Computer graphics - Knowledge

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the perfect solution for many of the graphics problems he faced. Even today, many standards of computer graphics interfaces got their start with this early Sketchpad program. One example of this is in drawing constraints. If one wants to draw a square for example, they do not have to worry about drawing four lines perfectly to form the edges of the box. One can simply specify that they want to draw a box, and then specify the location and size of the box. The software will then construct a perfect box, with the right dimensions and at the right location. Another example is that Sutherland's software modeled objects – not just a picture of objects. In other words, with a model of a car, one could change the size of the tires without affecting the rest of the car. It could stretch the body of car without deforming the tires.

2452: 1054: 2109: 489: 1798: 2078: 31: 3266: 357: 2563: 2418: 1435: 1492: 3062: 2758:, or other images. Graphics often combine text and illustration. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. 2709: 2548: 855:, Catmull loved animation yet quickly discovered that he did not have the talent for drawing. Now Catmull (along with many others) saw computers as the natural progression of animation and they wanted to be part of the revolution. The first computer animation that Catmull saw was his own. He created an animation of his hand opening and closing. He also pioneered 643: 2903: 1935:, released in 2001, was the first fully computer-generated feature film to use photorealistic CGI characters and be fully made with motion capture. The film was not a box-office success, however. Some commentators have suggested this may be partly because the lead CGI characters had facial features which fell into the " 731:– a development which would turn that department into one of the most important research centers in graphics for nearly a decade thereafter, eventually producing some of the most important pioneers in the field. There Sutherland perfected his HMD; twenty years later, NASA would re-discover his techniques in their 3778:

is a hypothesis in the field of robotics and 3D computer animation, which holds that when human replicas look and act almost, but not perfectly, like actual human beings, it causes a response of revulsion among human observers. The concept "valley" refers to the dip in a graph of the comfort level of

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image file. The rendering program is usually built into the computer graphics software, though others are available as plug-ins or entirely separate programs. The term "rendering" may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. Although the technical details of rendering methods vary, the

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fired directly at it. By simply timing the electronic pulse with the current location of the electron gun, it was easy to pinpoint exactly where the pen was on the screen at any given moment. Once that was determined, the computer could then draw a cursor at that location. Sutherland seemed to find

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3D computer graphics are the same as 3D models. The model is contained within the graphical data file, apart from the rendering. However, there are differences that include the 3D model being the representation of any 3D object. Until visually displayed, a model is not graphic. Due to printing, 3D

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and is typically used for the representation of photographic images. Vector graphics consists of encoding information about shapes and colors that comprise the image, which can allow for more flexibility in rendering. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice,

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Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the consumer. It is also used for processing image data received from the physical world, such as photo and video content. Computer graphics development has had a significant impact on many types of

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as 2D computer graphics do in the frame and raster graphics (like in 2D) in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D

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is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread. This method is used in most real-time 3D applications and typically uses

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and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.

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owners and eventually DEC got a copy. The engineers at DEC used it as a diagnostic program on every new PDP-1 before shipping it. The sales force picked up on this quickly enough and when installing new units, would run the "world's first video game" for their new customers. (Higginbotham's

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of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed a personal experiment in which he wrote a small program that captured the movement of his finger and displayed its vector (his traced name) on a display scope. One of the first interactive video games to feature recognizable, interactive graphics –

59:. Computer graphics is a core technology in digital photography, film, video games, digital art, cell phone and computer displays, and many specialized applications. A great deal of specialized hardware and software has been developed, with the displays of most devices being driven by 1183:

Computer graphics terminals during this decade became increasingly intelligent, semi-standalone and standalone workstations. Graphics and application processing were increasingly migrated to the intelligence in the workstation, rather than continuing to rely on central mainframe and

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where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. The term has been recently generalized to mean that

800: 791:, and publications within the field of computer graphics. By 1973, the first annual SIGGRAPH conference was held, which has become one of the focuses of the organization. SIGGRAPH has grown in size and importance as the field of computer graphics has expanded over time. 723:. The heavy hardware required for supporting the display and tracker was called the Sword of Damocles because of the potential danger if it were to fall upon the wearer. After receiving his Ph.D. from MIT, Sutherland became Director of Information Processing at 2835:. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but is a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. 1212:, as a serious design tool, one that could save time and draw more accurately than other methods. The Macintosh remains a highly popular tool for computer graphics among graphic design studios and businesses. Modern computers, dating from the 1980s, often use 2926:. It is a process used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including 320:– the more direct precursors of the field, as they provided the first two-dimensional electronic displays that responded to programmatic or user input. Nevertheless, computer graphics remained relatively unknown as a discipline until the 1950s and the post- 2622:, each storing a value at a given time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will change with each keyframe, creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, in which results in animation. Other methods of animation include 566:(BTL), created a film called "Simulation of a two-giro gravity attitude control system" in 1963. In this computer-generated film, Zajac showed how the attitude of a satellite could be altered as it orbits the Earth. He created the animation on an 927:. In order to draw a representation of a 3D object on the screen, the computer must determine which surfaces are "behind" the object from the viewer's perspective, and thus should be "hidden" when the computer creates (or renders) the image. The 735:

research. At Utah, Sutherland and Evans were highly sought after consultants by large companies, but they were frustrated at the lack of graphics hardware available at the time, so they started formulating a plan to start their own company.

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representation of any three-dimensional object, called a "3D model", via specialized software. Models may be created automatically or manually; the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to

3035:) are able to be employed, then customized for the most efficient rendering performance versus quality of the resultant imagery; a graphics artist should consider this trade-off if anti-aliasing methods are to be used. A pre-anti-aliased 2484:

image model, which produces an image conditioned on that representation. The most effective models have generally been trained on massive amounts of image and text data scraped from the web. By 2022, the best of these models, for example

1188:. Typical of the early move to high-resolution computer graphics, intelligent workstations for the computer-aided engineering market were the Orca 1000, 2000 and 3000 workstations, developed by Orcatech of Ottawa, a spin-off from 2958:

in 1974. A texture map is applied (mapped) to the surface of a shape, or polygon. This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a plain white box. Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon.

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being displayed on a screen (or screen location) at a resolution different from the resolution of the texture itself (such as a textured model in the distance from the virtual camera) will exhibit aliasing artifacts, while any

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which had been introduced in the 1980s to perform specialized processing on the GPU would by the end of the decade become supported on most consumer hardware, speeding up graphics considerably and allowing for greatly improved

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to teach an advanced computer graphics class, which contributed a great deal of founding research to the field and taught several students who would grow to found several of the industry's most important companies – namely

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Many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer-generated imagery can be categorized into several different types: two dimensional (2D), three dimensional (3D), and animated graphics. As technology has improved,

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recruited Evans to form a computer science program, and computer graphics quickly became his primary interest. This new department would become the world's primary research center for computer graphics through the 1970s.

1685:, among other consoles, sold in the millions and popularized 3D graphics for home gamers. Certain late-1990s first-generation 3D titles became seen as influential in popularizing 3D graphics among console users, such as 1420:

The decade also saw computer graphics applied to many additional professional markets, including location-based entertainment and education with the E&S Digistar, vehicle design, vehicle simulation, and chemistry.

