Corporate law - Knowledge

3440:) though this can include a vote of no-confidence by the shareholders. Terms last for five years, unless 75% of shareholders vote otherwise. §122 AktG lets 10% of shareholders demand a meeting. In the US, Delaware lets directors enjoy considerable autonomy. §141(k) DGCL states that directors can be removed without any cause, unless the board is "classified", meaning that directors only come up for re-appointment on different years. If the board is classified, then directors cannot be removed unless there is gross misconduct. Director's autonomy from shareholders is seen further in §216 DGCL, which allows for plurality voting and §211(d) which states shareholder meetings can only be called if the constitution allows for it. The problem is that in America, directors usually choose where a company is incorporated and §242(b)(1) DGCL says any constitutional amendment requires a resolution by the directors. By contrast, constitutional amendments can be made at any time by 75% of shareholders in Germany (§179 AktG) and the UK (s.21 CA 2006). 3228: 3436:, an attack on American law which failed to hold directors to account, and linked the growing power and autonomy of directors to the economic crisis. In the UK, the right of members to remove directors by a simple majority is assured under s.168 CA 2006 Moreover, Art.21 of the Model Articles requires a third of the board to put themselves up for re-election every year (in effect creating maximum three year terms). 10% of shareholders can demand a meeting any time, and 5% can if it has been a year since the last one (s.303 CA 2006). In Germany, where employee participation creates the need for greater boardroom stability, §84(3) AktG states that management board directors can only be removed by the supervisory board for an important reason ( 3544:, which permits an agent to act on behalf of a principal, in exchange for the principal assuming equal liability for the wrongful acts committed by the agent. For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for the wrongs committed by one partner. Those forms that provide limited liability are able to do so because the state provides a mechanism by which businesses that follow certain guidelines will be able to escape the full liability imposed under agency law. The state provides these forms because it has an interest in the strength of the companies that provide jobs and services therein, but also has an interest in monitoring and regulating their behaviour. 3669:. In the common law, whilst a shareholder is often colloquially referred to as the owner of the company - it is clear that the shareholder is not an owner of the company but makes the shareholder a member of the company and entitles them to enforce the provisions of the company's constitution against the company and against other members. A share is an item of property, and can be sold or transferred. Shares also normally have a nominal or par value, which is the limit of the shareholder's liability to contribute to the debts of the company on an insolvent liquidation. Shares usually confer a number of rights on the holder. These will normally include: 4026: 3314:, whereby they agree to exercise their membership rights in a certain way. Conceptually a shareholders' agreement fulfills many of the same functions as the corporate constitution, but because it is a contract, it will not normally bind new members of the company unless they accede to it somehow. One benefit of shareholders' agreement is that they will usually be confidential, as most jurisdictions do not require shareholders' agreements to be publicly filed. Another common method of supplementing the corporate constitution is by means of 2785:. That legislation shortly gave way to the railway boom, and from there the numbers of companies formed soared. In the later nineteenth century depression took hold, and just as company numbers had boomed, many began to implode and fall into insolvency. Much strong academic, legislative and judicial opinion was opposed to the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses. The last significant development in the history of companies was the decision of the House of Lords in 3084:. If the objects were the things that the company was able to do, then the powers were the means by which it could do them. Usually expressions of powers were limited to methods of raising capital, although from earlier times distinctions between objects and powers have caused lawyers difficulty. Most jurisdictions have now modified the position by statute, and companies generally have capacity to do all the things that a natural person could do, and power to do it in any way that a natural person could do it. 3695:

shares, with the two types having different voting and/or economic rights. It might provide that preference shareholders shall each receive a cumulative preferred dividend of a certain amount per annum, but the ordinary shareholders shall receive everything else. Corporations will structure capital raising in this way in order to appeal to different lenders in the market by providing different incentives for investment. The total value of issued shares in a company is said to represent its

3341: 3213:. On this view, the basic issue of corporate law is that when a "principal" party delegates his property (usually the shareholder's capital, but also the employee's labour) into the control of an "agent" (i.e. the director of the company) there is the possibility that the agent will act in his own interests, be "opportunistic", rather than fulfill the wishes of the principal. Reducing the risks of this opportunism, or the "agency cost", is said to be central to the goal of corporate law. 3805:

bring an end to the company's existence. For obvious reasons, in most countries, the courts have been reluctant to wind up a company solely on the basis of the disappointment of one member, regardless of how well-founded that member's complaints are. Accordingly, most jurisdictions that permit just and equitable winding up also permit the court to impose other remedies, such as requiring the majority shareholder(s) to buy out the disappointed minority shareholder at a fair value.

2747: 6476: 6490: 1760: 2678: 1694: 3503:"A corporate body can only act by agents, and it is, of course, the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting. Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal. And it is a rule of universal application that no one, having such duties to discharge, shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has, 3842:) by individuals with potential access to non-public information about the company. In most countries, trading by corporate insiders such as officers, key employees, directors, and large shareholders may be legal if this trading is done in a way that does not take advantage of non-public information. However, the term is frequently used to refer to a practice in which an insider or a related party trades based on 5258: 3405:) by reserving powers to members, although companies rarely do. UK law specifically reserves shareholders right and duty to approve "substantial non cash asset transactions" (s.190 CA 2006), which means those over 10% of company value, with a minimum of £5,000 and a maximum of £100,000. Similar rules, though much less stringent, exist in §271 DGCL and through case law in Germany under the so-called 58: 4092:, public companies now employ more people and generate more of wealth in the United Kingdom economy than any other form of organisation. The United Kingdom was the first country to draft modern corporation statutes, where through a simple registration procedure any investors could incorporate, limit liability to their commercial creditors in the event of business 3524:, the directors can be forced to account for trading losses personally. Directors are also strictly charged to exercise their powers only for a proper purpose. For instance, were a director to issue a large number of new shares, not for the purposes of raising capital but in order to defeat a potential takeover bid, that would be an improper purpose. 3859:, some investors believe corporate insiders nonetheless may have better insights into the health of a corporation (broadly speaking) and that their trades otherwise convey important information (e.g., about the pending retirement of an important officer selling shares, greater commitment to the corporation by officers purchasing shares, etc.) 3020:", to look directly at, and impose liability directly on the individuals behind the company; the actual practice of piercing the corporate veil is, at English law, non-existent. However, the court will look beyond the corporate form where the corporation is a sham or perpetuating a fraud. The most commonly cited examples are: 4200:

over the assets of a company, so that in the event of default on loan repayments they may seize the company's property directly to satisfy debts. Creditors are also, to some extent, protected by courts' power to set aside unfair transactions before a company goes under, or recoup money from negligent

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have the capacity to produce fine-tuned transactions which, using the advantages of each form of financing, support the limitations of the corporate form, its industry, or economic sector. A mix of both debt and equity is crucial to the sustained health of the company, and its overall market value is

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at large. One of the main differences between different countries in the internal form of companies is between a two-tier and a one tier board. The United Kingdom, the United States, and most Commonwealth countries have single unified boards of directors. In Germany, companies have two tiers, so that

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Although the company's agents owe duties to the company (and, indirectly, to the shareholders) to exercise those powers for a proper purpose, generally speaking third parties' rights are not impugned if it transpires that the officers were acting improperly. Third parties are entitled to rely on the

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a claim under an insurance policy failed where the insured had transferred timber from his name into the name of a company wholly owned by him, and it was subsequently destroyed in a fire; as the property now belonged to the company and not to him, he no longer had an "insurable interest" in it and

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to attempt a rescue of the company (if the company itself has the assets to pay for this). If rescue proves impossible, a company's life ends when its assets are liquidated, distributed to creditors and the company is struck off the register. If a company becomes insolvent with no assets it can be

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playing a role in employee retirement. These funds are more motivated to partner with employers to have their fund included in a company's retirement plans than to vote their shares – corporate governance activities only increase costs for the fund, while the benefits would be shared equally

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Some jurisdictions also permit companies to be wound up on "just and equitable" grounds. Generally, applications for just and equitable winding-up are brought by a member of the company who alleges that the affairs of the company are being conducted in a prejudicial manner, and asking the court to

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has pointed out, all business organizations represent an attempt to avoid certain costs associated with doing business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to

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Shareholder activism prioritizes wealth maximization and has been criticized as a poor basis for determining corporate governance rules. Shareholders do not decide corporate policy, that is done by the board of directors, but shareholders may vote to elect board directors and on mergers and other

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However, references to corporate capacity and powers have not quite been consigned to the dustbin of legal history. In many jurisdictions, directors can still be liable to their shareholders if they cause the company to engage in businesses outside its objects, even if the transactions are still

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1720 investors had reverted to trading the stock of unincorporated associations, until it was repealed in 1825. However, the process of obtaining Royal charters was insufficient to keep up with demand. In England there was a lively trade in the charters of defunct companies. It was not until the

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of the company when the company is unable to pay its debts. However, in some jurisdictions, regulators have the power to apply for the liquidation of the company on the grounds of public good, i.e., where the company is believed to have engaged in unlawful conduct, or conduct which is otherwise

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Through the operational life of the corporation, perhaps the most crucial aspect of corporate law relates to raising capital for the business to operate. The law, as it relates to corporate finance, not only provides the framework for which a business raises funds - but also provides a forum for

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The standard of skill and care that a director owes is usually described as acquiring and maintaining sufficient knowledge and understanding of the company's business to enable him to properly discharge his duties. This duty enables the company to seek compensation from its director if it can be

