://www.boe.es/eli/es/rdl/2013/07/12/9 6265:Schöniger, Franziska; et al. (2021). 6163: 6161: 5957:. csp-world.com. June 2012. Archived from 5805: 5803: 5097: 4870: 2561:{\displaystyle I=1000\,\mathrm {W/m^{2}} } 382:of the theoretical maximum for the design 8623:Renewable energy by country and territory 8354: 6990: 6831:"The Sahara: a solar battery for Europe?" 6398:. Academic Press: 237–256. Archived from 6385:"Solar Thermochemical Process Technology" 6326: 6300: 6290: 6264: 6249: 5815: 5318: 5134:"Energy & Resources Predictions 2012" 4858: 4263: 4261: 4259: 3809:Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park 3721: 3557: 2981:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {Optics} }} 2537: 1780:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mathrm {optics} }} 204:reached below $ 50/MWh in 2017 auctions. 7044:, US Department of Energy, 20 Feb. 2008. 5123: 4343: 4341: 3887: 3833: 3780:cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle 3662: 3566: 2722:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {solar} }=ICA} 635: 632:Solar thermal energy § Dish designs 513: 502: 423: 415: 211: 73: 58: 47: 40:concentrating light via 10,000 mirrored 27: 6936: 6747: 6158: 6055: 6005: 5800: 5292: 4978: 4688:"From Troughs to Triumph: SEGS and Gas" 4601: 4230: 2245:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {absorbed} }} 2195:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {incident} }} 848:Worldwide CSP capacity since 1984 in MW 9103: 7990:Financial incentives for photovoltaics 7376:NREL Concentrating Solar Power Program 7250:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 7111: 6232:Johan Lilliestam; et al. (2020). 6083: 5763: 5761: 5503:"The Latest in Thermal Energy Storage" 5420: 5026:from the original on 15 November 2023. 5013: 4934: 4909: 4907: 4879: 4716:Cutler J. Cleveland (23 August 2008). 4290: 4288: 4256: 4200: 3883: 1071:Worldwide Concentrated Solar Power (MW 366:concentrating linear Fresnel reflector 304:integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) 8595: 8328: 7414: 7290:from the original on 19 October 2014. 7092: 6648:http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4297966 6074:, 24 Nov 2011. Accessed: 25 Nov 2011. 5913:Renewables 2016: Global Status Report 5909: 5854:Renewables 2014: Global Status Report 5850: 5810:Renewables 2017: Global Status Report 4579: 4393: 4338: 3238:for which the efficiency is maximum, 1047:An early plant operated in Sicily at 606: 324: 282:Kimberlina Solar Thermal Energy Plant 8307: 7272:from the original on 19 August 2014. 5293:Marzouk, Osama A. (September 2022). 5014:Houser, Kristin (12 November 2023). 4743:"A New Invention To Harness The Sun" 4236: 4037: 4035: 3974:List of solar thermal power stations 3571:Andasol Solar Power Station in Spain 1041:Global Status Report, 2017 and 2018 783:List of solar thermal power stations 685:National Solar Thermal Test Facility 492: 7286:. ExtremeTech.com. 20 August 2014. 6748:Kraemer, Susan (21 December 2017). 6358:Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 5758: 4904: 4511: 4285: 3910:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project 3752:solar thermal enhanced oil recovery 2283:{\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {lost} }} 858:National CSP capacities in 2023 (MW 601:supercritical carbon dioxide blends 405: 38:Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project 13: 7391:Baldizon, Roberto (5 March 2019). 7301:Jake Richardson (22 August 2014). 7112:Howard, Michael (20 August 2014). 6429:. res-legal.de (12 December 2011). 6084:Shahan, Zachary (30 August 2020). 4434:Chris Clarke (25 September 2015). 4237:Wald, Matthew L. (10 April 2013). 3646:of North-West Queensland in 2021. 3639:Aurora Solar Thermal Power Project 3387: 3384: 3381: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3183: 3180: 3177: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2795: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2548: 2539: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2316: 2313: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2089: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2014: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1555:{\displaystyle \eta _{mechanical}} 1378: 468: 14: 9142: 8502:Research in lithium-ion batteries 8101:Building-integrated photovoltaics 7371:Concentrating Solar Power Utility 7364: 6615:https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5117648 6427:Feed-in tariff (Régimen Especial) 4865:Types of solar thermal CSP plants 4685: 4032: 3814: 3786:Gigawatt-scale solar power plants 732:dispatchable and self-sustainable 530:onto a central solar power tower. 69:San Bernardino County, California 9084: 9075: 9074: 8639:Democratic Republic of the Congo 8573: 8306: 8295: 8294: 7504: 7498: 7492: 7440: 7334: 7309: 7294: 7276: 7258: 7208: 7190: 7172: 7142: 7124: 7105: 7086: 7067: 7047: 7028: 7019: 6999: 6949: 6930: 6912: 6891: 6869: 6857: 6845: 6823: 6793: 6774:EurekAlert! (15 November 2017). 6767: 6741: 6719: 6707: 6695: 6640: 6619: 6607: 6584: 6573: 6562: 6551: 6540: 6522: 6511: 6499: 6487: 6475: 6463: 5368:Energy Conversion and Management 4960:New innovations in solar thermal 4041: 3936: 3922: 3546: 3470:(red curve on the figure below) 3148: 1501:{\displaystyle \eta _{Receiver}} 625: 613:Compact linear Fresnel reflector 278:Compact linear Fresnel reflector 6937:Bolitho, Andrea (20 May 2019). 6451: 6432: 6420: 6409: 6376: 6349: 6316:Andy Colthorpe (14 July 2021), 6309: 6258: 6225: 6182: 6141:NERL Annual Technology Baseline 6129: 6112:NERL Annual Technology Baseline 6100: 6077: 6028: 5973: 5947: 5795:Renewables Global Status Report 5737: 5716: 5690: 5645: 5624: 5603: 5582: 5560: 5538: 5517: 5495: 5469: 5443: 5421:Barbee, Jeffrey (13 May 2015). 