703:'s computer division from 1953 to 1962, after which he worked for the next five years as a visiting professor at Berkeley. There he continued his interest in computers and how they interfaced with people. In 1966, the 2975:) are, generally speaking, common methods of implementing texture definition on 3D models in computer graphics software, while intended placement of textures onto a model's surface often requires a technique known as 1203:

processors, and had Unix as its operating system. It was targeted squarely at the sophisticated end of the design engineering sector. Artists and graphic designers began to see the personal computer, particularly the

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is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred because they give more direct control of the image than

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is the generation of a 2D image from a 3D model by means of computer programs. A scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure; it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texturing,

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on a mass scale and an impressive rise in the quality of CGI generally. Home computers became able to take on rendering tasks that previously had been limited to workstations costing thousands of dollars; as

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is a leading innovator in computer graphics. Greenberg has authored hundreds of articles and served as a teacher and mentor to many prominent computer graphic artists, animators, and researchers such as

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which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and

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Today, computer graphics is widespread. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, and in a variety of medical investigations and surgical procedures. A well-constructed

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can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, theses", and other presentation material.

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developed during the war. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, leading to the development of computer graphics as a discipline.

1258:. By developing a new software methodology specifically for high-speed image rendering, LINKS-1 was able to rapidly render highly realistic images." The LINKS-1 was the world's most powerful 1250:. According to the Information Processing Society of Japan: "The core of 3D image rendering is calculating the luminance of each pixel making up a rendered surface from the given viewpoint, 1074:

proliferated, a subject which had previously been an academics-only discipline was adopted by a much larger audience, and the number of computer graphics developers increased significantly.

3031:". Anti-aliasing methods rectify such problems, resulting in imagery more pleasing to the viewer, but can be somewhat computationally expensive. Various anti-aliasing algorithms (such as 639:

car bodies. These curves would form the foundation for much curve-modeling work in the field, as curves – unlike polygons – are mathematically complex entities to draw and model well.

2831:. A GPU is a device able to assist the CPU in calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software should solve the 2476:, models have been created which take as input a natural language description and produces as output an image matching that description. Text-to-image models generally combine a 2409:

channels to integrate visual elements with the main screen in that it super-imposes two discrete video sources. Software can simulate this through specialized rendering methods.

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representation of geometric data. For the purpose of performance, this is stored in the computer. This includes images that may be for later display or for real-time viewing.

2493:, are able to create images in a range of styles, ranging from imitations of living artists to near-photorealistic, in a matter of seconds, given powerful enough hardware. 2274: 3142:(advanced tessellation of polygons, resulting in smooth surfaces similar to NURB models). A 3D model can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 4377: 867:. It became one of his goals to produce a feature-length motion picture using computer graphics – a goal he would achieve two decades later after his founding role in 1254:, and object position. The LINKS-1 system was developed to realize an image rendering methodology in which each pixel could be parallel processed independently using 727:(Advanced Research Projects Agency), and later became a professor at Harvard. In 1967 Sutherland was recruited by Evans to join the computer science program at the 2618:. Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of 471:. Using a light pen, Sketchpad allowed one to draw simple shapes on the computer screen, save them and even recall them later. The light pen itself had a small 1838:

had spread the reach of computer graphics to the mainstream by the late 1990s and continued to do so at an accelerated pace in the 2000s. CGI was also adopted

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information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a

1302:("bluescreening", etc.) were made for the later films of the original trilogy. Two other pieces of video would also outlast the era as historically relevant: 2653:

then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to the illusion of movement in

2162:, which are maturing considerably. Shaders are now very nearly a necessity for advanced work in the field, providing considerable complexity in manipulating 3849: 270:, etc.), where the emphasis is on realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps with a dynamic (time) component". 254:

which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Over the past decade, other specialized fields have been developed like

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Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location, orientation, and scale) stored in an object's

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are among the many companies that were getting started in computer graphics by the mid-1960s. IBM was quick to respond to this interest by releasing the

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developed this "conceptual framework". The specifications were published in 1977, and it became a foundation for many future developments in the field.

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At around the same time (1961–1962) in the University of Cambridge, Elizabeth Waldram wrote code to display radio-astronomy maps on a cathode ray tube.

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would go on to have many animated hits, and its work on prerendered video animation is still considered an industry leader and research trail breaker.

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The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe "almost everything on computers that is not text or sound". Typically, the term

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discipline, computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. It focuses on the

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were crucial to this decade, and 3D rendering capabilities became a standard feature as 3D-graphics GPUs became considered a necessity for

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technique to pass large amounts of data bidirectionally between a GPU and CPU was invented; speeding up analysis on many kinds of

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in monochrome mode, and it was used in a number of graphics cards and terminals during the late 1980s. In 1986, TI introduced the

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to create special effects for the earliest films dating from 1895, but such displays were limited and not interactive. The first

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models are not only confined to virtual space. 3D rendering is how a model can be displayed. Also can be used in non-graphical

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Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image

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Originally, sprites were a method of integrating unrelated bitmaps so that they appeared to be part of the normal bitmap on a

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was a pioneer in computer animation and digital fine art and created the first computer art in 1964. Csuri was recognized by

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Achievement Award. Greenberg was the founding director of the NSF Center for Computer Graphics and Scientific Visualization.

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also became a leading developer of graphics boards in this decade, creating a "duopoly" in the field which exists this day.

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in graphics by modeling the paths that rays of light take from a light source, to surfaces in a scene, and into the camera.

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general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are outlined as the

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Primitives are basic units which a graphics system may combine to create more complex images or models. Examples would be

719:(HMD). It displayed two separate wireframe images, one for each eye. This allowed the viewer to see the computer scene in 583: 3805: 3750: 3182: 936: 776: 475:

in its tip. This cell emitted an electronic pulse whenever it was placed in front of a computer screen and the screen's

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that is integrated into a larger scene. Initially including just graphical objects handled separately from the memory

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became known as the "go-to" house by many other studios for topnotch computer graphics in film. Important advances in

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in operation. Around the same time, other scientists were creating computer graphics to illustrate their research. At

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Rendering resolution-independent entities (such as 3D models) for viewing on a raster (pixel-based) device such as a

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has matured into a multistage process with many layers; generally, it is not uncommon to implement texture mapping,

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line of graphics cards dominated the market in the early decade with occasional significant competing presence from

1460: 4403: 2862: 1117: 969: 4435: 3240:. He began creating digital art in 1962, making him one of the earliest digital artists. In 1965, Noll along with 920:, a maker of advanced rendering systems that would dominate the field of high-end graphics until the early 1990s. 5368: 4607: 4429: 3800: 2010:, grow the video game industry and impress, until that industry's revenues became comparable to those of movies. 3857: 3252:

art. During April 1965, the Howard Wise Gallery exhibited Noll's computer art along with random-dot patterns by

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of physical phenomena, or animated directly for other purposes. The model can also be physically created using

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of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The

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Technology and algorithms for rendering continued to improve greatly. In 1996, Krishnamurty and Levoy invented

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representations on a surface, such as a computer screen. Examples are photographs, drawing, graphics designs,

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mostly along geometric edges and the boundaries of texture details; these artifacts are informally called "

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needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another

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engines". By the end of the decade, computers adopted common frameworks for graphics processing such as

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In the 2010s, CGI has been nearly ubiquitous in video, pre-rendered graphics are nearly scientifically

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used as texture coordinates. Texture mapping as a discipline also encompasses techniques for creating

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In the enlarged portion of the image individual pixels are rendered as squares and can be easily seen.