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Companies may issue different types of shares, called "classes" of shares, offering different rights to the shareholders depending on the underlying regulatory rules pertaining to corporate structures, taxation, and capital market rules. A company might issue both ordinary shares and preference

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and the members of the company. Authority is given or "delegated" to the board to manage the company for the success of the investors. Certain specific decision rights are often reserved for shareholders, where their interests could be fundamentally affected. There are necessarily rules on when

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and undivided loyalty to the enterprise. If the mechanisms of voting do not prove enough, particularly for minority shareholders, directors' duties and other member rights may be vindicated in court. Of central importance in public and listed companies is the securities market, typified by the

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Members of a company generally have rights against each other and against the company, as framed under the company's constitution. However, members cannot generally claim against third parties who cause damage to the company which results in a diminution in the value of their shares or others

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and again in the 1970s during a debate about the effect of corporate decision making on states. However, these movements did not establish federal incorporation. Although there has been some federal involvement in corporate governance rules as a result, the relative rights of shareholders and

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In the United States and several other jurisdictions, trading conducted by corporate officers, key employees, directors, or significant shareholders (in the United States, defined as beneficial owners of ten percent or more of the firm's equity securities) must be reported to the regulator or

3297:) is the secondary document, and will generally regulate the company's internal affairs and management, such as procedures for board meetings, dividend entitlements etc. In the event of any inconsistency, the memorandum prevails and in the United States only the memorandum is publicised. In 4247:. The laws of the state of incorporation normally governs a corporation's internal operations, even if the corporation's operations take place outside that state. Corporate law differs from state to state. Because of these differences, some businesses will benefit from having a corporate 2572:

Widely available and user-friendly corporate law enables business participants to possess these four legal characteristics and thus transact as businesses. Thus, corporate law is a response to three endemic opportunism: conflicts between managers and shareholders, between controlling and

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However, in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle. It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle should be capable of being abrogated in the company's constitution.

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Early companies were purely economic ventures; it was only a belatedly established benefit of holding joint stock that the company's stock could not be seized for the debts of any individual member. The development of company law in Europe was hampered by two notorious "bubbles" (the

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may accurately be called a company; however, a company should not necessarily be called a corporation, which has distinct characteristics. In the United States, a company may or may not be a separate legal entity, and is often used synonymous with "firm" or "business." According to

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members always retain the right to sue if the majority acts to invade their personal rights, e.g. where the company's affairs are not conducted in accordance with the company's constitution (this position has been debated because the extent of a personal right is not set in law).

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Historically, because companies are artificial persons created by operation of law, the law prescribed what the company could and could not do. Usually this was an expression of the commercial purpose which the company was formed for, and came to be referred to as the company's

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If unable to discharge its debts in a timely manner, a corporation may end up on bankruptcy liquidation. Liquidation is the normal means by which a company's existence is brought to an end. It is also referred to (either alternatively or concurrently) in some jurisdictions as

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or conflict with their duty to act in the best interests of the company. This rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it. In

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etc.). Similarly, most jurisdictions regulate the maintenance of equity capital, and prevent companies returning funds to shareholders by way of distribution when this might leave the company financially exposed. Often this extends to prohibiting a company from providing

3099:, but in many jurisdictions other officers can be appointed too. The board of directors is normally elected by the members, and the other officers are normally appointed by the board. These agents enter into contracts on behalf of the company with third parties. 3570:

In relation to the exercise of their rights, minority shareholders usually have to accept that, because of the limits of their voting rights, they cannot direct the overall control of the company and must accept the will of the majority (often expressed as

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or other relationship of trust and confidence or where the non-public information was misappropriated from the company. Illegal insider trading is believed to raise the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth.

3469:, as well as duties of care and skill, to safeguard the interests of the company and the members. In many developed countries outside the English speaking world, company boards are appointed as representatives of both shareholders and employees to " 3905:

corporate officers is still mostly regulated by state laws. There is no federal legislation like there is for corporate political contributions or regulation of monopolies and federal laws have developed along different lines than state laws.

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either with or without a share capital. This is a hybrid company, a company similar to its limited company (Ltd.) counterpart but where the members or shareholders do not benefit from limited liability should the company ever go into formal

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publicly disclosed, usually within a few business days of the trade. Many investors follow the summaries of these insider trades in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable. While "legal" insider trading cannot be based on

3377:(a) The business and affairs of every corporation organized under this chapter shall be managed by or under the direction of a board of directors, except as may be otherwise provided in this chapter or in its certificate of incorporation. 5038: 3015:

it was held that victims of asbestos poisoning at the hands of an American subsidiary could not sue the English parent in tort. Whilst academic discussion highlights certain specific situations where courts are generally prepared to

4448:(2004) ch 1 set out similar criteria, and in addition state modern companies involve shareholder ownership. However this latter feature is not the case in many European jurisdictions, where employees participate in their companies. 4846: 3266:, what duties directors owe to the company or when a company must be dissolved as it approaches bankruptcy. Examples of rules that members of a company would be allowed to change and choose could include, what kind of procedure 3801:, or it may be on economic grounds if they believe that the purpose for which the company was formed is now at an end, or that the company is not providing an adequate return on assets and should be broken up and sold off. 2593:(such as a pension fund), or companies limited by guarantee (like some community organizations or charities). Corporate law deals with companies that are incorporated or registered under the corporate or company law of a 4104:

and as an international standard setter, UK law has always given people broad freedom to design the internal company rules, so long as the mandatory minimum rights of investors under its legislation are complied with.

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is appointed to gather in all the company's assets and settle all claims against the company. If there is any surplus after paying off all the creditors of the company, this surplus is then distributed to the members.

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independent of its capital structure. One notable difference is that interest payments to debt is tax deductible whilst payment of dividends are not, this will incentivise a company to issue debt financing rather than

3285:) is the primary document, and will generally regulate the company's activities with the outside world. It states which objects the company is meant to follow (e.g. "this company makes automobiles") and specifies the 3575:). However, majority rule can be iniquitous, particularly where there is one controlling shareholder. Accordingly, a number of exceptions have developed in law in relation to the general principle of majority rule. 4489:

Phillip I. Blumberg, The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) has a very good discussion of the controversial nature of additional rights being granted to

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directors can be removed from office and replaced. To do that, meetings need to be called to vote on the issues. How easily the constitution can be amended and by whom necessarily affects the relations of power.

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of 1811 allowed for free incorporation with limited liability, but only for manufacturing businesses. So, while necessarily drawing on ideas formulated in France and the US, the UK had the first modern company

3699:. Most jurisdictions regulate the minimum amount of capital which a company may have, although some jurisdictions prescribe minimum amounts of capital for companies engaging in certain types of business (e.g. 3113:

established in common law that third parties were entitled to assume that the internal management of the company was being conducted properly, and the rule has now been codified into statute in most countries.

4428:(Eds Reinier Kraakman, John Armour, Paul Davies, Luca Enriques, Henry Hansmann, Gerard Hertig, Klaus Hopt, Hideki Kanda, Mariana Pargendler, Wolf-Georg Ringe, and Edward Rock, Oxford University Press 2017)1.1 3511:, with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect... So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into..." 2966:

One of the key legal features of corporations are their separate legal personality, also known as "personhood" or being "artificial persons". However, the separate legal personality was not confirmed under

2624:. Shareholders' losses, in the event of liquidation, are limited to their stake in the corporation, and they are not liable for any remaining debts owed to the corporation's creditors. This rule is called 3637:

Each has relative advantages and disadvantages, both at law and economically. Additional methods of raising capital necessary to finance its operations is that of retained profits Various combinations of

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shareholders (and employees) elect a "supervisory board", and then the supervisory board chooses the "management board". There is the option to use two tiers in France, and in the new European Companies (

2429:. Corporate law often describes the law relating to matters which derive directly from the life-cycle of a corporation. It thus encompasses the formation, funding, governance, and death of a corporation. 4782:

Though the Constitution may allow particular provisions to be further "entrenched", s.22; Furthermore, Art.3 of the Model Articles allows 75% of members in general meeting to give the directors specific

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habitually possesses the power to manage the business under a company constitution, a central theme is what mechanisms exist to ensure directors' accountability. UK law is "shareholder friendly" in that

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continue to operate separate companies acts, which are amended from time to time to comply with EU Directives and Regulations. There is, however, also the option of businesses to incorporate as a

2911:. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into 3883:. Corporations and boards are challenged to respond to these developments. Shareholder demographics have been effected by trends in worker retirement, with more institutional intermediaries like 3665:, the formatting may differ. If a company wishes to raise capital through equity, it will usually be done by issuing shares (sometimes called "stock" (not to be confused with stock-in-trade)) or 3520:

proved that a director has not shown reasonable skill or care which in turn has caused the company to incur a loss. In many jurisdictions, where a company continues to trade despite foreseeable

4860: 2585:, in America a company means "a corporation — or, less commonly, an association, partnership or union — that carries on industrial enterprise." Other types of business associations can include 3209:. While post-war discourse centred on how to achieve effective "corporate democracy" for shareholders or other stakeholders, many scholars have shifted to discussing the law in terms of 3262:

The law will set out which rules are mandatory, and which rules can be derogated from. Examples of important rules which cannot be derogated from would usually include how to fire the

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Voluntary liquidations occur when the company's members decide voluntarily to wind up the affairs of the company. This may be because they believe that the company will soon become

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Under almost all legal systems corporations have much the same legal rights and obligations as individuals. In some jurisdictions, this extends to allow corporations to exercise

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where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners.

2921:. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. 4519:

received its charter in 1602, but is generally recognized as the first company in the world to issue joint stock. Not coincidentally, the two companies were competitors.