5394: 5359: 5347: 5335: 5286: 5268: 5250: 5232: 5214: 5193: 5172: 5146: 5030: 4953: 4928: 4837: 4819: 4797: 4772: 4751: 4736: 4723: 4710: 4679: 4658: 4623: 4553: 4532: 4490: 4468: 4446: 4427: 4406: 4387: 4365: 4321:"CSP Projects Around the World" 4313: 699:CSP with thermal energy storage 553:, California and the CESA-1 in 461:'s SSPS-DCS test facilities in 443:Solar Energy Generating Systems 271:Solar Energy Generating Systems 8487:Lithium iron phosphate battery 7093:Roach, John (20 August 2014). 6971:Environmental Research Letters 6470:Spain introduces 6% energy tax 5388:10.1016/j.enconman.2013.01.039 5132:Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Ltd, 5059:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.125 4757:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980) 4668:, Cheshire Books, pp. 66–100, 4664:Ken Butti, John Perlin (1980) 4611:. CleanTechnica. 13 March 2017 4133: 4097: 4062: 3979:Luminescent solar concentrator 3372: 3356: 3300: 3279: 2623:{\displaystyle \eta _{Optics}} 1352:Ouarzazate Solar Power Station 673:Australian National University 1: 8467:Compressed-air energy storage 8106:Passive solar building design 7532:Passive solar building design 6292:10.1080/15567249.2020.1843565 6251:10.1080/15567249.2020.1773580 5320:10.1016/j.solener.2022.07.051 5169:, "Bloomberg", 3 October 2011 5080:Solar energy pocket reference 5001:10.1016/j.solener.2017.02.051 4565:New Energy Update / CSP Today 4394:Deign, Jason (24 June 2019). 4162:10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.031 4127:10.1016/j.solener.2014.07.008 4091:10.1016/j.solener.2013.09.008 4025: 2496: 1399: 124:) connected to an electrical 7268:. CBS News. 18 August 2014. 6992:10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/015031 6864:Solar Resource Data and Maps 5477:"Molten salt energy storage" 4733:. Cabinet Magazine, Issue 6. 3866:Riverside County, California 3862:Genesis Solar Energy Project 3854:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 3842: 3599: 1344:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 581:Supercritical carbon dioxide 567:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 297:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 168:form of solar. Dispatchable 54:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 7: 6137:"Concentrating Solar Power" 6108:"Concentrating Solar Power" 5981:"Concentrating Solar Power" 5919:. REN21 Secretariat, UNEP. 4729:Paul Collins (Spring 2002) 3915: 1370:photovoltaic power stations 777:Deployment around the world 555:Plataforma Solar de Almeria 476:single-axis tracking system 459:Plataforma Solar de Almería 10: 9147: 7609:Photovoltaic power station 7053:John Macknick and others, 7005:John Macknick and others, 6661:AIP Conference Proceedings 5276:"Electricity Data Browser" 5258:"Electricity Data Browser" 5240:"Electricity Data Browser" 3958:Concentrator photovoltaics 3801:southwestern United States 3670: 3603: 3156:energy it cannot absorb (Q 2300:The conversion efficiency 2290:respectively the incoming 1428:The conversion efficiency 1301: 1020: 1007: 994: 981: 968: 955: 942: 929: 916: 903: 890: 877: 780: 771:concentrated solar thermal 720:load following power plant 702: 629: 610: 496: 409: 207: 102:concentrated solar thermal 67:solar complex in northern 21:concentrator photovoltaics 18: 9070: 9039: 9003: 8967: 8890: 8782: 8775: 8682: 8629: 8569: 8525: 8457: 8389:Artificial photosynthesis 8376: 8369: 8362: 8290: 8269: 8239: 8218: 8197: 8181: 8155: 8119: 8093: 8050: 8043: 8003: 7972: 7939: 7930: 7910: 7712: 7674:artificial photosynthesis 7655: 7622: 7565: 7522: 7513: 7490: 7471: 7448: 5955:"CSP Facts & Figures" 5156:, "Forbes", 25 April 2011 5083:. Earthscan. p. 45. 4761:, Cheshire Books, p. 68, 4731:The Beautiful Possibility 4212:U.S. Department of Energy 3521: 3498: 3475: 3021:{\displaystyle \epsilon } 2862:{\displaystyle \epsilon } 2588:times with an efficiency 1412: 1033: 269:technology of the nearby 183:CSP is often compared to 98:concentrating solar power 8538:Battery electric vehicle 8533:Alternative fuel vehicle 8404:Concentrated solar power 8210:Solar water disinfection 7704:Thermoelectric generator 7321:RenewableEnergyWorld.com 7079:26 December 2017 at the 7040:26 December 2017 at the 5407:19 February 2013 at the 4720:. Encyclopedia of Earth. 3805:Noor Solar Power Station 3735:O, to create hydrogen (H 3705: 3658: 3606:Solar power in Australia 3562: 3234:There is a temperature T 1313: CSP-world.com 90:Concentrated solar power 63:Part of the 354 MW 52:The three towers of the 19:Not to be confused with 8543:Hybrid electric vehicle 8472:Flywheel energy storage 8444:Space-based solar power 7918:Solar Shade Control Act 7699:Space-based solar power 7150:"Associated Press News" 7083:, US EIA, 11 Feb. 2014. 6211:10.1038/nenergy.2017.94 3999:Solar thermal collector 3930:Renewable energy portal 3001:{\displaystyle \alpha } 2666:{\displaystyle \alpha } 1357: 657:Stirling Energy Systems 190:dispatchable generators 8512:Thermal energy storage 8282:Solar power by country 7957:Thermal energy storage 7582:Nanocrystal solar cell 7537:Solar air conditioning 6271:Energy Sources, Part B 6238:Energy Sources, Part B 6143:, 2018, archived from 6114:, 2020, archived from 6018:Renewable Energy World 5226:BrightSourceEnergy.com 5139:6 January 2013 at the 4935:Norton, Brian (2013). 4880:Chaves, Julio (2015). 