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computer to create artistic patterns and to formalize the use of random processes in the creation of

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represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel.

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2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed upon traditional

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in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or

2963:(created from adjusting parameters of an underlying algorithm that produces an output texture), and 1603:– a critical and commercial success of nine-figure magnitude. The studio to invent the programmable 1314:

the same year featuring the first fully CGI character in a feature movie (an animated stained-glass

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that took place during the first half of the twentieth century. Screens could display art since the

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as the father of digital art and computer animation, and as a pioneer of computer animation by the

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to critical and popular acclaim during this decade using a rendering engine innovated primarily by

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models, allowing graphics to move beyond a "flat" look to a look more accurately portraying depth.

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created an animation of his wife's face. The two animations were included in the 1976 feature film

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Wolfgang Höhl (2008): Interactive environments with open-source software, Springer Wien New York,

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also resurfaced with its prequel trilogy and the effects continued to set a bar for CGI in film.

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in 1996 subsequently pushed the boundaries of commercial, real-time 3D graphics. Back on the PC,

1456: 1232: 1089: 928: 498: 263: 1192:, and led by David Pearson, an early workstation pioneer. The Orca 3000 was based on the 16-bit 5707: 5259: 5146: 5038: 4998: 4948: 4913: 4891: 4886: 3874: 3173: 3016: 2858: 1918: 1712: 1651: 1255: 1189: 939: 765: 437: 333: 285: 143: 91: 5323: 4323: 2170:, and textures on a per-element basis, and countless possible effects. Their shader languages 753:

In 1968, Dave Evans and Ivan Sutherland founded the first computer graphics hardware company,

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The History of Visual Magic in Computers: How Beautiful Images are Made in CAD, 3D, VR and AR

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and SGI developed 3D raster graphics hardware that directly influenced the later single-chip

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by almost three years, but it was almost unknown outside of a research or academic setting.)

444:. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware. 79: 3887:

Yan, Johnson (August 1985). "Advances in Computer-Generated Imagery for Flight Simulation".

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will always show aliasing artifacts as they are resolution-independent; techniques such as

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It was not long before major corporations started taking an interest in computer graphics.

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went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established strong ties with

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The precursor sciences to the development of modern computer graphics were the advances in

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program, but it was not a success. DirectX itself remained a commercial success, however.

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on three-dimensional models in 1974, now considered one of the fundamental techniques in

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principles – increasingly an active area of research for computer graphics in the 2010s

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took a great graphical leap forward in the 2000s, becoming able to display graphics in

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or other home rendering software ascended in importance. By the end of the decade, the

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in 1978 featured a large number of animated figures on screen; both used a specialized

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or PBR, which implements many maps and performs advanced calculation to simulate real

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that had previously only been possible pre-rendered and/or on business-level hardware.

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to the untrained eye (though they could not yet do so with a trained CGI artist) and

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and other science fiction franchises were relevant in cinematic CGI at this time, as

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A major advance in 3D computer graphics was created at UU by these early pioneers –

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page description language. Adobe would go on later to create the industry standard

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widely in the late 1990s and 2000s, and so became familiar to a massive audience.

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period – during which time the discipline emerged from a combination of both pure

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of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, or typically in the context of film as

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scan of a forearm with different colour schemes for muscle, fat, bone, and blood

2294:—mostly from models, such as digital image, and by techniques specific to them. 1310:" in 1985, which popularized CGI among music fans of that era, and a scene from 632: 5876: 5841: 5782: 5737: 5636: 5621: 5515: 5490: 5444: 5398: 5393: 5229: 5161: 4923: 4481: 4473: 4279: 3775: 3719: 3679: 3427: 3377: 3322: 3317: 3202: 2992: 2972: 2556: 2477: 2222: 2199: 2186:

light flow, is an active research area as well, along with advanced areas like

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also became cheaper in the early 1980s, enabling the development of affordable

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defining the overall screen. Such sprites can be created by either electronic

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level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited) computer and video games,

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of a video display, this now includes various manners of graphical overlays.

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and its static renders became emblematic of CGI development during the 1970s.

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started working in the computer graphics field. Sinden created a film called

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of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel typically has three

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technologies such as typography. In those applications, the two-dimensional

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The field began to see the first rendered graphics that could truly pass as

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that helped to popularize computer graphics to a mass audience in the 1980s.

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As the UU computer graphics laboratory was attracting people from all over,

768:-based rendering algorithms that have since become fundamental in achieving 715:

continued to innovate at MIT when he invented the first computer-controlled

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dominated the home space and were all capable of advanced 3D graphics; the

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To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer

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both introduced low-priced chipsets and continued to dominate the market.

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The 1980s began to see the commercialization of computer graphics. As the

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Example showing effect of vector graphics versus raster (bitmap) graphics

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after Bézier's work in the field – to develop 3d modeling techniques for

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are beginning, though beyond reach of all but the highest-end hardware.

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methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content, see

71:(CGI). The non-artistic aspects of computer graphics are the subject of 5727: 5505: 5469: 5464: 5214: 3728: 3709: 3422: 3357: 3307: 3265: 3245: 3206: 3045: 2976: 2686: 2654: 2319: 2245: 2221:, but few, if any, attempt photorealism due to continuing fears of the 2139: 1979: 1955: 1742: 1559: 1555: 1409:(GPU), a technology where a separate and very powerful chip is used in 1350: 1335: 1299: 1217: 1145: 1121: 1035: 1006: 891: 872: 684: 676: 675:

graphics terminal, the first commercially available graphics computer.

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in 1960. Fetter in turn attributed it to Verne Hudson, also at Boeing.