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to be a part of the "constitution" (in the loose sense of the word) of the company, but the requirement for a seal has been abrogated by legislation in most countries.

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against real individuals and the state, and they may be responsible for human rights violations. Just as they are "born" into existence through its members obtaining a

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obtained by a wife against her husband was not effective against the husband's company as it was not named in the order and was separate and distinct from him. And in

2723:). Originally, traders in these entities traded stock on their own account, but later the members came to operate on joint account and with joint stock, and the new 3724:. In addition to the creation of the corporation, and its financing, these events serve as a transition phase into either dissolution, or some other material shift. 3270:

should follow, when dividends get paid out, or how many members (beyond a minimum set out in the law) can amend the constitution. Usually, the statute will set out

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principles and policies which drive the fundraising, to be taken seriously. Two primary methods of financing exists with regard to corporate financing, these are:

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The United States, and a few other common law countries, split the corporate constitution into two separate documents (the UK got rid of this in 2006). The

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holds a series of minimum rights to change the company constitution, issue resolutions and remove members of the board. In turn, directors owe a set of

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The defining feature of a corporation is its legal independence from the shareholders that own it. Under corporate law, corporations of all sizes have

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in some countries, shareholders have preemption rights, whereby they have a preferential right to participate in future share issues by the company

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company by these three features (separate legal personality, limited liability, delegated management) and in addition, freely transferable shares.

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argued that the separation of control of companies from the investors who were meant to own them endangered the American economy and led to a mal-

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Separate legal personality allows corporate groups flexibility in relation to tax planning, and management of overseas liability. For instance in

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As artificial persons, companies can only act through human agents. The main agent who deals with the company's management and business is the

3777:, although a voluntary liquidation where the company is insolvent will also be controlled by the creditors, and is properly referred to as a 3579:

Where the majority shareholder(s) are exercising their votes to perpetrate a fraud on the minority, the courts may permit the minority to sue

2743:) in the 17th century, which set the development of companies in the two leading jurisdictions back by over a century in popular estimation. 2719:) to merchant adventurers. The Royal charters usually conferred special privileges on the trading company (including, usually, some form of 323: 565: 2948:

There are, however, many specific categories of corporations and other business organizations which may be formed in various countries and

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Accordingly, companies will normally be liable for all the act and omissions of their officers and agents. This will include almost all

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that is the law relating to commercial and business related purposes and activities. In some cases, this may include matters relating to

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Probably the most fundamental guarantee that directors will act in the members' interests is that they can easily be sacked. During the

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valid as between the company and the third party. And many jurisdictions also still permit transactions to be challenged for lack of "

2707:, the closest recognizable ancestors of the modern company did not appear until the 16th century. With increasing international trade, 3447:

employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company.

2774:, which in the event of a company's bankruptcy limited the liability of all shareholders to the amount of capital they had invested. 6457: 2991: 2972: 4116:. Corporate governance in the UK mediates the rights and duties among shareholders, employees, creditors and directors. Since the 3990: 2878:. Many countries have forms of business entity unique to that country, although there are equivalents elsewhere. Examples are the 520: 3369:

It is a principle of corporate law that the directors of a company have the right to manage. This is expressed in statute in the

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where the natural interpretation of a contract or statute is as a reference to the corporate group and not the individual company

2320: 729: 4164:. Shares can contain any rights the company and purchaser wish to contract for, but generally grant the right to participate in 2519:(or business enterprises), including such activity as raising capital, company formation, and registration with the government. 3846:

non-public information obtained during the performance of the insider's duties at the corporation, or otherwise in breach of a

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non-controlling shareholders; and between shareholders and other contractual counterparts (including creditors and employees).

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There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company are:

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rules differ, similar legal characteristics and legal problems exist across many jurisdictions. Corporate law regulates how

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It is quite common for members of a company to supplement the corporate constitution with additional arrangements, such as

3001: 2819:, and has evolved significantly in the 20th century. In common law countries today, the most commonly addressed forms are: 2782: 412: 356: 315: 17: 3092:", where the relevant transaction has no prospect of being for the commercial benefit of the company or its shareholders. 4374: 3896:. Broadly speaking there have been three movements in 20th century American law that sought a federal corporate law: the 3389:

says the same for the management board, while under §111 AktG the supervisory board's role is stated to be to "oversee" (

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allowed for public company formation with limited liability after an express governmental concession, and the New York

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A company limited by shares, whether public or private, must have at least one issued share; however, depending on the

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where permitted by statute (for example, many jurisdictions provide for shareholder liability where a company breaches

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of the shareholders (a shareholder's personal liability is limited to the value of their shares in the corporation)

2207: 1710: 1327: 438: 339: 6452: 5799: 5700: 5227: 3856: 3274:, which the corporation's constitution will be assumed to have if it is silent on a bit of particular procedure. 1956: 3979:) is an influential legal regime for companies in Germany. The primary form of company is the public company or 3205:

Recent literature, especially from the United States, has begun to discuss corporate governance in the terms of

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Corporate governance is primarily the study of the power relations among a corporation's senior executives, its

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and publicly owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the

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The rules for corporations derive from two sources. These are the country's statutes: in the US, usually the

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jurisdictions, the company's constitution is normally consolidated into a single document, often called the

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10 for public companies, setting out a scale of transactions requiring shareholder approval and disclosure.

4583: 4074: 3011: 2907: 2853: 2648: 2325: 2197: 2192: 1878: 1561: 1347: 1175: 448: 6114: 5246: 4546: 3943:. The EU creates minimum standards for companies throughout the EU, and has its own corporate forms. All 3210: 3017: 2977: 2961: 2787: 2084: 2006: 1908: 1551: 1438: 1388: 722: 635: 112: 4150:

the UK strongly protects the right of shareholders to be treated equally and freely trade their shares.

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The most important rules for corporate governance are those concerning the balance of power between the

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where a representative of the company has taken some personal responsibility for a statement or action

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which, in turn, typically delegates control of the corporation's day-to-day operations to a full-time

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of agents held out by the company to act on its behalf. A line of common law cases reaching back to

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that the first equivalent of modern companies, formed by registration, appeared. Soon after came the

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The beginning of modern company law came when the two pieces of legislation were codified under the

5967: 5949: 4720:(1974) to be those "qualitatively vital to the existence and purpose" of the corporation; which in 4516: 4344: 4240: 3733: 3540:

to both members of the organization and external investors. Business organizations originated with

3298: 3286: 3236: 2806: 2633: 2262: 2257: 2016: 1938: 1601: 1576: 1312: 1022: 956: 926: 575: 442: 117: 77: 6301: 6535: 6342: 6129: 5618: 5603: 4769:, saying any 5% shareholder voting block must register with the Federal financial authority, the 4312: 4214:

wound up by a creditor, for a fee (not that common), or more commonly by the tax creditor (HMRC).

4101: 3876: 2598: 2469: 2340: 1793: 1591: 1571: 1556: 1511: 1337: 1082: 1062: 1013: 999: 994: 990: 951: 745: 284: 205: 6530: 6397: 6382: 4394: 3867:

Most case law on the matter of corporate governance dates to the 1980s and primarily addresses

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John Armour, Henry Hansmann, Reinier Kraakman, Mariana Pargendler "What is Corporate Law?" in

4177: 6545: 6501: 6094: 5772: 5583: 5274:

The Samuel and Ronnie Heyman Center on Corporate Governance Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law

4172:

in company affairs. A purchaser of shares is helped to make an informed decision directly by

4143: 4089: 4046: 3997: 3939:

which concerns the formation, operation and insolvency of companies (or corporations) in the

2874:

The proprietary limited company is a statutory business form in several countries, including

2527:

Academics identify four legal characteristics universal to business enterprises. These are:

2425:. The term refers to the legal practice of law relating to corporations, or to the theory of 2290: 2285: 2172: 2102: 1933: 1533: 1415: 1403: 1295: 1288: 1263: 1225: 1200: 1150: 1057: 1018: 766: 540: 72: 4741:

held that shareholders must approve a sale of assets amounting to 80% of the company's value

6540: 6222: 5568: 4277: 4210: 4173: 4134: 4109: 4025: 3932: 3926: 3897: 3872: 3485: 3474: 3460: 3156: 3104: 2504: 2359: 2310: 1988: 1983: 1596: 1521: 1506: 1393: 1383: 1360: 1300: 1268: 1170: 1112: 874: 771: 665: 602: 4765:

See also, SEC 13d-5, dating from times when groups of investors were considered potential

3871:, however, current research considers the direction of legal reforms to address issues of 3720:

Events such as mergers, acquisitions, insolvency, or the commission of a crime affect the

8: 6377: 5517: 5434: 4847:

Multinational Gas and Petrochemical Co v Multinational Gas and Petrochemical Services Ltd

4339: 4285: 4161: 4070: 3738:

A merger or acquisition can often mean the altering or extinguishing of the corporation.

