926:. These actions reignited resentment in East Tennessee, and on August 17 a group of miners led by John Hatmaker attacked the TCI stockade at Oliver Springs but were beaten back by the guards. Shortly afterward a larger group of miners reconvened at the stockade, and its guards finally surrendered. The stockade was burned, and the convicts were put on a train and sent to Nashville. The following day Anderson was captured at Coal Creek, and the miners ordered Fort Anderson's second-in-command, Lieutenant Perry Fyffe, to surrender. After Fyffe refused, the miners charged the fort, killing two militiamen but failing to capture the position.
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removed convicts from two
Kentucky mines five years earlier. After gaining an assurance that no company property would be damaged, Sevier surrendered upon seeing the futility of resisting such a large force. The miners again marched the convicts to Coal Creek and put them on a train back to Knoxville. Later that day, the miners marched on the Knoxville Iron Company mine near Coal Creek, which also used convict labor, forced the guards at its stockade to surrender, and likewise sent its convicts to Knoxville.
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937:. Most county sheriffs—including the Anderson and Morgan sheriffs—ignored this order or made lackluster attempts to execute it, although several dozen volunteers were amassed in the Nashville, Chattanooga, and Knoxville areas. A group of Knoxville volunteers marched to relieve the besieged Fort Anderson, but as they descended Walden Ridge they were ambushed by a group of miners, who killed two of the volunteers and sent the rest fleeing back toward
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750:, several hundred angry miners confronted the governor and demanded he address them. Buchanan told the miners he was a champion of labor, but as governor he was obligated to enforce the laws and pleaded for calm and patience. After the governor's speech, Merrell rebutted it, claiming that the governor had not bothered to enforce laws regarding scrip or checkweighmen and calling the state government a "disgrace to a civilized country
635:, Tennessee, like other Southern states, struggled to find sources of revenue. Post-war railroad construction, meanwhile, had opened up the state's coalfields to major mining operations, creating a large demand for cheap labor. In 1866, the state began leasing its convicts to companies willing to pay for the inmates' housing in exchange for their labor, and in 1871 leased convicts to the
697:, which could either be used only at company-owned stores with marked-up prices or be redeemed for cash at a percentage of its value. Miners also demanded they be allowed to use their own checkweighmen—the specialists who weighed the coal and determined how much a particular miner had earned—instead of checkweighmen hired by the company.
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truce after the governor assured them he would call a special session of the
Tennessee state legislature and recommend the lease law be repealed. The convict laborers returned on July 25. During the truce, Merrell and Irish traveled around the state giving speeches to rally support for the miners' cause.
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Relations between the militiamen, most of whom were from middle or west
Tennessee, and the people of Coal Creek soured quickly. Merrell wrote to Buchanan complaining of the troops' behavior, and for several months miners and soldiers indiscriminately shot at one another, with either side blaming the
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In response to the outbreak, a second truce was negotiated in which the miners agreed to allow the return of convicts to Coal Creek and Oliver
Springs, but not Briceville, where TCMC president B.A. Jenkins had grown disgruntled with convict labor. The state dispatched 84 militiamen under the command
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organizer
William Webb. On July 23 Williams and Webb went to Coal Creek to address the miners, echoing the governor's plea for patience. Williams assured the miners that the governor supported an end to convict leasing but said it would take time to change the law. The miners thus agreed to a 60-day
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The Coal Creek
Watershed Foundation presently works to preserve the legacy of the Coal Creek War and its impact on the area and has taken the initiative in locating the remains of Fort Anderson and several poorly-marked or unmarked convict graves near the old Knoxville Iron Company mine. Drummond's
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Carnes' sweep of the Coal Creek Valley largely ended the Coal Creek War, although other events threatened to reignite the violence. A failed attack on the TCI stockade at Tracy City occurred in April 1893. In August 1893, miner
Richard Drummond killed a soldier in a brawl; he was then hanged by the
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convicts should the convict-leasing system be terminated. After three weeks of debate, the legislature adjourned on
September 21, taking little action other than making it a felony to interfere with the leasing system and authorizing the governor to take any necessary action to protect the system.