4009:Thermal energy storage 3989:Solar air conditioning 3893: 3728:solar thermal reactors 3722:Solar thermal reactors 3668: 3637:to realize the 150 MW 3572: 3558:Incentives and markets 3464: 3441: 3313: 3226: 3139: 3022: 3002: 2982: 2935: 2863: 2832: 2723: 2667: 2644: 2624: 2582: 2562: 2515: 2484: 2404: 2377: 2350: 2284: 2246: 2196: 2144: 1992: 1940: 1887: 1831: 1781: 1734: 1556: 1502: 1442: 1423:laws of thermodynamics 1390:Thermal Energy Storage 1384: 787:Solar power by country 736:gas-fired power plants 705:Thermal energy storage 643: 585:electricity production 531: 520:PS10 solar power plant 511: 429: 421: 351:solar air conditioning 293:Solar Tres Power Tower 217: 150:thermal energy storage 146:thermal power stations 86: 71: 56: 45: 8439:Photovoltaic pavement 8384:Airborne wind turbine 8356:Emerging technologies 8163:Salt evaporation pond 8132:Hybrid solar lighting 7952:Phase-change material 7060:9 August 2017 at the 6593:Prest, J. (2009). in 6444:5 August 2012 at the 6322:, Solar Media Limited 4965:21 April 2009 at the 4937:Harnessing Solar Heat 4780:"Molten Salt Storage" 3984:Salt evaporation pond 3891: 3834:Environmental effects 3776:zinc–zinc oxide cycle 3772:copper–chlorine cycle 3666: 3570: 3465: 3442: 3314: 3227: 3140: 3023: 3003: 2983: 2936: 2864: 2833: 2724: 2668: 2645: 2625: 2583: 2563: 2516: 2485: 2405: 2403:{\displaystyle T^{0}} 2378: 2376:{\displaystyle T_{H}} 2351: 2285: 2247: 2197: 2145: 1993: 1941: 1888: 1832: 1782: 1735: 1557: 1503: 1443: 1441:{\displaystyle \eta } 1382: 639: 517: 508:Ashalim Power Station 506: 487:Enhanced Oil Recovery 427: 419: 220:A legend has it that 215: 192:and baseload plants. 77: 62: 51: 31: 9126:Solar power stations 9111:Solar thermal energy 7689:Solar thermal rocket 7305:. Cleantechnica.com. 7012:6 April 2015 at the 5877:on 15 September 2014 5111:on 28 September 2007 4831:guntherportfolio.com 4176:"Sunshine to Petrol" 4014:Thermochemical cycle 3994:Solar thermal energy 3454: 3329: 3249: 3168: 3035: 3012: 2992: 2948: 2880: 2871:Stefan–Boltzmann law 2853: 2735: 2680: 2657: 2634: 2592: 2572: 2525: 2505: 2417: 2387: 2360: 2304: 2256: 2206: 2156: 2005: 1952: 1897: 1841: 1791: 1747: 1577: 1512: 1464: 1432: 1365:photovoltaic systems 957:United Arab Emirates 709:Solar thermal energy 593:critical temperature 451:Boulder City, Nevada 246:solar thermal energy 160:(for example, using 114:solar thermal energy 8507:Silicon–air battery 8492:Molten-salt battery 8482:Lithium–air battery 8477:Grid energy storage 8429:Molten salt reactor 8399:Carbon-neutral fuel 8257:Solar water heating 8031:Solar water heating 7947:Grid energy storage 7694:Solar updraft tower 7603:Photovoltaic module 7598:Photovoltaic effect 7552:Solar water heating 7160:on 8 September 2014 6983:2013ERL.....8a5031M 6673:2022AIPC.2445e0007T 6342:23 May 2019 at the 6283:2021EneSB..16...55S 6203:2017NatEn...217094L 6024:on 2 November 2011. 5993:on 22 November 2012 5457:. 10 September 2017 5380:2013ECM....72...60A 5311:2022SoEn..243..103M 5051:2015ApEn..146..383V 4993:2017SoEn..148...36C 4632:The Classical World 4567:. 20 September 2017 4456:. 24 September 2017 4188:on 19 February 2013 4154:2016SoEn..125..267L 4119:2014SoEn..108..287L 4083:2013SoEn...97..356B 4004:Solar water heating 3884:Effects on wildlife 3858:Barstow, California 3764:hybrid sulfur cycle 3760:sulfur–iodine cycle 3397: 3352: 3075: 2930: 1340:larger CSP projects 1076: 863: 648:parabolic reflector 264:was converted into 104:) systems generate 78:Bird's eye view of 9116:Solar architecture 8085:Solar-powered pump 7679:Solar-pumped laser 7592:Photovoltaic array 7587:Organic solar cell 7570:and related topics 7198:"Full Page Reload" 6833:. 20 December 2017 6302:20.500.12708/18282 6067:2012-06-15 at the 6044:. (Energy series) 5704:on 28 October 2019 5154:"Oil from the sun" 4917:, Academic Press, 4784:large.stanford.edu 4692:EEPublishers.co.za 4400:GreenTechMedia.com 4243:The New York Times 3894: 3669: 3612:Northern Territory 3573: 3460: 3437: 3375: 3332: 3309: 3222: 3135: 3061: 3018: 2998: 2978: 2931: 2916: 2859: 2828: 2719: 2663: 2640: 2620: 2578: 2558: 2511: 2480: 2400: 2373: 2346: 2280: 2242: 2192: 2140: 1988: 1936: 1883: 1827: 1777: 1730: 1564:Carnot's principle 1552: 1498: 1438: 1385: 1070: 857: 724:nameplate capacity 693:United Sun Systems 661:United Sun Systems 644: 607:Fresnel reflectors 599:inlet. Therefore, 532: 512: 430: 422: 325:Current technology 218: 116:), which drives a 87: 72: 57: 46: 9131:French inventions 9098: 9097: 8963: 8962: 8589: 8588: 8565: 8564: 8561: 8560: 8322: 8321: 8265: 8264: 8247:Solar combisystem 8205:Soil solarization 8111:Urban heat island 8039: 8038: 8011:Electric aircraft 7926: 7925: 7642:Solar power tower 7346:CleanTechnica.com 7204:. 20 August 2014. 7184:Nature World News 6879:. 30 January 2012 6681:10.1063/5.0085752 6370:10.1115/1.1349552 5926:978-3-9818107-0-7 5867:978-3-9815934-2-6 5548:. 19 October 2017 5483:on 29 August 2017 5165:Goossens, Ehren, 5143:, 2 November 2011 5090:978-1-84407-306-1 4946:978-94-007-7275-5 4915:Nonimaging Optics 4815:on 25 March 2016. 4589:. 29 October 2017 4478:. 11 October 2017 4375:. 13 October 2017 4019:Particle receiver 3714:announced that a 3544: 3543: 3494: 3463:{\displaystyle C} 3429: 3277: 3210: 3128: 3085: 2643:{\displaystyle A} 2581:{\displaystyle C} 2514:{\displaystyle I} 2501:For a solar flux 2478: 2138: 1458:Solar irradiation 1456:steam turbine). 1450:thermal radiation 1419:Carnot efficiency 1348:solar power tower 1329: 1328: 1045: 1044: 569:, located in the 563:Sanlucar la Mayor 499:Solar power tower 493:Solar power tower 388:nonimaging optics 370:solar power tower 34:solar power tower 9138: 9088: 9078: 9077: 9021:French Polynesia 8780: 8779: 8616: 8609: 8602: 8593: 8592: 8577: 8576: 8497:Nanowire battery 8424:Methanol economy 8419:Hydrogen economy 8374: 8373: 8367: 8366: 8349: 8342: 8335: 8326: 8325: 8310: 8309: 8298: 8297: 8252:Solar controller 8048: 8047: 7937: 7936: 7637:Parabolic trough 7520: 7519: 7508: 7502: 7496: 7484:Solar irradiance 7435: 7428: 7421: 7412: 7411: 7407: 7405: 7403: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7329: 7327: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7298: 7292: 7291: 7280: 7274: 7273: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7249: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7231: 7225:. 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Archived from 7146: 7140: 7139: 7138:. 24 March 2015. 