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are still widely used. Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of

198: 163: 3810: 2480:, which transforms the input text into a latent representation, and a 1113: 1100:(GPU) chips, which began to revolutionize computer graphics, enabling 5809: 5777: 5378: 5353: 5234: 5219: 4583:

Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, chap. IV.2 Computer Animation

4540:

Computer graphics and virtual environments: from realism to real-time

4351:"All these images were generated by Google's latest text-to-image AI" 3669: 3654: 3610: 3554: 3512: 3287: 3131: 2682: 2639: 2584: 2521: 2459: 2375: 2336:

A large form of digital art, pixel art is created through the use of

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Subsequently, a number of breakthroughs in the field occurred at the

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issues. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of

1463:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 356: 5204: 4759: 4254: 4122: 3598: 3521: 3439: 3249: 3218: 3186: 3085: 3024: 2996: 2951: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2807: 2783: 2743: 2619: 2580: 2562: 2398: 2298: 2233: 2226: 2207: 1995: 1975: 1971: 1532: 1370: 1358: 1259: 1173: 942: 780: 688: 672: 656: 567: 341: 151: 4509:

Computer Graphics: A Survey of Current Techniques and Applications

4093:"GPU History: Hitachi ARTC HD63484. The second graphics processor" 4028:

Computer Architecture For Interactive Display Of Segmented Imagery

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foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely

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arcade as is known today was birthed in the 1970s, with the first

5677: 5189: 4808: 3550: 3492: 3028: 2911: 2811: 2438:. Raster graphics is the representation of images as an array of 2302: 2058: 2027: 2015: 1910: 1883: 1770: 1536: 1491: 1323: 1161: 961: 636: 624: 433: 418: 159: 2708: 2547: 2520:

Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on similar

2417: 459:. The TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces. A 440:

into the world's leading computer technology hub – now known as

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is a method for adding detail, surface texture, or colour to a

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or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films.

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are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster

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was developed in 1986 – an important step towards implementing

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the representation and manipulation of image data by a computer

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3D graphics, compared to 2D graphics, are graphics that use a

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would begin its rise to the prominence it still enjoys today.

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gradually began to be realistic to the point of entering the

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and had been working on his degree in physics. Growing up on

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Further advances in computing led to greater advancements in

436:. This began the decades-long transformation of the southern 337: 235: 52: 4682: 4298:

Chris Taylor, Time, 31 July 2000 (retrieved 8 August 2012).

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EDSAC 1 and after – a compilation of personal reminiscences

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was still one of the most active gaming platforms as well.

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was an instant success and copies started flowing to other

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R. D. Parslow, R. W. Prowse, Richard Elliot Green (1969).

1024:

in 1975 featured human-looking animated characters, while

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and created a revolution in the publishing world with his

5209: 4031:. Computer Architectures for Spatially Distributed Data. 3564: 3487: 3121:

3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical,

3003:

to help simulate shine and light reflections, as well as

2881:. The technique is capable of producing a high degree of 2751: 2030:

improved greatly; the second-generation shader languages

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to simulate mirror-like reflectivity, also called gloss.

2018:

more easily to the independent developer world with the

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The continued rise and increasing sophistication of the

3926:"A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation" 2458:

output for the prompt "an astronaut riding a horse, by

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3D graphics. In 1988, the first dedicated real-time 3D

1004:

in 1972 was one of the first hit arcade cabinet games.

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academic research into more advanced computers and the

4404:"Lighting principles for 3D artists from film and art" 3625:

Computer graphics may be used in the following areas:

3138:(manipulation of faceted geometry), or polygonal mesh 2979:(arbitrary, manual layout of texture coordinates) for 1265:

Also in the field of realistic rendering, the general

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was another of those early pioneers; he later founded

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A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation

4430:

Advanced Graphics Programming Techniques Using OpenGL

3901: 3273:, an iconic model in 3D computer graphics created by 2446: 1749:

or GPU, which in its own words contained "integrated

1519:

became available for home systems, the popularity of

619:

would also provide a boost through the early work of

463:

could be used to draw sketches on the computer using

312:, was invented in 1897 – it in turn would permit the 2999:

that correspond to a texture to simulate height and

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is the art of creating moving images via the use of

1886:

in computer graphics via the widespread adoption of

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began its serious commercial rise in this era under

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graphics for computer graphics terminals as well as

743:

A 1968 center spread from Seattle underground paper

523:, created another important title in the history of 508:

The phrase "computer graphics" has been credited to

266:phenomena (architectural, meteorological, medical, 4125:"LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System-Computer Museum" 3617:, although the two fields have many similarities. 3455:Link Flight Simulation, division of Singer Company 2954:. Its application to 3D graphics was pioneered by 2700:images, but raster images are more commonly used. 2057:experiments. The technique has also been used for 1830:CGI became ubiquitous in earnest during this era. 1510:The 1990s' overwhelming note was the emergence of 1246:, in 1982, for the purpose of rendering realistic 4325:Processing: Creative Coding and Computational Art 4103:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 4071:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 4005:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 3779:humans as a function of a robot's human likeness. 2219:a great many animated CGI films are made per year 749:features then-state-of-the-art computer graphics. 5924: 3159: 3052:help to solve texture-related aliasing problems. 2786:in 3D rendering. Primitives may be supported in 2669:Images are typically created by devices such as 2472:Since the mid-2010s, as a result of advances in 779:initiated A Special Interest Group on Graphics ( 4226:"System 16 – Taito Air System Hardware (Taito)" 3836:Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics 2178:are active fields of research and development. 1909:movies proliferated, with traditional animated 1599:, with its first major film release, in 1995 – 1306:' iconic, near-fully-CGI video for their song " 1034:circuit made from discrete chips to help their 4523:Computer Graphics: Techniques and Applications 4312:at Box Office Mojo (retrieved 12 August 2012). 4284:Daniel Sevo, 2005 (retrieved 26 February 2015) 4205:"System 16 – Namco System 21 Hardware (Namco)" 1982:. Marquee CGI-heavy titles like the series of 976:also innovated further in 1978 by introducing 760:Also in 1968 Arthur Appel described the first 5046: 4608: 4061:"Famous Graphics Chips: TI TMS34010 and VRAM" 3570: 1929:dominating the box office in this field. The 1580:, the first HDTV computer graphics series by 1322:– small programs designed specifically to do 1085:(VLSI) technology led to the availability of 383:and interaction interface and introduced the 4342: 3088:is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a 2720:(or picture element) is a single point in a 2583:. It is a subfield of computer graphics and 1326:as a separate algorithm – were developed by 336:'s further development of technologies like 4538:M. Slater, A. Steed, Y. Chrysantho (2002). 2006:and dozens of others continued to approach 5053: 5039: 4615: 4601: 4493:Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker (1994). 4487:Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice 4024: 3232:was one of the first researchers to use a 2664: 1661:, three of the first massively popular 3D 1136:, and was licensed for clones such as the 602:Propagation of Shock Waves in a Solid Form 262:more concerned with "the visualization of 4578:Computer Graphics research at UC Berkeley 4468:Procedural Elements for Computer Graphics 4455:, Second Edition, John-Wiley & Sons, 4321: 4147:"The Mass Impact of Videogame Technology" 4123:Information Processing Society of Japan. 3801:"ACM Computing Classification System ToC" 3248:were the first to publicly exhibit their 2987:(NURB) surfaces have their own intrinsic 2587:. Increasingly it is created by means of 2340:software, where images are edited on the 1978:maintained a large following, as did the 1479:Learn how and when to remove this message 78:Some topics in computer graphics include 19:For more specific scientific fields, see 4382:. Oxford, England: Newnes. p. 569. 3981:Computer graphics and geometric modeling 3264: 3060: 2901: 2707: 2561: 2546: 2450: 2416: 2272: 2107: 2026:continued to mature as well, and it and 1796: 1490: 1052: 798: 738: 641: 487: 355: 168: 29: 4516:Computer Graphics: Theory Into Practice 4348: 4144: 3923: 2790:, or the building blocks provided by a 2401:. In circuitry, a hardware sprite is a 410:and simulated a tennis match. In 1959, 5925: 4453:Computer Graphics for Java Programmers 4090: 4058: 3992: 3942: 3919: 3917: 3902:From the Vault of MIT (Jan 20, 2016). 2922:or illustrations by varying levels of 2885:; usually higher than that of typical 1401:Air System. On the professional side, 1393:were introduced for arcades, with the 5034: 4622: 4596: 4251:15 Most Influential Games of All Time 4054: 4052: 4033:Springer Science & Business Media 2536: 2290:are the computer-based generation of 1970:line of consoles, and offerings from 1945:drew attention at this time as well. 1223:In the field of realistic rendering, 1164:released the ARTC HD63484, the first 402:– was created for an oscilloscope by 5020:List of computer graphics algorithms 4375: 3809:. September 21, 2016. Archived from 3577:Computer graphics (computer science) 2827:along a rendering device, such as a 2496: 2206:at ultra-high-resolution modes like 2072: 2038:began to be popular in this decade. 1897:Computer graphics used in films and 1697:The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 1623:, laid the foundations for fully 3D 1588:(studio Z-A production, 1990–1993). 1428: 1385:, advances were made in commercial, 224:used to create and manipulate images 213:refers to several different things: 21:Computer graphics (computer science) 4681: 4588:History of Computer Graphics on RUS 3914: 3886: 3864: 3806:Association for Computing Machinery 3751:Computer representation of surfaces 3183:Association for Computing Machinery 3056: 1574:(1989–1991) by studio Fantôme, and 1523:workstations declined and powerful 764:algorithm, the first of a class of 687:in 1966 that was later licensed to 13: 4518:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 4445: 4049: 2861:is a technique from the family of 2447:Generative machine-learning models 2412: 2355: 2256: 964:in CGI via the development of the 960:contributed to the foundations of 615:Also sometime in the early 1960s, 25:Computer graphics (disambiguation) 14: 5949: 4556: 4533:Fundamentals of computer graphics 4451:L. Ammeraal and K. Zhang (2007). 4309:Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within 3260: 3076:is a technique used to display a 2607:. It is also referred to as CGI ( 2314:, whose approach is more akin to 1932:Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within 1570:by studio Mac Guff Ligne (1988), 1142:Intel's graphics processing units 916:was also there; he later founded 570:mainframe computer. Also at BTL, 406:to entertain visitors in 1958 at 4379:Modern Dictionary of Electronics 3433: 2788:hardware for efficient rendering 2158:into one rendering engine using 2116:texture rendered close-up using 2076: 1729:– an improvement on Jim Blinn's 1433: 1353:; millions-selling systems from 1233:LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System 1160:(TI) in the mid-1980s. In 1984, 519:In 1961 another student at MIT, 16:Graphics created using computers 4421: 4396: 4369: 4349:Vincent, James (May 24, 2022). 4315: 4301: 4287: 4281:The Future Of Computer Graphics 4273: 4257:. 14 March 2001. Archived from 4247:"Virtua Racing – Arcade (1992)" 4239: 4218: 4197: 4138: 4116: 4084: 4059:Peddie, Jon (10 January 2019). 4018: 3986: 3973: 3768: 3620: 2971:application or imported from a 2061:mining and has applications in 1277:, which is necessary to pursue 1176:, the first fully programmable 902:and a prominent movie industry 699:was director of engineering at 596:, Nelson Max created the films 432:through its founders, who were 4091:Peddie, Jon (7 October 2018). 4025:Goldwasser, S.M. (June 1983). 3961: 3936: 3895: 3842: 3824: 3793: 3110: 2405:construct that employs custom 2251: 1631:among a wider audience in the 819:in the 1970s, which had hired 408:Brookhaven National Laboratory 1: 5077:Biological data visualization 4977:3D computer graphics software 4514:Jeffrey J. McConnell (2006). 4295:Cinema: A Painstaking Fantasy 4166:10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60463-5 3850:"What are computer graphics?" 3786: 3756:Glossary of computer graphics 3160:Pioneers in computer graphics 2985:non-uniform rational B-spline 2761: 2434:formats are complementary to 2232:In videogames, the Microsoft 1939:". Other animated films like 1345:The 1980s is also called the 1284:The continuing popularity of 847:. Catmull had just come from 594:Lawrence Radiation Laboratory 449:interactive computer graphics 280:History of computer animation 246:have become more common, but 185:media and has revolutionized 4792:Hidden-surface determination 4570:History of Computer Graphics 3993:Peddie, Jon (18 July 2018). 3832:"What is Computer Graphics?" 