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all contributors. Except for the partnership, all business forms are designed to provide

3134: 2895: 2863: 2843: 2724: 2689: 1751: 1678: 1661: 1646: 1496: 1473: 1458: 1378: 1342: 1317: 1273: 1145: 1135: 1117: 985: 941: 856: 836: 640: 394: 366: 220: 193: 188: 178: 4137:

to their companies. Directors must carry out their responsibilities with competence, in

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Companies returned to the forefront of commerce, although in England to circumvent the

2617: 2561: 2457: 2305: 2147: 1923: 1833: 1641: 1516: 1501: 1468: 1463: 1453: 1448: 1398: 1322: 1230: 1195: 886: 560: 480: 453: 133: 128: 97: 4687:"TITLE 8 - CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CORPORATION LAW - Subchapter IV. Directors and Officers" 6177: 6099: 5937: 5680: 5675: 5628: 5553: 5547: 5387: 5305: 4737: 4461: 4379: 4206: 4197: 4113: 3950: 3868: 3843: 3666: 3614: 3604:

in the name of the company, where the company is controlled by the alleged wrongdoers

3600: 3537: 3478: 3197: 3089: 3053: 3040: 2935: 2833: 2732: 2625: 2613: 2609: 2541: 2330: 2142: 1888: 1861: 1771: 1621: 1528: 1484: 1410: 1283: 1190: 1160: 1097: 891: 620: 490: 378: 253: 215: 210: 5241: 5199: 3892:

changes that have been approved by directors. They may also vote to amend corporate

6182: 6149: 5648: 5512: 5507: 5472: 4874: 4752: 4327: 4224: 4202: 4153: 3839: 3782: 3557: 3444: 3415: 3260:

Gesetz betreffend die Gesellschaften mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH-Gesetz, GmbHG).

3259: 2754:(1858) satirizing the 'monster' joint-stock economy that came into being after the 2685: 2441: 2335: 2300: 1898: 1788: 1673: 1491: 1433: 1258: 1253: 1215: 1052: 1047: 806: 698: 685: 630: 530: 6431: 6404: 6392: 6372: 6306: 6284: 6264: 6259: 6239: 6104: 6084: 6079: 5982: 5942: 5653: 5578: 5502: 5487: 5407: 5034: 4322: 4307: 4302: 4157: 4130: 3919: 3814: 3789:

As its names imply, applications for compulsory liquidation are normally made by

3644: 3567:" and the law normally regards the company as the proper claimant in such cases. 3564: 3553: 3470: 3267: 3170: 3138: 2996: 2828: 2746: 2681: 2672: 2656: 2594: 2547: 2202: 2112: 2049: 1813: 1798: 1626: 1478: 1371: 1235: 1165: 1155: 1072: 969: 936: 901: 821: 801: 670: 625: 348: 173: 4152:

Corporate finance concerns the two money raising options for limited companies.

3080:

By way of distinction, the organs of the company were expressed to have various

6508: 6316: 6234: 5823: 5789: 5740: 5725: 5497: 5402: 5382: 5372: 5072: 4354: 4088:

vehicle to organise and run business. Tracing their modern history to the late

4078: 4042: 4034: 3940: 3835: 3747: 3721: 3427: 3398: 3394: 3271: 3232: 3064: 2986: 2740: 2704: 2551: 2498: 2437: 2345: 2237: 2069: 2054: 1903: 1893: 1843: 1808: 1742: 1656: 1185: 1180: 1107: 1102: 1092: 946: 921: 896: 5129: 4292:

is widely recognized as a good venue for the litigation of business disputes.

4251:

determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate.

6524: 6362: 6321: 6207: 6187: 6159: 6109: 6074: 6048: 6043: 6036: 5987: 5927: 5767: 5757: 5715: 5638: 5633: 5563: 5446: 4716:

Shareholders must approve sale of "all or substantially all assets", held in

4349: 4236: 4147: 3680:(or payments made by companies to their shareholders) declared by the company 3656: 3639: 3620: 3397:, the right to manage is not laid down in law, but is found in Part.2 of the 3340: 3321: 3027:

where the company is effectively just the agent of its members or controllers

2891: 2708: 2508: 2232: 2137: 2127: 2064: 2059: 1973: 1968: 1868: 1828: 1631: 1067: 432: 399: 4559:

Although it did attach to documents within the husband's custody or control.

2886:(LLLP) in the United States. Other types of business organizations, such as 550: 6494: 6244: 6212: 6167: 5905: 5900: 5871: 5784: 5762: 5730: 5663: 5643: 5537: 5477: 5467: 5419: 5377: 5355: 5298: 4638: 4317: 4185: 4122: 4062: 4030: 3884: 3687:

either upon redemption of the share, or upon the liquidation of the company

3541: 3532: 3329: 3316: 3240: 3166: 2949: 2700: 2693: 2644: 2616:

liability for its shareholders. Shareholders control the company through a

2535: 2453: 2445: 2433: 2418: 2410: 2155: 2074: 1963: 1883: 1210: 1087: 1077: 789: 510: 500: 6416: 6357: 6347: 6144: 6139: 5977: 5878: 5794: 5753: 5720: 5685: 5608: 5532: 5482: 5397: 4985: 4255: 4050: 3823: 3594:

in many jurisdictions it is possible for minority shareholders to take a

3423: 3344: 3069: 2968: 2941: 2915:, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company . 2912: 2887: 2858: 2823: 2800: 2736: 2586: 2577: 2426: 2122: 1838: 1666: 1205: 846: 831: 826: 646: 183: 168: 163: 4108:

Company law, or corporate law, can be broken down into two main fields,

3401:. This means it is a default rule, which companies can opt out of (s.20 3255: 3067:. If an activity fell outside the company's capacity it was said to be 6480: 6409: 6289: 6227: 5972: 5893: 5888: 5846: 5828: 5816: 5777: 5623: 5613: 5573: 5558: 5542: 5492: 5429: 5424: 4359: 4244: 4138: 4093: 3521: 3074: 2812: 2762: 2652: 2557: 2132: 1978: 1803: 1759: 759: 703: 469: 419: 3477:(which concerns the various power relations within a corporation) and 6387: 6352: 6294: 6269: 6134: 6031: 6019: 6004: 5992: 5920: 5838: 5811: 5695: 4756:, and query whether the decision would still be decided the same way. 4259: 4126: 3847: 3798: 3704: 3466: 3190: 3178: 3174: 2875: 2477: 2465: 2461: 2165: 2107: 1140: 1042: 1035: 6475: 4129:, typically exercise sole voting rights in the general meeting. The 2699:

Although some forms of companies are thought to have existed during

30:"Business form" redirects here. For types of business entities, see 6436: 6421: 6124: 6009: 5806: 5350: 5269:

A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law

5268: 5051: 4437: 4426:

The Anatomy of Corporate Law: A Comparative and Functional Approach

4189: 4165: 3901: 3790: 3677: 3182: 2781:

at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Mr

2720: 2677: 2655:. Corporations can even be convicted of criminal offences, such as 2473: 2449: 2422: 2406: 976: 931: 675: 4726:(1981) was held to include assets under 50% of the company's value 3033:

where the company is engaged in fraud or other criminal wrongdoing

2492:

is colloquially used interchangeably with corporate law, the term

2432:

While the minute nature of corporate governance as personified by

6326: 6274: 6254: 6202: 6014: 5932: 5748: 5710: 5658: 4792: 3955:(SE), which allows a company to operate across all member states. 3382: 3302: 3063:, and the extent of the objects are referred to as the company's 2816: 2716: 2712: 2414: 1913: 811: 153: 6426: 6279: 6024: 5915: 5910: 5856: 5527: 5257: 4766: 4280:. Some companies choose to incorporate in Delaware because the 4248: 3893: 2590: 2402: 1873: 1783: 1778: 1693: 4802:

Journal of Comparative Corporate Law and Securities Regulation

4645:. Temple University Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2019-01. 2811:

The law of business organizations originally derived from the

316:

Charitable incorporated organisation (England and Wales)

6367: 6311: 6217: 6058: 5861: 5360: 4188:

means getting loans, usually for the price of a fixed annual

4085: 4038: 3987:(AG). A private company with limited liability is known as a 3827: 3294: 3118: 2930:. The most common form of company used for business ventures. 1614: 776: 4205:. If a company is unable to pay its debts as they fall due, 3900:, some aspects of proposals made in the early stages of the 6249: 6197: 6053: 5451: 5367: 4193: 4169: 3700: 2629: 4284:

offers lower corporate taxes than many other states. Many

57: 5321: 5039:

Act Relative to Incorporations for Manufacturing Purposes

4808:. North-Holland Publishing Company: 75–88. Archived from 2398: 1848: 1220: 5010:"Why New Corporate Law Arises" by Robert B. Thompson in 4997:"Why New Corporate Law Arises" by Robert B. Thompson in 4276:

A majority of publicly traded companies in the U.S. are

3473:" company strategy. Corporate law is often divided into 3125:

is complex, and varies significantly between countries.