7128: 7122: 7121: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7090: 7084: 7071: 7065: 7051: 7045: 7032: 7026: 7023: 7017: 7003: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6962: 6956: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6934: 6928: 6927: 6916: 6910: 6909: 6907: 6905: 6895: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6873: 6867: 6861: 6855: 6849: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6838: 6827: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6786: 6771: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6734: 6723: 6717: 6711: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6656: 6650: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6633: 6623: 6617: 6611: 6605: 6588: 6582: 6577: 6571: 6566: 6560: 6555: 6549: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6526: 6520: 6515: 6509: 6503: 6497: 6491: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6461: 6455: 6449: 6436: 6430: 6424: 6418: 6413: 6407: 6406: 6405:on 19 July 2014. 6404: 6389: 6380: 6374: 6373: 6353: 6347: 6333: 6324: 6323: 6313: 6307: 6306: 6304: 6294: 6262: 6256: 6255: 6253: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6197:(17094): 17094. 6186: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6175: 6165: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6147:on 23 April 2021 6133: 6127: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6118:on 21 April 2021 6104: 6098: 6097: 6095: 6093: 6081: 6075: 6059: 6053: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6020:. Archived from 6009: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5992: 5985: 5977: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5966: 5961:on 29 April 2013 5951: 5945: 5944: 5938: 5930: 5918: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5894: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5876: 5870:. Archived from 5859: 5848: 5839: 5838: 5836: 5834: 5824: 5813: 5807: 5798: 5792: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5773: 5765: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5751: 5741: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5700:. Archived from 5694: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5673: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5659: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5586: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5570:. 21 August 2017 5564: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5542: 5536: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5521: 5515: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5479:. Archived from 5473: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5462: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5433: 5418: 5412: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5363: 5357: 5356:. ese.iitb.ac.in 5351: 5345: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5322: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5176: 5170: 5163: 5157: 5150: 5144: 5130: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5074: 5063: 5062: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5011: 5005: 5004: 4976: 4970: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4932: 4926: 4911: 4902: 4901: 4877: 4868: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4851: 4841: 4835: 4834: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4811:. Archived from 4801: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4776: 4770: 4755: 4749: 4740: 4734: 4727: 4721: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4698:on 7 August 2011 4694:. Archived from 4683: 4677: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4557: 4551: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4536: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4515: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4353: 4345: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4292: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4273: 4265: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4218:on 15 April 2013 4214:. Archived from 4204: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4187: 4180: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4039: 3946: 3941: 3940: 3932: 3927: 3926: 3768:iron oxide cycle 3652:renewable energy 3550: 3493:(max. for Earth) 3492: 3473: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3446: 3444: 3443: 3438: 3430: 3428: 3420: 3413: 3412: 3402: 3396: 3391: 3390: 3371: 3370: 3351: 3346: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3299: 3298: 3297: 3278: 3276: 3275: 3274: 3261: 3253: 3231: 3229: 3228: 3223: 3221: 3220: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3198: 3188: 3187: 3186: 3152: 3144: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3134: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3126: 3117: 3116: 3107: 3091: 3087: 3086: 3084: 3076: 3074: 3069: 3056: 3027: 3025: 3024: 3019: 3007: 3005: 3004: 2999: 2987: 2985: 2984: 2979: 2977: 2976: 2975: 2940: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2929: 2924: 2903: 2902: 2901: 2868: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2837: 2835: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2800: 2799: 2798: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2728: 2726: 2725: 2720: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2672: 2670: 2669: 2664: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2629: 2627: 2626: 2621: 2619: 2618: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2579: 2567: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2546: 2520: 2518: 2517: 2512: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2476: 2467: 2466: 2457: 2446: 2445: 2444: 2409: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2382: 2380: 2379: 2374: 2372: 2371: 2355: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2289: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2251: 2249: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2240: 2239: 2201: 2199: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2190: 2189: 2149: 2147: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2136: 2135: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2079: 2078: 2077: 2045: 2040: 2039: 2038: 1997: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1945: 1943: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1892: 1890: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1881: 1880: 1836: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1825: 1824: 1786: 1784: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1774: 1739: 1737: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1550: 1507: 1505: 1504: 1499: 1497: 1496: 1447: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1325: HeliosCSP 1077: 1069: 864: 856: 773:storage plants. 