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On August 31, Buchanan called a special session of the state legislature to consider the convict lease issue. One question before the legislature was whether the state could terminate the leasing contract it had signed, which did not expire until
December 31, 1895. Another issue was what to do with
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Since state laws already barred scrip payment and company-hired checkweighmen, most mine owners accepted the demands, though they were in the midst of an economic downturn. However, the
Tennessee Coal Mining Company (TCMC), which operated a mine near Briceville, rejected the demands and on April 1,
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During the same period, the Coal Creek valley became one of Tennessee's most lucrative coal mining regions. The town of Coal Creek expanded rapidly, becoming the largest in Anderson County with a population of 3,000 by the end of the 1870s. Coal mines opened throughout the valley between Coal Creek
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On October 28, 1891, the committee representing the Coal Creek miners' interests announced they were resigning, denounced the legislature, and issued a subtle call to arms. On October 31 a group of miners burned the TCMC stockade at Briceville and seized the stockade at Coal Creek. Several company
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On the morning of July 20 an estimated 2,000 miners armed with shotguns, rifles, and pistols again surrounded the Briceville stockade. The miners' ranks had been bolstered by an influx of miners from the border town of Jellico and several hundred miners from Kentucky, some of whom had successfully
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After seizing the Briceville stockade, the Coal Creek miners sent a telegram to Governor Buchanan, stating their actions were taken to defend their property and wages and asking for his intervention. On July 16 Buchanan, escorted by three Tennessee state militia companies (two from Chattanooga and
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These former wage-earning Coal Creek coal miners repeatedly attacked and burned both state prison stockades and mine properties, all while releasing hundreds of the state convict laborers from their bondage to the mine companies. Many of these same Coal Creek coal miners were wounded or killed in
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Anderson County judge W.R. Hicks oversaw the indictments of nearly 300 miners and other individuals associated with the Coal Creek uprisings. Many fled the state before they could be charged or brought to trial, including Eugene Merrell. Nearly all who showed up in court were either acquitted or
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buildings were destroyed or looted, but the stockade was spared. Over 300 convicts were freed and supplied with fresh food and civilian clothes by the insurgents, who urged them not to commit further crimes. On November 2 another band burned the stockade at Oliver Springs, freeing 153 convicts.
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after the Civil War. While the mining companies reaped substantial profits, the miners often struggled economically and began to organize in the 1880s. The mine owners preferred free labor, but they threatened to replace free miners with convicts whenever free miners talked about forming unions.
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While the East Tennessee mining companies were moving away from convict labor, the state's primary lessee, TCI, remained stalwartly dedicated to using convict leasing at its south Tennessee mines. When Cumberland Coal balked at using convicts at its Oliver Springs mine, TCI purchased the mine's
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After this setback, the miners held out hope with the state's court system, which considered a case brought by the Tennessee Commissioner of Labor, George Ford, who claimed the poor conditions in which the inmates worked and lived violated state law. The case moved quickly through the courts,
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found guilty and fined. Only one trial ended with serious jail time: D.B. Monroe was sentenced to seven years after being vilified in the media as an "outsider" from Chattanooga who had come to Anderson County to spread his "anarchist" philosophy. Monroe was released after serving two years.
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Buchanan, attacked by both miners and mine owners alike for his indecisiveness, failed to win his party's nomination for governor in 1892, the Democrats choosing Chief Justice Turney instead. Buchanan still ran as a third-party candidate, but Turney won the election easily, ending Buchanan's
651:. TCI in turn subleased most of the convicts to smaller mining companies. While there was some resistance among free miners to the use of convict laborers in the 1870s, the abundance of jobs and companies' preference for the higher-quality production of free labor eased the miners' concerns.
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The Coal Creek War was part of a greater labor struggle across Tennessee that was launched against the state government's controversial convict leasing system, which allowed the state prison system to lease convict labor to mining companies (and other business enterprises) with the effect of
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of J. Keller Anderson to guard the convict stockade at Coal Creek and a small force to guard the one at Oliver Springs. Anderson built Fort Anderson on what came to be known as "Militia Hill", overlooking Coal Creek via the Walden Ridge water gap, which was outfitted with a
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Trestle, the railroad bridge where Richard Drummond was hanged in 1893, still stands near the junction of Highway 116 and Lower Briceville Highway. Much of the land purchased by the state in 1896 for the construction of Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary is now part of
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to reconsider its state convict labor-leasing system. The Tennessee state government later refused to renew its convict labor-lease contracts with private businesses upon the arrival at the 1896 expiration dates, making Tennessee one of the first states within the
941:. Carnes arrived on August 19 and quickly restored order and obtained Anderson's release. He then initiated a sweep of the region from Coal Creek to Jellico, arresting hundreds of miners deemed complicit in the insurrection. The militia used the
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political career. Seeing that the state's financial gains from convict-leasing had been erased by having to keep the militia in the field, Turney and the legislature decided to let the TCI contract expire and enacted legislation to build
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Although the Coal Creek War essentially ended with the arrests of hundreds of former company coal miners during 1892, the adverse exposure that this state conflict with private labor generated nationwide led to the downfall of Governor
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On July 21, 1891, Buchanan travelled to Knoxville where he again summoned the militia. Over a four-day period, the governor met with a committee of local figures friendly to the miners' interests, namely attorney J.C.J. Williams,
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for its convict laborers. Miners and local merchants met on July 14 to determine a course of action. It was rumored a larger group of convicts would arrive the next day. That night about 300 armed miners—probably led by
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754:" Later that night shots were fired at the stockade, startling the governor who had remained in the area until the following day. Buchanan left 107 militiamen under Colonel Granville Sevier, a great-grandson of
994:. Songs about the conflict include "Coal Creek Troubles," written and recorded by Jilson Setters in 1937, and a banjo tune called "Coal Creek March," which was recorded by Kentucky banjoist Pete Steele for the
862:, had sent correspondents to the Coal Creek region to cover the conflict. Sentiment was initially pro-miner, although as violent outbreaks continued and militiamen were killed, sentiment began to shift. The
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and Briceville, which was founded as a mining town in the late 1880s. Most mines were established by companies leasing land from the Coal Creek Mining & Manufacturing Company, which had been formed by
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across the state. The outbreak of this labor conflict touched off a partisan media firestorm between the miners' supporters and detractors and brought the issue of convict leasing to the public debate.