5181:"Choice of Entity for Startups Seeking Venture Capital" 4988:

in the Journal of Finance, Vol. LVII, No. 1 (Feb. 2002)

4621:

See the frustration expressed by the House of Lords in

3239:, dating from 7 November 1623, for the amount of 2,400 5290: 5283: 5278: 4501:

Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007

4096:, and where management was delegated to a centralised 3145:

Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007

4288:

prefer to invest in Delaware corporations. Also, the

3781:). Where a company goes into liquidation, normally a 3320:, although these are relatively uncommon outside the 2589:(in the UK governed by the Partnership Act 1890), or 5156:"4 Reasons Why Delaware Is Considered a Tax Shelter" 3761:. Liquidations generally come in two forms — either 2628:, and it is why the names of corporations end with " 4931:(Macmillan International Higher Education 2014), 77 3484:Directors also owe strict duties not to permit any 3481:(which concerns the rules on how capital is used). 2919:

a company limited by guarantee with a share capital

2564:delegates day-to-day management of the company to 4511:In England the first joint stock company was the 3563:membership interests because this is treated as " 6522: 3591:present irreconcilable differences in this area. 5198:Quillen, William T.; Hanrahan, Michael (1992). 5197: 4243:, or organized, under the laws of a particular 4184:by companies for purchase of their own shares. 4168:after a company earns profits and the right to 2750:"Jack and the Giant Joint-Stock", a cartoon in 2511:. When used as a substitute for corporate law, 2955: 324:Scottish charitable incorporated organisation 5306: 2554:", the shares are publicly listed and traded) 2367: 1718: 723: 5100:"Municipal Regulation of Formula Businesses" 4907:Corporate Finance Law: Principles and Policy 4889:Corporate Finance Law: Principles and Policy 4793:Hans-Joachim Mertens; Erich Schanze (1979). 4084:and court cases, the company is the primary 3988: 3980: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4515:, which received its charter in 1600. The 4254:Business entities may also be regulated by 4156:involves the traditional method of issuing 3948: 3727: 3650: 3433:The Modern Corporation and Private Property 3350:The Modern Corporation and Private Property 3195: 2651:, they can "die" when they lose money into 2484:interact with one another. Whilst the term 5313: 5299: 5200:"A Short History of the Court of Chancery" 4390:Securities regulation in the United States 4192:repayment. Sophisticated lenders, such as 4100:. An influential model within Europe, the 4049:lies at the heart of the United Kingdom's 3862: 3177:), as well as other stakeholders, such as 2374: 2360: 1725: 1711: 730: 716: 4180:, and indirectly through restrictions on 6458:History of the American legal profession 4894: 4795:"The German Codetermination Act OF 1976" 4420: 4418: 4416: 4024: 3339: 3226: 2745: 2676: 5178: 4836:(3rd Edn Sweet & Maxwell, 2013) 214 3741: 3647:in order to reduce their tax exposure. 3150: 2985:, particularly in relation to smaller, 2534:of the corporation (access to tort and 14: 6523: 5153: 5097: 4598:Principles of Corporate Insolvency Law 3047: 2794: 425:Limited liability limited partnership 340:Industrial and provident society 5294: 5279:The Delaware Journal of Corporate Law 4955:"Insider Trading | Investor.gov" 4413: 3991:Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung 3527: 3465:In most jurisdictions, directors owe 2981:Separate legal personality often has 2884:limited liability limited partnership 522:Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung 32:List of legal entity types by country 5130:"About the Division of Corporations" 5014:, University of Chicago Press, p. 16 5001:, University of Chicago Press, p. 18 4978:"The World Price of Insider Trading" 4891:(2nd Edn Hart Publishing, 2015) 5-41 4570:Macaura v. Northern Assurance Co Ltd 4365:List of companies named after people 3712:for the purchase of its own shares. 3608: 3002:Macaura v. Northern Assurance Co Ltd 5058:(Aspen 1986) 2, defines the modern 4636: 4600:(3rd Edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2013) 4444:(Aspen 1986) 2; H Hansmann et al., 3335: 2711:were granted in Europe (notably in 2496:mostly refers to wider concepts of 27:Body of law that governs businesses 24: 5284:International Financial Law Review 4909:(2nd Edn Hart Publishing, 2015) 38 4861:Harlowe's Nominees Pty v. Woodside 4771:Securities and Exchange Commission 3995:(GmbH). A partnership is called a 3808: 3507:, a personal interest conflicting 3450: 3328:. Some jurisdictions consider the 3128: 3024:where the company is a mere façade 2898:mandate of business corporations. 1758: 25: 6562: 5442:Restitution and unjust enrichment 5221: 5134:Delaware Division of Corporations 4431: 4334:Delaware Journal of Corporate Law 4005: 2027:International Chamber of Commerce 1699:Business and economics portal 6489: 6488: 6474: 5256: 4282:Delaware General Corporation Law 4272:Delaware General Corporation Law 4218: 4017:This section is an excerpt from 3965:This section is an excerpt from 3925:This section is an excerpt from 3794:harmful to the public at large. 3779:creditors' voluntary liquidation 3248:Delaware General Corporation Law 2538:in a manner similar to a person) 1692: 567:Société à responsabilité limitée 56: 6453:History of the legal profession 5191: 5179:Feldman, Sandra (17 May 2017). 5172: 5147: 5122: 5104:Case Western Reserve Law Review 5091: 5065: 5045: 5017: 5004: 4991: 4971: 4947: 4942:Ebrahimi v Westbourne Galleries 4934: 4921: 4912: 4881: 4867: 4853: 4839: 4826: 4786: 4776: 4759: 4744: 4729: 4710: 4697: 4679: 4667: 4653: 4643:98 Boston University Law Review 4639:"Incorporating Social Activism" 4630: 4615: 4603: 4590: 4576: 4562: 4553: 3857:material non-public information 3216: 5025:Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 4539: 4522: 4505: 4493: 4483: 4470: 4451: 4231:Model Business Corporation Act 3715: 3509:or which possibly may conflict 2779:Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 2768:Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 2756:Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 2515:means the law relating to the 13: 1: 4406: 4041:financial centre. Within the 3881:capital market intermediaries 3547: 3499:stated in his judgment that, 3123:crimes committed by companies 3110:Royal British Bank v Turquand 3041:environmental protection laws 2839:Limited liability partnership 2560:under a board structure; the 1354:management information system 1005:Chief human resources officer 5247:Resources in other libraries 5098:Salkin, Patricia E. (2008). 4927:Janet Dine, Marios Koutsias 4864:(1968) 121 CLR 483 (Aust HC) 4584:Adams v. Cape Industries plc 4547:Salomon v. Salomon & Co. 4075:UK Corporate Governance Code 3908: 3012:Adams v. Cape Industries plc 2978:Salomon v. Salomon & Co. 2908:company limited by guarantee 2854:Company limited by guarantee 2788:Salomon v. Salomon & Co. 2649:certificate of incorporation 2103:Intellectual property rights 1348:Enterprise resource planning 1176:Financial statement analysis 449:Massachusetts business trust 7: 5154:Tarver, Evan (2015-09-25). 4295: 4265: 3467:strict duties of good faith 3254:(CA 2006); in Germany, the 2995:Fam 181 it was held that a 2962:Piercing the corporate veil 2956:Corporate legal personality 2632:" or some variant such as " 2522: 2085:Economic and monetary union 2007:International Monetary Fund 1944:Voluntary export restraints 636:Piercing the corporate veil 332:Community interest company 307:UK / Ireland / Commonwealth 295:Economic interest grouping 10: 6567: 6120:International legal theory 5599:International slavery laws 5594:International human rights 5589:International criminal law 5204:Delaware Court of Chancery 4534:Salmon v The Hamborough Co 4478:South African Constitution 4290:Delaware Court of Chancery 4269: 4228: 4222: 4059:United Kingdom company law 4019:United Kingdom company law 4016: 4009: 3964: 3959: 3924: 3917: 3812: 3745: 3731: 3654: 3618: 3612: 3551: 3454: 3220: 3165:and those who elect them ( 3154: 3132: 3121:, but the law relating to 3051: 2959: 2849:Not-for-profit corporation 2804: 2798: 2772:Limited Liability Act 1855 2670: 2666: 2606:separate legal personality 2550:(if the corporation is a " 2532:Separate legal personality 2080:Customs and monetary union 2022:World Customs Organization 2012:International Trade Centre 405:Limited liability company 29: 6468: 6445: 6335: 6173:Administration of justice 6158: 6067: 5958: 5837: 5739: 5460: 5328: 5242:Resources in your library 4674:Shalfoon v Cheddar Valley 4480:Art.8, especially Art.(4) 4370:List of company registers 4196:typically contract for a 3913: 3283:articles of incorporation 3279:memorandum of association 3018:pierce the corporate veil 2927:company limited by shares 2880:limited liability company 2045:Preferential trading area 1010:Chief information officer 842:Limited liability company 616:Internal affairs doctrine 611:and estoppel corporations 5950:Basic structure doctrine 5800:Natural and legal rights 5681:Public international law 5187:. CT Corporation System. 5033:of 1807, as part of the 4834:Corporate Insolvency Law 4517:Dutch East India Company 4446:Anatomy of Corporate Law 4345:European Company Statute 4239:, most corporations are 4160:to build up a company's 3734:Mergers and acquisitions 3728:Mergers and acquisitions 3683:rights to any return of 3651:Shares and share capital 3373:, where §141(a) states, 3311:shareholders' agreements 3287:authorised share capital 3237:Dutch East India Company 3211:principal–agent problems 2807:Types of business entity 2326:Balassa–Samuelson effect 2321:Ricardian trade theories 2208:Largest consumer markets 2017:World Trade Organization 1023:Chief technology officer 957:Mergers and acquisitions 927:Constitutional documents 752:Management of a business 40:This article is part of 6130:Principle of typicality 5604:International trade law 5320: 4637:Lin, Tom C. W. (2018). 4610:Williams v Natural Life 4530:Edmunds v Brown Tillard 4313:Compliance (regulation) 4069:. Also governed by the 3888:with competitor funds. 3877:institutional investors 3863:Trends and developments 3767:creditors' liquidations 3763:compulsory liquidations 3291:articles of association 3250:(DGCL); in the UK, the 2983:unintended consequences 2673:History of corporations 2341:Lerner symmetry theorem 1083:Environmental economics 1063:International economics 1014:Chief marketing officer 1000:Chief financial officer 995:Chief operating officer 991:Chief executive officer 952:International trade law 746:Business administration 286:Societas unius personae 148:General corporate forms 5012:The Corporate Contract 4999:The Corporate Contract 4460:, 8th edition (2004), 4458:Black's Law Dictionary 4395:State-owned enterprise 4125:, to the exclusion of 4054: 3989: 3981: 3949: 3771:voluntary liquidations 3513: 3492:Aberdeen Ry v. Blaikie 3379: 3358: 3355:distribution of wealth 3326:offshore jurisdictions 3243: 3223:Corporate constitution 3196: 2952:throughout the world. 