734:similar to coal/ 483:GlassPoint Solar 447:Nevada Solar One 412:Parabolic trough 406:Parabolic trough 384:acceptance angle 381: 380: 376: 358:parabolic trough 319: 318: 314: 284:opened in 2009. 250:Dr. R.H. Goddard 233:Auguste Mouchout 170:renewable energy 96:, also known as 9146: 9145: 9141: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9101: 9100: 9099: 9094: 9066: 9035: 8999: 8959: 8886: 8771: 8678: 8625: 8620: 8590: 8585: 8557: 8521: 8453: 8358: 8353: 8323: 8318: 8286: 8261: 8235: 8214: 8193: 8177: 8151: 8115: 8089: 8054: 8035: 7999: 7968: 7932: 7922: 7906: 7708: 7657: 7651: 7618: 7569: 7561: 7509: 7503: 7497: 7488: 7467: 7444: 7439: 7401: 7399: 7390: 7367: 7362: 7361: 7351: 7349: 7348:. 16 April 2015 7340: 7339: 7335: 7325: 7323: 7315: 7314: 7310: 7299: 7295: 7282: 7281: 7277: 7264: 7263: 7259: 7243: 7242: 7235: 7233: 7232:on 3 March 2015 7229: 7218: 7216:"Archived copy" 7214: 7213: 7209: 7196: 7195: 7191: 7178: 7177: 7173: 7163: 7161: 7154:bigstory.ap.org 7148: 7147: 7143: 7130: 7129: 7125: 7110: 7106: 7091: 7087: 7081:Wayback Machine 7072: 7068: 7062:Wayback Machine 7052: 7048: 7042:Wayback Machine 7033: 7029: 7024: 7020: 7014:Wayback Machine 7004: 7000: 6963: 6959: 6954: 6950: 6935: 6931: 6918: 6917: 6913: 6903: 6901: 6897: 6896: 6892: 6882: 6880: 6875: 6874: 6870: 6862: 6858: 6850: 6846: 6836: 6834: 6829: 6828: 6824: 6814: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6799: 6798: 6794: 6784: 6782: 6772: 6768: 6758: 6756: 6746: 6742: 6732: 6730: 6725: 6724: 6720: 6712: 6708: 6700: 6696: 6657: 6653: 6645: 6641: 6631: 6629: 6625: 6624: 6620: 6612: 6608: 6589: 6585: 6578: 6574: 6567: 6563: 6556: 6552: 6545: 6541: 6528: 6527: 6523: 6516: 6512: 6504: 6500: 6492: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6446:Wayback Machine 6437: 6433: 6425: 6421: 6414: 6410: 6402: 6387: 6381: 6377: 6354: 6350: 6344:Wayback Machine 6334: 6327: 6314: 6310: 6263: 6259: 6230: 6226: 6187: 6183: 6173: 6171: 6167: 6166: 6159: 6150: 6148: 6135: 6134: 6130: 6121: 6119: 6106: 6105: 6101: 6091: 6089: 6088:. CleanTechnica 6082: 6078: 6069:Wayback Machine 6060: 6056: 6033: 6029: 6010: 6006: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5979: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5962: 5953: 5952: 5948: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5888: 5887: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5857: 5849: 5842: 5832: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5816: 5808: 5801: 5793: 5786: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5766: 5759: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5742: 5738: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5717: 5707: 5705: 5696: 5695: 5691: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5667: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5594: 5592: 5588: 5587: 5583: 5573: 5571: 5566: 5565: 5561: 5551: 5549: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5522: 5518: 5508: 5506: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5486: 5484: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5460: 5458: 5449: 5448: 5444: 5431: 5429: 5419: 5415: 5409:Wayback Machine 5399: 5395: 5364: 5360: 5352: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5291: 5287: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5205: 5203: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5164: 5160: 5151: 5147: 5141:Wayback Machine 5131: 5124: 5114: 5112: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5075: 5066: 5035: 5031: 5012: 5008: 4977: 4973: 4967:Wayback Machine 4958: 4954: 4947: 4933: 4929: 4912: 4905: 4898: 4878: 4871: 4863: 4859: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4842: 4838: 4833:. 5 April 2013. 4825: 4824: 4820: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4788: 4786: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4756: 4752: 4748:, November 1929 4746:Popular Science 4741: 4737: 4728: 4724: 4715: 4711: 4701: 4699: 4684: 4680: 4663: 4659: 4644:10.2307/4348211 4628: 4624: 4614: 4612: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4592: 4590: 4585: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4523: 4521: 4517: 4516: 4512: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4481: 4479: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4457: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4432: 4428: 4418: 4416: 4412: 4411: 4407: 4392: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4347: 4346: 4339: 4329: 4327: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4294: 4293: 4286: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4267: 4266: 4257: 4247: 4245: 4235: 4231: 4221: 4219: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4138: 4134: 4102: 4098: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4040: 4033: 4028: 4023: 3953:Dover Sun House 3942: 3935: 3928: 3921: 3918: 3886: 3845: 3836: 3817: 3788: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3724: 3710:In March 2024, 3708: 3675: 3661: 3608: 3602: 3565: 3560: 3525: 3502: 3455: 3452: 3451: 3421: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3392: 