3517:Industrial Light & Magic 3042:procedurally defined texture 2797: 2692:Digital images include both 2352:games are mostly pixel art. 2325: 1296:Industrial Light & Magic 1083:very-large-scale integration 925:hidden surface determination 679:, a supervising engineer at 562:E. E. Zajac, a scientist at 7: 4145:Defanti, Thomas A. (1984). 3744: 3450:Bell Telephone Laboratories 2850:to produce the final image. 1554:became far more popular in 1459:the claims made and adding 1369:-based personal computers, 204: 10: 5954: 5117:Mathematical visualization 3583:study of computer graphics 3574: 3571:Study of computer graphics 3460:United States Armed Forces 3114: 2948:computer-generated graphic 2889:methods, but at a greater 2609:Computer-generated imagery 2571:computer-generated imagery 2540: 2506: 2500: 2465: 2424: 2362:Sprite (computer graphics) 2359: 2329: 2266: 2260: 2180:Physically based rendering 2146:, lighting maps including 2118:physically based rendering 2014:made a decision to expose 1627:and popularized real-time 1014:moving along a vertically 843:One of these students was 455:computer was developed at 277: 273: 229:study of computer graphics 69:computer generated imagery 61:computer graphics hardware 38:screenshot displaying the 18: 5795: 5665: 5529: 5483: 5407: 5306: 5275: 5268: 5175: 5112:Information visualization 5097:Educational visualization 5069: 5012: 4967: 4834: 4723: 4653: 4630: 3970:, Retrieved 11 July 2019. 3947:. Springer. p. 101. 3690:Information visualization 3640:Computational photography 1844:television advertisements 1610:In video games, in 1992, 1214:graphical user interfaces 1079:metal–oxide–semiconductor 564:Bell Telephone Laboratory 512:, a graphic designer for 256:information visualization 136:computational photography 5288:Charles-René de Fourcroy 5137:Scientific visualization 5064:of technical information 4511:. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 4500:Francis S. Hill (2001). 4376:Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). 3761: 3715:Scientific visualization 2703: 2509:Graphics processing unit 2283:(left) and masks (right) 2269:Video display controller 2068: 1851:graphics processing unit 1792: 1747:graphics processing unit 1665:games, were released by 1424: 1407:graphics processing unit 1098:graphics processing unit 1048: 794: 610:Vibration of an Aircraft 483: 457:MIT's Lincoln Laboratory 367:Early projects like the 351: 260:scientific visualization 140:scientific visualization 55:and art with the aid of 5004:Vector graphics editors 4999:Raster graphics editors 4574:(archived 2 March 2007) 4565:(archived 5 April 2007) 4322:Greenberg, Ira (2007). 4035:. pp. 75–94 (81). 3924:Carlson, Wayne (2003). 3343:Nadia Magnenat Thalmann 3269:A modern render of the 3136:polygonal mesh modeling 3084:data set. A typical 3D 2869:by tracing the path of 2665:Concepts and principles 1572:Les Fables Géométriques 1090:central processing unit 929:3D Core Graphics System 631:'s curves – now called 598:Flow of a Viscous Fluid 590:Newton's laws of motion 499:Computer History Museum 5708:Christopher R. Johnson 5260:Technical illustration 5147:Software visualization 4887:Checkerboard rendering 3979:David Salomon (1999). 3565:AMD (ATI Technologies) 3278: 3070: 3017:liquid-crystal display 2907: 2863:image order algorithms 2716:In digital imaging, a 2713: 2573: 2559: 2525:rendering techniques. 2463: 2422: 2284: 2121: 1827: 1801:A screenshot from the 1713:Battle Arena Toshinden 1507: 1417:to optimize graphics. 1403:Evans & Sutherland 1318:). In 1988, the first 1281:in computer graphics. 1190:Bell-Northern Research 1120:on a fully integrated 1067: 940:Special Interest Group 812: 755:Evans & Sutherland 750: 683:, came up with a home 652: 608:created a film called 585:Force, Mass and Motion 505: 438:San Francisco Bay Area 364: 334:United States military 286:electrical engineering 181: 173:Simulated flight over 144:computational geometry 51:deals with generating 45: 23:. For other uses, see 5602:Lawrence J. Rosenblum 5415:Edward Walter Maunder 5339:Charles Joseph Minard 5157:User interface design 5132:Product visualization 4842:Affine transformation 4821:Surface triangulation 4765:Anisotropic filtering 4466:David Rogers (1998). 4434:Siggraph 1999. (see: 4154:Advances in Computers 4098:IEEE Computer Society 4066:IEEE Computer Society 4000:IEEE Computer Society 3650:Computer-aided design 3645:Computational physics 3635:Computational biology 3268: 3064: 2905: 2711: 2616:transformation matrix 2565: 2550: 2454: 2420: 2370:is a two-dimensional 2276: 2192:subsurface scattering 2111: 1857:makers to offer. The 1800: 1629:3D polygonal graphics 1494: 1312:Young Sherlock Holmes 1156:(VRAM) introduced by 1128:. It supported up to 1056: 871:. In the same class, 823:. He was paired with 802: 742: 645: 491: 359: 172: 80:user interface design 33: 5882:Scientific modelling 5857:Information graphics 5597:Clifford A. Pickover 5547:William S. Cleveland 5455:Henry Norris Russell 5440:Howard G. Funkhouser 5384:Florence Nightingale 5349:Francis Amasa Walker 5245:Statistical graphics 5167:Volume visualization 5142:Social visualization 4531:and others. (2005). 4507:John Lewell (1985). 3943:Peddie, Jon (2013). 3705:Rational drug design 3483:Evans and Sutherland 3179:Museum of Modern Art 2792:graphics application 2776:geometric primitives 2756:engineering drawings 2738:red, green, and blue 2593:2D computer graphics 2589:3D computer graphics 2531:computer simulations 2503:3D computer graphics 2474:deep neural networks 2312:3D computer graphics 2288:2D computer graphics 2263:2D computer graphics 2043:scientific computing 1921:as well as numerous 1783:3D modeling software 1737:release the seminal 1663:first-person shooter 1248:3D computer graphics 1239:that used up to 257 1180:graphics processor. 1140:82720, the first of 1130:1024x1024 resolution 1077:In the early 1980s, 717:head-mounted display 424:Electronics pioneer 248:2D computer graphics 244:3D computer graphics 128:scientific computing 5862:Information science 5825:in computer science 5617:Sheelagh Carpendale 5552:George G. Robertson 5389:Karl Wilhelm Pohlke 5324:André-Michel Guerry 5200:Graph of a function 5195:Engineering drawing 4857:Collision detection 4785:Global illumination 4535:. A.K. Peters, Ltd. 4476:, Andries Van Dam, 3854:University of Leeds 3462:, particularly the 3198:Donald P. Greenberg 3194:Donald P. Greenberg 3150:computer simulation 3080:of a 3D discretely 3005:environment mapping 2961:Procedural textures 2774:in 2D video games, 2597:real-time rendering 2468:Text-to-image model 2346:graphing calculator 2196:Rayleigh scattering 2148:specular highlights 1824:real time computing 1820:console video games 1633:video game industry 1621:arcade system board 1411:parallel processing 1275:global illumination 1269:of David Immel and 1196:microprocessor and 1116:was the first GPU, 970:Blinn–Phong shading 948:Also in the 1970s, 908:Adobe After Effects 430:Stanford University 404:William Higinbotham 363:Sector Control Room 96:geometry processing 5902:Volume cartography 5666:Early 21st century 5562:Catherine Plaisant 5557:Bruce H. McCormick 5511:Mary Eleanor Spear 5501:Arthur H. Robinson 5435:Arthur Lyon Bowley 5408:Early 20th century 5255:Technical drawings 5127:Molecular graphics 5102:Flow visualization 5092:Data visualization 4907:Scanline rendering 4701:Parallax scrolling 4691:Isometric graphics 4572:series of articles 3585:is a sub-field of 3508:University of Utah 3506:department of the 3464:Whirlwind computer 3279: 3071: 3025:aliasing artifacts 3023:inevitably causes 2908: 2906:Example of shading 2891:computational cost 2887:scanline rendering 2865:for generating an 2833:rendering equation 2714: 2577:Computer animation 2574: 2560: 2553:Computer animation 2543:Computer animation 2537:Computer animation 2533:and calculations. 2464: 2423: 2285: 2122: 2088:. You can help by 1828: 1816:Personal computers 1508: 1444:possibly contains 1267:rendering equation 1068: 849:The Boeing Company 817:University of Utah 813: 789:graphics standards 783:) which organizes 751: 729:University of Utah 705:University of Utah 701:Bendix Corporation 681:Sanders Associates 653: 506: 473:photoelectric cell 469:Sketchpad software 365: 182: 100:computer animation 46: 5933:Computer graphics 5920: 5919: 5897:Visual perception 5847:Graphic organizer 5820:Computer graphics 5791: 5790: 5773:Martin Wattenberg 5748:Hanspeter Pfister 5703:Martin Krzywinski 5627:Jock D. Mackinlay 5607:Thomas A. DeFanti 5530:Late 20th century 5450:Ejnar Hertzsprung 5152:Technical drawing 5028: 5027: 4969:Graphics software 4862:Planar projection 4847:Back-face culling 4719: 4718: 4663:Alpha compositing 4624:Computer graphics 4542:. Addison-Wesley. 4502:Computer Graphics 4495:Computer Graphics 4490:. Addison-Wesley. 