2869:Privately held company 2758: 2696: 2661:corporate manslaughter 2583:Black's Law Dictionary 2316:Gravity model of trade 2213:Leading trade partners 2118:Government procurement 1919:Exchange rate controls 1763: 1652:International business 1637:Business judgment rule 982:Chief business officer 882:Annual general meeting 862:State-owned enterprise 852:Privately held company 598:Business judgment rule 6125:Principle of legality 5884:Delegated legislation 5584:Intellectual property 4532:(1668) 1 Lev 237 and 4278:Delaware corporations 4258:and in some cases by 4201:directors engaged in 4176:requirements of full 4144:London Stock Exchange 4090:Industrial Revolution 4047:London Stock Exchange 4028: 3998:Kommanditgesellschaft 3775:members' liquidations 3630:Equity financing; and 3619:Further information: 3585:Macdougall v Gardiner 3501: 3495:(1854) 1 Macq HL 461 3375: 3343: 3230: 2913:insolvent liquidation 2805:Further information: 2749: 2680: 2296:Heckscher–Ohlin model 2291:Competitive advantage 2286:Comparative advantage 2173:Trade and development 1934:Countervailing duties 1762: 1328:Customer relationship 1264:Business intelligence 1226:Financial institution 1201:International finance 1151:Cash conversion cycle 1058:Development economics 1019:Chief product officer 767:Management accounting 542:Naamloze vennootschap 532:Kabushiki gaisha 349:Limited company 6343:Barristers' chambers 6285:Legal representation 6223:Justice of the peace 5569:Financial regulation 5265:at Wikimedia Commons 5079:. Cornell Law School 4691:delcode.delaware.gov 4182:financial assistance 4110:corporate governance 3933:European company law 3927:European company law 3898:Progressive Movement 3873:shareholder activism 3822:is the trading of a 3742:Corporate insolvency 3710:financial assistance 3640:financing structures 3486:conflict of interest 3475:corporate governance 3289:of the company. The 3256:Aktiengesetz (AktG) 3157:Corporate governance 3151:Corporate governance 3105:ostensible authority 2558:Delegated management 2517:business corporation 2505:corporate governance 2311:Intra-industry trade 2039:Economic integration 1989:Economic integration 1984:Economic nationalism 1269:Business development 1113:Economic development 875:Corporate governance 772:Financial accounting 666:Beneficial ownership 603:Corporate governance 439:Delaware corporation 266:Societas cooperativa 18:Company registration 6378:Election commission 6090:Expressive function 5619:Landlord–tenant law 5518:Consumer protection 4905:Gullifer and Payne 4887:Gullifer and Payne 4536:(1671) 1 Ch Cas 204 4340:Enterprise Act 2002 4286:venture capitalists 4071:Insolvency Act 1986 3663:corporate structure 3589:Pender v Lushington 3438:ein wichtiger Grund 3135:Corporate liability 3048:Capacity and powers 2896:profit maximization 2864:Sole proprietorship 2844:Limited partnership 2795:Corporate structure 2735:in England and the 2725:Joint stock company 2690:Edward Matthew Ward 2599:sub-national states 2548:Transferable shares 1939:Anti-dumping duties 1879:Non-tariff barriers 1824:Import substitution 1679:Business statistics 1662:International trade 1647:Business operations 1343:Electronic business 1248:Types of management 1136:Financial statement 1118:Economic statistics 986:Chief brand officer 942:Corporate liability 857:Sole proprietorship 837:Joint-stock company 681:Corporate registers 641:Rochdale Principles 395:Benefit corporation 221:Sole proprietorship 6336:Legal institutions 6203:Lawsuit/Litigation 6193:Dispute resolution 5998:Catholic canon law 5706:State of emergency 5669:Will and testament 5393:Law of obligations 5346:Constitutional law 5336:Administrative law 4982:Utpal Bhattacharya 4664:(1885) 30 Ch D 376 4624:Cotman v. Brougham 4513:East India Company 4400:Types of companies 4385:Race to the bottom 4375:Public service law 4118:board of directors 4098:board of directors 4067:Companies Act 2006 4055: 4012:Companies Act 2006 3983:Aktiengesellschaft 3977:Gesellschaftsrecht 3973:German company law 3967:German company law 3937:European Union law 3773:(sometimes called 3765:(sometimes called 3528:Company law theory 3457:Board of directors 3408:Holzmüller-Doktrin 3363:board of directors 3359: 3264:board of directors 3252:Companies Act 2006 3244: 3207:management science 3163:board of directors 3097:board of directors 3006:his claim failed. 2971:until 1895 by the 2759: 2697: 2618:board of directors 2562:board of directors 2306:Economic geography 2113:Competition policy 1909:Technical barriers 1889:Tariff-rate quotas 1834:Trade facilitation 1819:Export orientation 1764: 1642:Consumer behaviour 1444:Product life-cycle 1231:Capital management 1196:Managerial finance 887:Board of directors 482:Aktiengesellschaft 454:Nevada corporation 6551:Law and economics 6518: 6517: 6178:Constitutionalism 6100:Law and economics 5938:Act of parliament 5676:Product liability 5629:Legal archaeology 5554:Environmental law 5548:Entertainment law 5388:International law 5261:Media related to 5228:Library resources 4918:Salomon v Salomon 4878:(1843) 2 Hare 461 4738:Bundesgerichtshof 4661:Ashbury v. Watson 4380:Quasi corporation 4207:UK insolvency law 4198:security interest 4114:corporate finance 4065:formed under the 3951:Societas Europaea 3869:hostile takeovers 3615:Corporate finance 3609:Corporate finance 3601:derivative action 3538:limited liability 3479:corporate finance 3461:Directors' duties 3198:Societas Europaea 3090:corporate benefit 3054:Corporate benefit 2936:unlimited company 2834:Unlimited company 2737:Tulip Bulb Bubble 2626:limited liability 2542:Limited liability 2405:, relations, and 2397:) is the body of 2384: 2383: 2331:Linder hypothesis 2143:Emissions trading 1735: 1734: 1622:Business analysis 1191:Corporate finance 1161:Capital budgeting 1098:Knowledge economy 892:Supervisory board 740: 739: 621:Limited liability 583: 582: 492:Ansvarlig selskap 379:Unlimited company 216:Shelf corporation 211:Shell corporation 199:Limited liability 16:(Redirected from 6558: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6479: 6478: 6302:Question of fact 6183:Criminal justice 5513:Construction law 5508:Conflict of laws 5473:Agricultural law 5315: 5308: 5301: 5292: 5291: 5260: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5195: 5189: 5188: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5069: 5063: 5049: 5043: 5030:Code de Commerce 5021: 5015: 5008: 5002: 4995: 4989: 4975: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4965: 4959:www.investor.gov 4951: 4945: 4940:In England, see 4938: 4932: 4925: 4919: 4916: 4910: 4903: 4892: 4885: 4879: 4875:Foss v Harbottle 4871: 4865: 4857: 4851: 4843: 4837: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4814: 4799: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4763: 4757: 4753:Bushell v. Faith 4748: 4742: 4733: 4727: 4714: 4708: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4649:. Rochester, NY. 4634: 4628: 4619: 4613: 4607: 4601: 4594: 4588: 4580: 4574: 4566: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4543: 4537: 4528:In England, see 4526: 4520: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4474: 4468: 4455: 4449: 4435: 4429: 4422: 4328:Corporation sole 4262:and ordinances. 4225:US corporate law 4203:wrongful trading 3994: 3986: 3954: 3558:Unfair prejudice 3445:co-determination 3416:Great Depression 3336:Balance of power 3268:general meetings 3201: 3082:corporate powers 2987:family companies 2733:South Sea Bubble 2686:South Sea Bubble 2442:business culture 2376: 2369: 2362: 2336:Leontief paradox 2301:New trade theory 1904:Export subsidies 1789:Balance of trade 1737: 1736: 1727: 1720: 1713: 1697: 1696: 1674:Business process 1216:Financial market 1053:Labour economics 1048:Public economics 807:Corporation sole 742: 741: 732: 725: 718: 686:Registered agent 631:Drag-along right 571: 556: 546: 536: 526: 516: 506: 496: 486: 476: 445: 428: 408: 352: 343: 335: 327: 319: 308: 298: 290: 280: 276:Societas privata 270: 260: 241: 240: 60: 37: 36: 21: 6566: 6565: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6521: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6487: 6473: 6464: 6441: 6432:Political party 6405:Legal education 6393:Law enforcement 6373:Court of equity 6331: 6307:Question of law 6260:Practice of law 6240:Judicial review 6154: 6105:Legal formalism 6085:Comparative law 6080:Contract theory 6063: 5983:Legal pluralism 5954: 5943:Act of Congress 5867:Executive order 5833: 5735: 5654:Nationality law 5579:Immigration law 5503:Competition law 5456: 5324: 5319: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5219: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5196: 5192: 5177: 5173: 5164: 5162: 5152: 5148: 5138: 5136: 5128: 5127: 5123: 5113: 5111: 5096: 5092: 5082: 5080: 5071: 5070: 5066: 5050: 5046: 5035:Napoleonic Code 5022: 5018: 5009: 5005: 4996: 4992: 4976: 4972: 4963: 4961: 4953: 4952: 4948: 4939: 4935: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4904: 4895: 4886: 4882: 4872: 4868: 4858: 4854: 4844: 4840: 4831: 4827: 4818: 4816: 4812: 4797: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4777: 4764: 4760: 4749: 4745: 4734: 4730: 4723:Katz v. Bregman 4715: 4711: 4702: 4698: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4668: 4658: 4654: 4635: 4631: 4620: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4577: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4544: 4540: 4527: 4523: 4510: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4484: 4475: 4471: 4456: 4452: 4436: 4432: 4423: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4323:Corporate crime 4308:Competition law 4303:Business ethics 4298: 4274: 4268: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4216: 4215: 4131:general meeting 4022: 4014: 4008: 4003: 4002: 3970: 3962: 3957: 3956: 3935:is the part of 3930: 3922: 3920:Societas Europa 3916: 3911: 3865: 3820:Insider trading 3817: 3815:Insider dealing 3811: 3809:Insider dealing 3750: 3744: 3736: 3730: 3718: 3659: 3653: 3645:preferred stock 3623: 3617: 3611: 3565:reflective loss 3560: 3554:Derivative suit 3552:Main articles: 3550: 3530: 3512: 3463: 3455:Main articles: 3453: 3451:Director duties 3443:Countries with 3338: 3225: 3219: 3171:general meeting 3159: 3153: 3141: 3139:Corporate crime 3133:Main articles: 3131: 3129:Corporate crime 3056: 3050: 2997:discovery order 2964: 2958: 2829:Limited company 2809: 2803: 2797: 2675: 2669: 2657:corporate fraud 2595:sovereign state 2525: 2434:share ownership 2389:(also known as 2380: 2351: 2350: 2281: 2273: 2272: 2228: 2218: 2217: 2188: 2178: 2177: 2148:Trade sanctions 2098: 2090: 2089: 