3380: 3379: 3366: 3362: 3347: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3326: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3237: 3216: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3192: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3108: 3106: 3099: 3095: 3077: 3070: 3065: 3057: 3055: 3048: 3044: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3013: 3010: 3009: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2945: 2925: 2920: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2881: 2878: 2877: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2809: 2808: 2804: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2743: 2742: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2677: 2658: 2655: 2654: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2599: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2589: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2568:) concentrated 2551: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2526: 2523: 2522: 2506: 2503: 2502: 2499: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2458: 2456: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2394: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2384: 2367: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2264: 2263: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2253: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2046: 2044: 2013: 2012: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2002: 1960: 1959: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1949: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1894: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1799: 1798: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1755: 1754: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1699: 1698: 1694: 1657: 1656: 1652: 1621: 1620: 1616: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1519: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1415: 1402: 1360: 1074: 861: 855: 854: 853: 851: 845: 844: 843: 842: 841: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 818: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 789: 781:Main articles: 779: 716:turbo generator 711: 701: 689:Kalahari Desert 653:Stirling engine 641:A dish Stirling 634: 628: 615: 609: 559:Planta Solar 10 501: 495: 471: 469:Enclosed trough 414: 408: 378: 374: 373: 327: 316: 312: 311: 210: 142: 126:power generator 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9144: 9134: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9096: 9095: 9093: 9092: 9082: 9071: 9068: 9067: 9065: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9043: 9041: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9007: 9005: 9001: 9000: 8998: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8971: 8969: 8965: 8964: 8961: 8960: 8958: 8957: 8956: 8955: 8948:United Kingdom 8945: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8894: 8892: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8797:Czech Republic 8794: 8788: 8786: 8784:European Union 8777: 8773: 8772: 8770: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8688: 8686: 8680: 8679: 8677: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8635: 8633: 8627: 8626: 8619: 8618: 8611: 8604: 8596: 8587: 8586: 8584: 8583: 8570: 8567: 8566: 8563: 8562: 8559: 8558: 8556: 8555: 8553:Wireless power 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8529: 8527: 8523: 8522: 8520: 8519: 8517:Ultracapacitor 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8463: 8461: 8455: 8454: 8452: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8414:Home fuel cell 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8380: 8378: 8371: 8364: 8360: 8359: 8352: 8351: 8344: 8337: 8329: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8316: 8304: 8291: 8288: 8287: 8285: 8284: 8279: 8273: 8271: 8267: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8243: 8241: 8237: 8236: 8234: 8233: 8228: 8222: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8201: 8199: 8195: 8194: 8192: 8191: 8185: 8183: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8159: 8157: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8123: 8121: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8097: 8095: 8091: 8090: 8088: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8061: 8059: 8045: 8041: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8007: 8005: 8001: 8000: 7998: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7985:Feed-in tariff 7982: 7980:Cost by source 7976: 7974: 7970: 7969: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7964: 7954: 7949: 7943: 7941: 7934: 7928: 7927: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7920: 7914: 7912: 7908: 7907: 7905: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7892:United Kingdom 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7762:Czech Republic 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7718: 7716: 7710: 7709: 7707: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7670:Solar chemical 7667: 7661: 7659: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7628: 7626: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7600: 7595: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7577:Floating solar 7573: 7571: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7528: 7526: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7486: 7481: 7475: 7473: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7438: 7437: 7430: 7423: 7415: 7409: 7408: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7366: 7365:External links 7363: 7360: 7359: 7333: 7308: 7293: 7275: 7257: 7207: 7189: 7171: 7141: 7123: 7104: 7085: 7066: 7046: 7027: 7018: 6998: 6957: 6948: 6929: 6911: 6890: 6868: 6856: 6844: 6822: 6806: 6802: 6792: 6766: 6754:SolarPACES.org 6740: 6729:. 