4461:978-0-470-03160-5 4335:978-1-59059-617-3 3932:on April 5, 2007. 3630:Augmented reality 3413:J. Turner Whitted 3348:Benoit Mandelbrot 3303:Paul de Casteljau 3050:texture filtering 2825:graphics pipeline 2636:crowd simulations 2567:Fractal landscape 2515:three-dimensional 2497:Three-dimensional 2188:ambient occlusion 2106: 2105: 2055:molecular biology 1942:The Polar Express 1779:graphics hardware 1741:, the first home 1616:, running on the 1586:François Schuiten 1531:machines running 1525:Microsoft Windows 1504:François Schuiten 1498:, series poster, 1489: 1488: 1481: 1446:original research 1308:Money for Nothing 1166:complementary MOS 1158:Texas Instruments 1106:personal computer 1010:in 1974 featured 998:sprite graphics. 629:Paul de Casteljau 467:'s revolutionary 316:and the military 264:three dimensional 211:computer graphics 120:implicit surfaces 49:Computer graphics 5945: 5907:Volume rendering 5892:Visual analytics 5887:Spatial analysis 5867:Misleading graph 5718:David McCandless 5693:Gordon Kindlmann 5657:Alfred Inselberg 5652:Leland Wilkinson 5587:Michael Friendly 5521:Howard T. Fisher 5484:Mid 20th century 5425:W. E. B. Du Bois 5329:William Playfair 5319:Adolphe Quetelet 5293:Joseph Priestley 5276:Pre-19th century 5273: 5272: 5240:Skeletal formula 5107:Geovisualization 5082:Chemical imaging 5055: 5048: 5041: 5032: 5031: 4954:Volume rendering 4826:Wire-frame model 4679: 4678: 4617: 4610: 4603: 4594: 4593: 4504:. Prentice Hall. 4497:. Prentice-Hall. 4478:Steven K. Feiner 4439: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4319: 4313: 4305: 4299: 4291: 4285: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4151: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4056: 4047: 4046: 4022: 4016: 4015: 4013: 4011: 3990: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3958: 3940: 3934: 3933: 3928:. Archived from 3921: 3912: 3911: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3884: 3878: 3871:Michael Friendly 3868: 3862: 3861: 3856:. Archived from 3846: 3840: 3839: 3838:. 15 April 1998. 3828: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3797: 3780: 3772: 3675:Extended reality 3592:image processing 3587:computer science 3537:Silicon Graphics 3504:computer science 3373:Daniel J. Sandin 3074:Volume rendering 3065:Volume rendered 3057:Volume rendering 2989:parameterization 2981:polygon surfaces 2569:, an example of 2491:Stable Diffusion 2456:Stable Diffusion 2348:games, and many 2213:In cinema, most 2154:techniques, and 2101: 2098: 2080: 2073: 1988:Assassin's Creed 1984:Grand Theft Auto 1966:, the Microsoft 1855:desktop computer 1675:Sony PlayStation 1582:Maurice Benayoun 1568:La Vie des bêtes 1521:Silicon Graphics 1500:Maurice Benayoun 1484: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1464: 1461:inline citations 1437: 1436: 1429: 1332:Silicon Graphics 1229:Osaka University 1152:memory, notably 918:Silicon Graphics 834:Silicon Graphics 665:General Electric 661:Lockheed-Georgia 574:, Frank Sinden, 533:Written for the 306:cathode ray tube 298:Lumiere brothers 252:computer science 132:image processing 73:computer science 5953: 5952: 5948: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5943: 5942: 5938:1960 neologisms 5923: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5912:Information art 5852:Imaging science 5797: 5787: 5768:Fernanda Viégas 5763:Moritz Stefaner 5688:Jessica Hullman 5661: 5632:Alan MacEachren 5582:Ben Shneiderman 5525: 5479: 5403: 5302: 5264: 5177: 5171: 5122:Medical imaging 5065: 5059: 5029: 5024: 5008: 4963: 4830: 4775:Fluid animation 4715: 4677: 4649: 4640:Diffusion curve 4632:Vector graphics 4626: 4621: 4559: 4448: 4446:Further reading 4443: 4442: 4427:Blythe, David. 4426: 4422: 4413: 4411: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4390: 4374: 4370: 4360: 4358: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4302: 4292: 4288: 4278: 4274: 4264: 4262: 4245: 4244: 4240: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4176: 4149: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4121: 4117: 4107: 4105: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4057: 4050: 4043: 4023: 4019: 4009: 4007: 3991: 3987: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3955: 3941: 3937: 3922: 3915: 3900: 3896: 3885: 3881: 3869: 3865: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3816: 3814: 3813:on Jul 28, 2020 3799: 3798: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3783: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3747: 3734:Virtual reality 3720:Special effects 3700:Motion graphics 3623: 3579: 3573: 3436: 3403:Andries van Dam 3393:Daniel Thalmann 3388:Ivan Sutherland 3363:Bui Tuong Phong 3263: 3226:A. Michael Noll 3211:Brian A. Barsky 3162: 3119: 3113: 3059: 2967:(created in an 2965:bitmap textures 2944:Texture mapping 2940:Texture mapping 2820:raster graphics 2800: 2764: 2706: 2667: 2659:motion pictures 2644:skeletal system 2555:produced using 2545: 2539: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2470: 2449: 2436:raster graphics 2432:Vector graphics 2429: 2427:Vector graphics 2415: 2413:Vector graphics 2364: 2358: 2356:Sprite graphics 2338:raster graphics 2334: 2328: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2257:Two-dimensional 2254: 2242:Nintendo Switch 2215:animated movies 2132:Texture mapping 2102: 2096: 2093: 2086:needs expansion 2071: 2063:computer vision 1925:offerings like 1812:Unreal Engine 2 1795: 1700:, and early 3D 1529:Apple Macintosh 1485: 1474: 1468: 1465: 1450: 1438: 1434: 1427: 1395:Namco System 21 1391:graphics boards 1244:microprocessors 1102:high-resolution 1094:microprocessors 1062:was one of the 1051: 966:Gouraud shading 958:Bui Tuong Phong 904:special effects 900:Adobe Photoshop 857:texture mapping 821:Ivan Sutherland 797: 733:virtual reality 721:stereoscopic 3D 713:Ivan Sutherland 711:Also, in 1966, 691:and called the 606:Boeing Aircraft 497:running on the 486: 465:Ivan Sutherland 451:. In 1959, the 426:Hewlett-Packard 412:Douglas T. Ross 393:Douglas T. Ross 375:introduced the 354: 282: 276: 207: 148:computer vision 104:vector graphics 84:sprite graphics 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5951: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5877:Patent drawing 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5842:Graphic design 5839: 5834: 5829: 5828: 5827: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5801: 5799: 5793: 5792: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5783:Hadley Wickham 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5738:Tamara Munzner 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5637:David Goodsell 5634: 5629: 5624: 5622:Cynthia Brewer 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5533: 5531: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5516:Edgar Anderson 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5491:Jacques Bertin 5487: 5485: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5445:John B. Peddle 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5399:Francis Galton 5396: 5394:Toussaint Loua 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5374:Georg von Mayr 5371: 5366: 5364:Matthew Sankey 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5279: 5277: 5270: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5230:Sankey diagram 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5162:Visual culture 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5073: 5071: 5067: 5066: 5058: 5057: 5050: 5043: 5035: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5022: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4973: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4924:Shadow mapping 4921: 4916: 4911: 4910: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4806: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4788: 4787: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4751: 4746: 4740: 4735: 4729: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4676: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4628: 4627: 4620: 4619: 4612: 4605: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4566: 4558: 4557:External links 4555: 4554: 4553: 4543: 4536: 4526: 4519: 4512: 4505: 4498: 4491: 4482:John F. Hughes 4474:James D. Foley 4471: 4470:. McGraw-Hill. 4464: 4447: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4420: 4395: 4388: 4368: 4341: 4334: 4314: 4300: 4286: 4272: 4238: 4217: 4196: 4174: 4137: 4115: 4083: 4048: 4041: 4017: 3985: 3972: 3960: 3954:978-1447149316 3953: 3935: 3913: 3894: 3879: 3863: 3860:on 2015-01-06. 