2050:Free-trade area 2040: 2032: 2031: 2002: 1994: 1993: 1959: 1949: 1948: 1894:Import licenses 1864: 1854: 1853: 1814:Trade diversion 1774: 1731: 1691: 1684: 1683: 1627:Business ethics 1617: 1607: 1606: 1547: 1539: 1538: 1249: 1241: 1240: 1236:Venture capital 1166:Commercial bank 1156:Insider dealing 1131: 1123: 1122: 1073:Planned economy 1038: 1028: 1027: 972: 970:Corporate title 962: 961: 937:Corporate crime 917: 907: 906: 902:Audit committee 877: 867: 866: 822:Holding company 802:Corporate group 797: 790:Business entity 782: 781: 762: 736: 691: 690: 671:Civil procedure 661: 653: 652: 626:Tag-along right 593: 585: 584: 569: 554: 544: 534: 524: 514: 504: 494: 484: 474: 443:statutory trust 437: 426: 406: 350: 347: 341: 333: 325: 317: 306: 296: 288: 278: 268: 258: 238: 236:by jurisdiction 235: 234:Corporate forms 226: 225: 206:Private limited 174:Holding company 149: 141: 140: 122: 68: 67:By jurisdiction 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6564: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6536:Legal entities 6533: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6512: 6505: 6498: 6484: 6481:Law portal 6469: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6462: 6461: 6460: 6449: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6413: 6412: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6339: 6337: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6317:Trial advocacy 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6298: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6071: 6069: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6029: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 6001: 6000: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5964: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5952: 5947: 5946: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5854: 5849: 5847:Ballot measure 5843: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5831: 5826: 5824:Legal treatise 5821: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5804: 5803: 5802: 5792: 5790:Letters patent 5787: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5751: 5745: 5743: 5741:Sources of law 5737: 5736: 5734: 5733: 5728: 5726:Unenforced law 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5672: 5671: 5666: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5498:Commercial law 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5364: 5363: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5318: 5317: 5310: 5303: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5250: 5249: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5222:External links 5220: 5217: 5216: 5190: 5185:Wolters Kluwer 5171: 5146: 5121: 5090: 5073:"Corporations" 5064: 5044: 5016: 5003: 4990: 4970: 4946: 4933: 4920: 4911: 4893: 4880: 4866: 4852: 4838: 4825: 4785: 4775: 4758: 4743: 4728: 4709: 4696: 4678: 4666: 4652: 4629: 4614: 4602: 4589: 4575: 4561: 4552: 4538: 4521: 4504: 4492: 4482: 4469: 4450: 4430: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4355:Insolvency law 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4270:Main article: 4267: 4264: 4223:Main article: 4220: 4217: 4154:Equity finance 4146:. Through the 4079:European Union 4035:City of London 4023: 4015: 4007: 4006:United Kingdom 4004: 3971: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3941:European Union 3931: 3923: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3864: 3861: 3813:Main article: 3810: 3807: 3748:Insolvency law 3746:Main article: 3743: 3740: 3732:Main article: 3729: 3726: 3722:corporate form 3717: 3714: 3697:equity capital 3692: 3691: 3688: 3681: 3674: 3655:Main article: 3652: 3649: 3635: 3634: 3633:Debt financing 3631: 3613:Main article: 3610: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3596:representative 3592: 3580: 3549: 3546: 3529: 3526: 3502: 3497:Lord Cranworth 3452: 3449: 3428:Gardiner Means 3399:Model Articles 3395:United Kingdom 3337: 3334: 3272:model articles 3235:issued by the 3221:Main article: 3218: 3215: 3155:Main article: 3152: 3149: 3148: 3147: 3130: 3127: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3044: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3028: 3025: 2973:House of Lords 2960:Main article: 2957: 2954: 2946: 2945: 2931: 2922: 2916: 2882:(LLC) and the 2872: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2799:Main article: 2796: 2793: 2741:Dutch Republic 2709:Royal charters 2705:Ancient Greece 2671:Main article: 2668: 2665: 2570: 2569: 2555: 2552:public company 2545: 2539: 2524: 2521: 2499:commercial law 2438:capital market 2401:governing the 2395:enterprise law 2382: 2381: 2379: 2378: 2371: 2364: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2349: 2348: 2346:Terms of trade 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2238:Trading nation 2235: 2229: 2224: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2184: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2070:Economic union 2067: 2062: 2057: 2055:Currency union 2052: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1996: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1960: 1955: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1899:Customs duties 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1869:Trade barriers 1865: 1860: 1859: 1856: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1846: 1844:Domestic trade 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1809:Trade creation 1806: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1755: 1754: 1748: 1747: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1722: 1715: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1686: 1685: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1659: 1657:Business model 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1425: 1424: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1406: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1366:Human resource 1363: 1358: 1357: 1356: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1308:Communications 1305: 1304: 1303: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1186:Public finance 1183: 1181:Financial risk 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1108:Macroeconomics 1105: 1103:Microeconomics 1100: 1095: 1093:Market economy 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1016: 1007: 1002: 997: 988: 979: 973: 968: 967: 964: 963: 960: 959: 954: 949: 947:Insolvency law 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 922:Commercial law 918: 913: 912: 909: 908: 905: 904: 899: 897:Advisory board 894: 889: 884: 878: 873: 872: 869: 868: 865: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 798: 788: 787: 784: 783: 780: 779: 774: 769: 763: 758: 757: 754: 753: 749: 748: 738: 737: 735: 734: 727: 720: 712: 709: 708: 707: 706: 701: 699:Company portal 693: 692: 689: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 662: 659: 658: 655: 654: 651: 650: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 605: 600: 594: 591: 590: 587: 586: 581: 580: 579: 578: 573: 563: 558: 548: 538: 528: 518: 508: 498: 488: 478: 464: 463: 459: 458: 457: 456: 451: 446: 435: 430: 422: 417: 416: 415: 413:Low-profit LLC 402: 397: 389: 388: 384: 383: 382: 381: 376: 375: 374: 369: 364: 359: 345: 337: 329: 321: 310: 309: 303: 302: 301: 300: 292: 282: 272: 262: 248: 247: 245:European Union 239: 232: 231: 228: 227: 224: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 202: 201: 196: 191: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 150: 147: 146: 143: 142: 139: 138: 137: 136: 131: 124:European Union 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 93:Cayman Islands 90: 85: 80: 75: 69: 66: 65: 62: 61: 53: 52: 46: 45: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6563: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6531:Corporate law 6529: 6528: 6526: 6511: 6510: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6499: 6497: 6496: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6467: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6403: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6363:Civil society 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6322:Trier of fact 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6208:Legal opinion 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6188:Court-martial 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6160:Jurisprudence 6157: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6049:Statutory law 6047: 6045: 6044:Socialist law 6042: 6038: 6037:Byzantine law 6035: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5991: 5990: 5989: 5988:Religious law 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5960:Legal systems 5957: 5951: 5948: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5929: 5928:Statutory law 5926: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5758:Statutory law 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5738: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5716:Transport law 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5634:Legal fiction 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5564:Financial law 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5523:Corporate law 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5459: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5447:Statutory law 5445: 5443: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5331: 5329:Core subjects 5327: 5323: 5316: 5311: 5309: 5304: 5302: 5297: 5296: 5293: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5264: 5263:Corporate law 5259: 5255: 5254: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5233:Corporate law 5229: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5186: 5182: 5175: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5135: 5131: 5125: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5094: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5061: 5057: 5056:Corporate Law 5053: 5048: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5027:. The French 5026: 5020: 5013: 5007: 5000: 4994: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4943: 4937: 4930: 4924: 4915: 4908: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4890: 4884: 4877: 4876: 4870: 4863: 4862: 4856: 4849: 4848: 4842: 4835: 4829: 4815:on 2021-03-07 4811: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4789: 4783:instructions. 4779: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4755: 4754: 4747: 4740: 4739: 4732: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4713: 4706: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4663: 4662: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4626: 4625: 4618: 4611: 4606: 4599: 4593: 4586: 4585: 4579: 4572: 4571: 4565: 4556: 4549: 4548: 4542: 4535: 4531: 4525: 4518: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490:corporations. 