4 March 2024 6718: 6706: 6694: 6651: 6639: 6618: 6606: 6583: 6572: 6561: 6550: 6539: 6521: 6510: 6498: 6486: 6474: 6462: 6450: 6431: 6419: 6408: 6375: 6348: 6325: 6308: 6257: 6224: 6181: 6157: 6128: 6099: 6076: 6054: 6027: 6004: 5972: 5946: 5925: 5910:REN21 (2016). 5902: 5866: 5851:REN21 (2014). 5840: 5814: 5799: 5784: 5757: 5736: 5715: 5689: 5665: 5644: 5623: 5602: 5581: 5559: 5537: 5516: 5494: 5468: 5442: 5413: 5393: 5358: 5346: 5334: 5285: 5267: 5249: 5231: 5213: 5192: 5171: 5158: 5145: 5122: 5096: 5089: 5064: 5039:Applied Energy 5029: 5006: 4971: 4952: 4945: 4927: 4923:978-0127597515 4903: 4897:978-1482206739 4896: 4869: 4857: 4836: 4818: 4796: 4771: 4750: 4735: 4722: 4709: 4678: 4657: 4638:(5): 305–308. 4622: 4600: 4578: 4552: 4531: 4510: 4489: 4467: 4445: 4426: 4405: 4386: 4364: 4337: 4312: 4284: 4255: 4229: 4199: 4167: 4132: 4096: 4061: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3933: 3917: 3914: 3885: 3882: 3844: 3841: 3835: 3832: 3828:opencast mines 3816: 3815:Suitable sites 3813: 3787: 3784: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3723: 3720: 3707: 3704: 3700:five-year plan 3687:five-year plan 3680:five-year plan 3671:Main article: 3660: 3657: 3633:got awarded a 3604:Main article: 3601: 3598: 3585: 3584: 3581: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3542: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3526: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3515: 3512: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3495: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3459: 3448: 3447: 3436: 3433: 3427: 3424: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3400: 3395: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3342: 3339: 3335: 3320: 3319: 3308: 3305: 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470: 467: 410:Main article: 407: 404: 326: 323: 209: 206: 198:Atacama region 141: 138: 130:thermochemical 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9143: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9081: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9042: 9040:South America 9038: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9008: 9006: 9002: 8996: 8995:United States 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8972: 8970: 8968:North America 8966: 8954: 8951: 8950: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8893: 8889: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8789: 8787: 8785: 8781: 8778: 8774: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8689: 8687: 8685: 8681: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8636: 8634: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8617: 8612: 8610: 8605: 8603: 8598: 8597: 8594: 8582: 8581: 8572: 8571: 8568: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8462: 8460: 8456: 8450: 8449:Vortex engine 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8381: 8379: 8375: 8372: 8368: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8350: 8345: 8343: 8338: 8336: 8331: 8330: 8327: 8315: 8314: 8305: 8303: 8302: 8293: 8292: 8289: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8277:Photovoltaics 8275: 8274: 8272: 8268: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8244: 8242: 8240:Water heating 8238: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8223: 8221: 8217: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8190: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8168:Solar furnace 8166: 8164: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8154: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8124: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8092: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8060: 8058: 8053: 8049: 8046: 8042: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8026:Solar vehicle 8024: 8022: 8021:Solar balloon 8019: 8017: 8016:Electric boat 8014: 8012: 8009: 8008: 8006: 8002: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7977: 7975: 7971: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7938: 7935: 7929: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7897:United States 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7719: 7717: 7715: 7711: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7665:Magnetic sail 7663: 7662: 7660: 7654: 7648: 7647:Solar tracker 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7625: 7621: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605:(solar panel) 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594:(and systems) 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7568: 7567:Photovoltaics 7564: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7542:Solar chimney 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7527: 7525: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7507: 7501: 7495: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7436: 7431: 7429: 7424: 7422: 7417: 7416: 7413: 7398: 7394: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7347: 7343: 7337: 7322: 7318: 7312: 7304: 7297: 7289: 7285: 7279: 7271: 7267: 7261: 7253: 7247: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7211: 7203: 7199: 7193: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7145: 7137: 7133: 7127: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7089: 7082: 7078: 7075: 7070: 7063: 7059: 7056: 7050: 7043: 7039: 7036: 7031: 7022: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7002: 6993: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6977:(1): 015031. 6976: 6972: 6968: 6961: 6952: 6944: 6940: 6933: 6925: 6921: 6915: 6900: 6894: 6878: 6872: 6865: 6860: 6853: 6848: 6832: 6826: 6810: 6796: 6781: 6777: 6770: 6755: 6751: 6744: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6710: 6704: 6698: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6667:(1): 050007. 