3841: 3823: 3791: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3776:uncanny valley 3766: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3758: 3753: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3680:Graphic design 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3622: 3619: 3575:Main article: 3572: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3547: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3510: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3430: 3428:James H. Clark 3425: 3420: 3418:Lance Williams 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3398:Johnson K. Yan 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3378:Alvy Ray Smith 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3323:William Fetter 3320: 3318:James D. Foley 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3293:Jack Bresenham 3290: 3285: 3262: 3261:Other pioneers 3259: 3258: 3257: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3203:Robert L. Cook 3195: 3191: 3190: 3166: 3161: 3158: 3115:Main article: 3112: 3109: 3058: 3055: 3054: 3053: 3037:bitmap texture 3021:CRT television 3013: 3009: 3008: 2973:digital camera 2941: 2937: 2936: 2928:cross hatching 2900: 2899: 2895: 2894: 2856: 2852: 2851: 2840: 2799: 2796: 2772:character maps 2763: 2760: 2705: 2702: 2666: 2663: 2557:Motion capture 2538: 2535: 2501:Main article: 2498: 2495: 2478:language model 2448: 2445: 2414: 2411: 2357: 2354: 2327: 2324: 2292:digital images 2278:Raster graphic 2261:Main article: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2225:. Most are 3D 2223:uncanny valley 2200:photon mapping 2156:shadow volumes 2144:normal mapping 2126:photorealistic 2104: 2103: 2083: 2081: 2070: 2067: 2051:bioinformatics 2000:Kingdom Hearts 1937:uncanny valley 1903:uncanny valley 1888:normal mapping 1859:Nvidia GeForce 1794: 1791: 1759:triangle setup 1727:normal mapping 1707:Virtua Fighter 1702:fighting games 1691:Super Mario 64 1687:platform games 1646:Wolfenstein 3D 1548:photorealistic 1535:products like 1487: 1486: 1441: 1439: 1432: 1426: 1423: 1262:, as of 1984. 1231:developed the 1194:Motorola 68000 1134:graphics cards 1108:(PC) systems. 1096:and the first 1050: 1047: 1041:animate their 1039:microprocessor 1032:barrel shifter 1027:Space Invaders 825:David C. Evans 796: 793: 697:David C. Evans 651:arcade version 549:Tennis For Two 510:William Fetter 485: 482: 442:Silicon Valley 399:Tennis for Two 353: 350: 275: 272: 232: 231: 225: 218: 206: 203: 201:, in general. 65:William Fetter 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5950: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5837:Graph drawing 5835: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5794: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5758:Claudio Silva 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5723:Mauro Martino 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5647:Michael Maltz 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5612:George Furnas 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5592:Howard Wainer 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5496:Rudolf Modley 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5460:Max O. Lorenz 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5369:Charles Booth 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5344:Luigi Perozzo 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5334:August Kekulé 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5314:Charles Dupin 5312: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5299: 5298:Gaspard Monge 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5283:Edmond Halley 5281: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5087:Crime mapping 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5063: 5062:Visualization 5056: 5051: 5049: 5044: 5042: 5037: 5036: 5033: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4966: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4929:Shadow volume 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4807: 4804: 4803:Triangle mesh 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4733:3D projection 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4674: 4673:Text-to-image 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4613: 4611: 4606: 4604: 4599: 4598: 4595: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4567: 4564: 4561: 4560: 4552: 4551:3-211-79169-8 4548: 4544: 4541: 4537: 4534: 4530: 4529:Peter Shirley 4527: 4524: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4499: 4496: 4492: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4469: 4465: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4449: 4437: 4433: 4431: 4424: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4391: 4389:0-7506-4331-5 4385: 4381: 4380: 4372: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4337: 4331: 4327: 4326: 4318: 4311: 4310: 4304: 4297: 4296: 4290: 4283: 4282: 4276: 4261:on 2010-04-12 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4227: 4221: 4206: 4200: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4175:9780120121236 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4148: 4141: 4126: 4119: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4087: 4072: 4068: 4067: 4062: 4055: 4053: 4044: 4042:9783642821509 4038: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4021: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3996: 3989: 3982: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3956: 3950: 3946: 3939: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3918: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3890: 3883: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3812: 3808: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3792: 3777: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3695:Mixed reality 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3618: 3616: 3615:visualization 3612: 3608: 3607:computational 3604: 3600: 3595: 3593: 3588: 3584: 3578: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3541:Khronos Group 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3527:Adobe Systems 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3434:Organizations 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3368:Steve Russell 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3353:Martin Newell 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3333:Henri Gouraud 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3283:Pierre Bézier 3281: 3280: 3276: 3275:Martin Newell 3272: 3267: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3170: 3169:Charles Csuri 3167: 3165:Charles Csuri 3164: 3163: 3157: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3078:2D projection 3075: 3068: 3063: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3034: 3033:supersampling 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3012:Anti-aliasing 3011: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001:specular maps 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2969:image editing 2966: 2962: 2957: 2956:Edwin Catmull 2953: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2848:rasterization 2844: 2843:3D projection 2841: 2839:3D projection 2838: 2837: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2816:digital image 2813: 2809: 2804: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2710: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2662: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2534: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2419: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2333: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2264: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2238:PlayStation 4 2235: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2217:are CGI now; 2216: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2127: 2119: 2115: 2114:diamond plate 2110: 2100: 2091: 2087: 2084:This section 2082: 2079: 2075: 2074: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2004:Mirror's Edge 2001: 1997: 1993: 1992:Final Fantasy 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1960:PlayStation 2 1957: 1952: 1950: 1949: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1808: 1807:Killing Floor 1804: 1799: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1720: 1715: 1714: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1698: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1653: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1613:Virtua Racing 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1597:Edwin Catmull 1594: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1483: 1480: 1472: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1442:This section 1440: 1431: 1430: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1300:chroma keying 1297: 1293: 1289: 1288: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1237:supercomputer 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186:minicomputers 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1170:4K resolution 1167: 1163: 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