4486: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4466:0-314-15199-0 4463: 4459: 4454: 4447: 4443: 4442:Corporate Law 4439: 4434: 4427: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4350:Financial law 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4335: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4293: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4237:United States 4232: 4226: 4219:United States 4212: 4211:administrator 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4149: 4148:Takeover Code 4145: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4027: 4020: 4013: 4000: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3985: 3984: 3978: 3974: 3968: 3953: 3952: 3946: 3945:member states 3942: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3921: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3852: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3840:stock options 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3806: 3802: 3800: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3739: 3735: 3725: 3723: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3689: 3686: 3682: 3679: 3675: 3673:voting rights 3672: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3657:Share capital 3648: 3646: 3641: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3621:Financial law 3616: 3603: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3573:majority rule 3568: 3566: 3559: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3525: 3523: 3517: 3510: 3506: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3493: 3487: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3441: 3439: 3435: 3434: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3374: 3372: 3367: 3364: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3333: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3322:United States 3319: 3318: 3317:voting trusts 3313: 3312: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3203: 3200: 3199: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3158: 3146: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3100: 3098: 3093: 3091: 3085: 3083: 3078: 3076: 3072: 3071: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3042: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3004: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2953: 2951: 2950:jurisdictions 2943: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2893: 2892:credit unions 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2744: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2684:image of the 2683: 2679: 2674: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2509:financial law 2506: 2502: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2419:organizations 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2387:Corporate law 2377: 2372: 2370: 2365: 2363: 2358: 2357: 2355: 2354: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2243:United States 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2233:Trade mission 2231: 2230: 2227: 2222: 2221: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2187: 2182: 2181: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2138:Trade justice 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2128:Globalization 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2065:Single market 2063: 2061: 2060:Customs union 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2004: 2001:Organizations 1998: 1997: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1974:Laissez-faire 1972: 1970: 1969:Protectionism 1967: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1953: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1884:Import quotas 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1866: 1863: 1858: 1857: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1829:Trade finance 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1768: 1767: 1761: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1739: 1738: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1716: 1714: 1709: 1708: 1706: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1687: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1632:Business plan 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1611: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1562:Communication 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1543: 1542: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1522:administrator 1520: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1405: 1404:administrator 1402: 1401: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1313:Configuration 1311: 1309: 1306: 1302: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1127: 1126: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1068:Mixed economy 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 992: 989: 987: 983: 980: 978: 975: 974: 971: 966: 965: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 919: 916: 915:Corporate law 911: 910: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 879: 876: 871: 870: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 799: 795: 791: 786: 785: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 764: 761: 756: 755: 751: 750: 747: 744: 743: 733: 728: 726: 721: 719: 714: 713: 711: 710: 705: 702: 700: 697: 696: 695: 694: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 663: 660:Related areas 657: 656: 649: 648: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 610: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 595: 589: 588: 577: 574: 572: 568: 564: 562: 559: 557: 553: 549: 547: 543: 539: 537: 533: 529: 527: 523: 519: 517: 513: 509: 507: 503: 499: 497: 493: 489: 487: 483: 479: 477: 472: 468: 467: 466: 465: 461: 460: 455: 452: 450: 447: 444: 440: 436: 434: 433:S corporation 431: 429: 423: 421: 418: 414: 411: 410: 409: 403: 401: 400:C corporation 398: 396: 393: 392: 391: 390: 387:United States 386: 385: 380: 377: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 354: 353: 346: 344: 338: 336: 330: 328: 322: 320: 314: 313: 312: 311: 305: 304: 299: 293: 291: 287: 283: 281: 277: 273: 271: 267: 263: 261: 256: 252: 251: 250: 249: 246: 243: 242: 237: 230: 229: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 186: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 151: 145: 144: 135: 132: 130: 127: 126: 125: 121: 119: 116: 114: 113:United States 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 64: 63: 59: 55: 54: 51: 50:Corporate law 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 33: 19: 6546:Business law 6507: 6500: 6486: 6472: 6245:Jurisdiction 6213:Legal remedy 6168:Adjudication 6068:Legal theory 5906:Ratification 5901:Promulgation 5872:Proclamation 5852:Codification 5785:Human rights 5773:Divine right 5763:Constitution 5731:Women in law 5649:Military law 5644:Marriage law 5639:Maritime law 5538:Election law 5522: 5478:Aviation law 5468:Abortion law 5420:Property law 5356:Criminal law 5232: 5207:. 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Retrieved 4810:the original 4805: 4801: 4788: 4778: 4761: 4751: 4746: 4736: 4731: 4721: 4717: 4712: 4705:Listing Rule 4699: 4690: 4681: 4673: 4669: 4659: 4655: 4646: 4642: 4632: 4622: 4617: 4609: 4605: 4597: 4592: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4564: 4555: 4545: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4507: 4495: 4485: 4472: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4433: 4425: 4332: 4318:Consumer law 4275: 4256:federal laws 4253: 4241:incorporated 4234: 4209:requires an 4186:Debt finance 4123:shareholders 4107: 4102:Commonwealth 4063:corporations 4056: 4051:corporations 4031:River Thames 3996: 3976: 3890: 3885:mutual funds 3866: 3853: 3819: 3818: 3803: 3796: 3788: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3737: 3719: 3696: 3693: 3660: 3636: 3624: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3584: 3572: 3569: 3561: 3533:Ronald Coase 3531: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3504: 3490: 3483: 3464: 3442: 3437: 3431: 3413: 3406: 3390: 3380: 3376: 3368: 3360: 3348: 3330:company seal 3324:and certain 3315: 3309: 3307: 3276: 3245: 3217:Constitution 3204: 3167:shareholders 3160: 3116: 3108: 3101: 3094: 3086: 3081: 3079: 3068: 3060: 3057: 3010: 3008: 3000: 2990: 2976: 2965: 2947: 2933: 2924: 2918: 2905: 2900: 2888:cooperatives 2873: 2810: 2786: 2776: 2760: 2751: 2729: 2701:Ancient Rome 2698: 2694:Tate Gallery 2645:human rights 2642: 2603: 2587:partnerships 2575: 2571: 2536:contract law 2526: 2516: 2513:business law 2512: 2497: 2494:business law 2493: 2490:business law 2489: 2485: 2470:stakeholders 2468:, and other 2454:shareholders 2446:corporations 2431: 2427:corporations 2394: 2390: 2386: 2385: 2156:Currency war 2075:Fiscal union 1964:Mercantilism 1862:Restrictions 1740: 1552:Architecture 1546:Organization 1512:Supply chain 1338:Earned value 1211:Stock market 1088:Open economy 1078:Econometrics 914: 817:Conglomerate 645: 608: 566: 551: 541: 531: 521: 512:Aksjeselskap 511: 502:Aktieselskab 501: 491: 481: 470: 357:by guarantee 285: 275: 265: 254: 159:Conglomerate 103:South Africa 49: 6541:English law 6417:Legislature 6348:Bureaucracy 6145:Rule of man 6140:Rule of law 6115:Libertarian 5978:Chinese law 5879:Legislation 5829:Regulations 5817:Law reports 5795:Natural law 5691:Reparations 5686:Refugee law 5609:Jurimetrics 5550:(Media law) 5488:Banking law 5483:Amnesty law 5461:Disciplines 5398:Private law 4986:Hazem Daouk 4929:Company Law 4043:Square Mile 4029:Beside the 3824:corporation 3759:dissolution 3716:Dissolution 3505:or can have 3471:codetermine 3424:Adolf Berle 3345:Adolf Berle 3187:environment 3070:ultra vires 2969:English law 2942:liquidation 2859:Partnership 2824:Corporation 2801:Corporation 2783:Robert Lowe 2578:corporation 2482:environment 2391:company law 2161:Trade costs 2123:Outsourcing 1839:Trade route 1752:World trade 1667:Trade route 1582:Engineering 1577:Development 1429:Performance 1372:development 1333:Distributed 1206:Liquidation 847:Partnership 832:Corporation 827:Cooperative 647:Ultra vires 367:proprietary 184:Partnership 179:Joint-stock 169:Corporation 164:Cooperative 6525:Categories 6410:Law school 6290:Prosecutor 6228:Magistrate 6015:Jewish law 5973:Common law 5894:Rulemaking 5889:Regulation 5839:Law making 5778:Divine law 5754:Legal code 5701:Sports law 5624:Law of war 5574:Health law 5559:Family law 5543:Energy law 5493:Bankruptcy 5430:Punishment 5425:Public law 5165:2017-08-19 4964:2023-03-26 4819:2012-08-12 4703:See also, 4407:References 4360:Labour law 4260:local laws 4229:See also: 4178:disclosure 4174:prospectus 4139:good faith 4094:insolvency 4082:Directives 4061:regulates 4010:See also: 3918:See also: 3832:securities 3783:liquidator 3755:winding up 3676:rights to 3548:Litigation 3542:agency law 3522:bankruptcy 3422:scholars, 3393:). 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