6666: 6662: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6628: 6622: 6616: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6576: 6570: 6565: 6559: 6554: 6548: 6543: 6535: 6534:Miteco.gob.es 6531: 6525: 6519: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6471: 6466: 6459: 6454: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6435: 6428: 6423: 6416: 6412: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6386: 6379: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6352: 6345: 6341: 6338: 6332: 6330: 6321: 6320: 6312: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6261: 6252: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6228: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6191:Nature Energy 6185: 6170: 6164: 6162: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6132: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6103: 6087: 6080: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6058: 6051: 6050:9781786304995 6047: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6008: 5989: 5982: 5976: 5960: 5956: 5950: 5942: 5936: 5928: 5922: 5915: 5914: 5906: 5898: 5892: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5856: 5855: 5847: 5845: 5829: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5812:, REN21, 2018 5811: 5806: 5804: 5797:, REN21, 2017 5796: 5791: 5789: 5770: 5764: 5762: 5746: 5740: 5725: 5719: 5703: 5699: 5693: 5678: 5672: 5670: 5654: 5648: 5633: 5627: 5612: 5606: 5591: 5585: 5569: 5563: 5547: 5541: 5526: 5520: 5504: 5498: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5456: 5452: 5446: 5439: 5428: 5424: 5417: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5397: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 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4297: 4291: 4289: 4270: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4244: 4240: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4203: 4184: 4177: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4049: 4045: 4038: 4036: 4031: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3944:Energy portal 3939: 3934: 3931: 3925: 3920: 3913: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3900: 3890: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3840: 3831: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3755: 3753: 3748: 3729: 3719: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3701: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3681: 3674: 3665: 3656: 3653: 3647: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3579: 3578: 3577: 3569: 3555: 3551: 3549: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3520: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3497: 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1795: 1751: 1695: 1691: 1653: 1649: 1617: 1613: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1435: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1410: 1406: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1371: 1366: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1332: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1152: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1068: 1065: 1061: 1059: 1054: 1050: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 999: 997: 993: 989: 986: 984: 980: 976: 973: 971: 967: 963: 960: 958: 954: 950: 947: 945: 941: 937: 934: 932: 928: 924: 921: 919: 915: 911: 908: 906: 902: 898: 895: 893: 892:United States 889: 885: 882: 880: 876: 872: 869: 866: 865: 852: 788: 784: 774: 772: 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 752:Brayton cycle 748: 746: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 710: 706: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 649: 642: 638: 633: 626:Dish Stirling 623: 619: 614: 604: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 576: 572: 571:Mojave Desert 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 537: 529: 525: 521: 516: 509: 505: 500: 490: 488: 484: 480: 477: 466: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 435:working fluid 426: 418: 413: 403: 400: 395: 391: 389: 385: 371: 367: 363: 359: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 322: 307: 305: 300: 298: 294: 289: 285: 283: 279: 274: 272: 267: 263: 259: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 238:John Ericsson 234: 229: 227: 223: 214: 205: 203: 199: 193: 191: 186: 181: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 154:sensible heat 151: 147: 137: 133: 131: 127: 123: 122:steam turbine 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 85: 81: 80:Khi Solar One 76: 70: 66: 61: 55: 50: 43: 39: 35: 30: 26: 22: 9016:Cook Islands 8674:South Africa 8578: 8409:Fusion power 8403: 8311: 8299: 8226:Desalination 8219:Desalination 8198:Disinfection 8189:Solar cooker 8156:Process heat 8057:horticulture 8044:Applications 8004:Applications 7995:Net metering 7931:Distribution 7867:South Africa 7857:Saudi Arabia 7658:and proposed 7656:Experimental 7624:Concentrated 7623: 7557:Thermal mass 7442:Solar energy 7400:. Retrieved 7396: 7350:. Retrieved 7345: 7336: 7324:. Retrieved 7320: 7311: 7296: 7278: 7260: 7234:. Retrieved 7227:the original 7223:www.kcet.org 7222: 7210: 7201: 7192: 7183: 7174: 7162:. Retrieved 7158:the original 7153: 7144: 7135: 7126: 7117: 7107: 7098: 7088: 7069: 7049: 7030: 7021: 7001: 6974: 6970: 6960: 6951: 6942: 6932: 6923: 6914: 6902:. Retrieved 6893: 6881:. Retrieved 6871: 6859: 6847: 6835:. Retrieved 6825: 6813:. Retrieved 6795: 6783:. Retrieved 6779: 6769: 6757:. Retrieved 6753: 6743: 6731:. Retrieved 6721: 6709: 6697: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6642: 6630:. Retrieved 6621: 6609: 6594: 6586: 6575: 6564: 6553: 6542: 6533: 6524: 6513: 6501: 6489: 6477: 6465: 6453: 6434: 6422: 6411: 6400:the original 6395: 6391: 6378: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6318: 6311: 6277:(1): 55–74. 6274: 6270: 6260: 6241: 6237: 6227: 6194: 6190: 6184: 6172:. Retrieved 6149:, retrieved 6145:the original 6140: 6131: 6120:, retrieved 6116:the original 6111: 6102: 6090:. 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