725:—surrounded the Briceville stockade. The stockade's guards surrendered without a fight, and the convicts were marched to Coal Creek where they were loaded onto a train and sent to Knoxville.
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other for provoking it. In the meantime, Merrell and Jenkins had made amends, and the two began promoting a new cooperative style of mining operations favorable to both miners and managers.
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On July 5, TCMC reopened the Briceville mine using convicts it had leased from TCI. With tensions already high, the company tore down miners' houses in Briceville to build a
890:, initially praised the miners' decisiveness and derided the government's ineffectiveness, but their sentiments shifted after the stockades were burned in October 1891.
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874:
693:— to the state government emboldened miners in the Coal Creek valley to make several demands. One of the key demands was payment in cash rather than company
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lease, giving it a direct foothold in the Anderson County coalfields. As the company minimized the work of its free laborers, however, tensions steadily rose.
583:, at the lower end of the creek where it emerges from its Walden Ridge water gap. Other key events occurred some 15 miles (24 km) south of Coal Creek at
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Amanda Post and Emily Robinson, National Register of Historic Places Registration Form for Briceville Community Church and Cemetery, October 2002.
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and purchase land in Morgan County where convicts would mine coal directly for the state, rather than competing with free labor.
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One historian describes the Coal Creek War as "one of the most dramatic and significant episodes in all American labor history."
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mine at Coal Creek and the Cumberland Coal Company's "Big Mountain" mine at Oliver Springs—primarily used convict labor.
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In 1890, the election of several members of the labor-friendly Tennessee Farmers' Alliance— among them Governor
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watershed began to remove and replace their company-employed, private coal miners then on the payroll with
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1892 Republican Party campaign broadside attacking Democrats for establishing the convict-lease system
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In response to this latest uprising, Buchanan dispatched 583 militiamen under the command of General
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small-arms skirmishes during the Coal Creek War, along with dozens of Tennessee state militiamen.
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one from Knoxville) led the convicts back to Briceville. At Thistle Switch, a railroad stop near
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Convicts placed on railroad cars by striking miners for transport out of the Coal Creek valley.
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A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871-1896
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in Walden Ridge. A flank of Vowell Mountain known as "Militia Hill" overlooks this water gap.
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on the east and Vowell Mountain to the west before exiting the mountains eastward through a
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Nevertheless, by the late 1880s, only two mining operations in Anderson County—the
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at the upper end of Coal Creek near its source, and the town of Coal Creek, the modern
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1891, shut down operations. Two months later the company demanded its miners sign an
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Knoxville News-Sentinel, May 18, 2013: "'Peace treaty' signed to end Coal Creek War"
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musicians. The song "Buddy Won't You Roll Down the Line," written and performed by
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Entrance to the Knoxville Iron Company mine near Coal Creek, photographed by
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to East Tennessee. He also ordered sheriffs of affected counties to form
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By summer 1892, dozens of newspapers and magazines nationwide, including
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to join the uprising, and a parallel anti-leasing conflict took place in
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1103:(Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 4-17.
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ruled against the miners, essentially citing the sanctity of contracts.
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2014:
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Toil, Turmoil & Triumph: A Portrait of the Tennessee Labor Movement
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587:. A substantial number of sympathetic miners trekked southward from
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Grand mass meeting with organizers Eugene Merrell and George Irish.
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The Coal Creek War provided inspiration for some of the earliest
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Coal Creek emerging from its Walden Ridge water gap in Rocky Top.
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Armed conflicts involving the Armed Forces of the United States
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in the southeastern United States that took place primarily in
1262:— lyrics to the folk song inspired by the Coal Creek War
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by the East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railroad, and a
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showing Militia Hill as viewed from the Coal Creek stockade.
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showing miners gathered at Thistle Switch on July 16, 1891.
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Most of the violence centered around two communities—
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The Coal Creek War took place on the eastern fringe of the
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showing Coal Creek miners firing on Fort Anderson in 1892.
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Burning of stockades and establishment of Fort Anderson
1237:." Originally published in the March 2006 edition of
1068:(Franklin, Tenn.: Hillsboro Press, 1995), pp. 56-80.
591:, about twenty-five miles north of Coal Creek, and
1032:/ History: Killing of Union Leader, Barney Graham
962:militia from a railroad bridge near Briceville.
2334:
2020:Social and economic stratification in Appalachia
16:1890s labor uprising in Tennessee, United States
894:Attack on Fort Anderson and the miners' arrests
765:
491:. This labor conflict ignited during 1891 when
125:Coal mining companies leasing convicts from TCI
705:before returning to work; the miners refused.
1811:
1286:
1083:Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture
516:suppressing employee wages in the open market
242:
1128:Pete Daniel, "The Tennessee Convict War."
1818:
1804:
1750:History of the Central Intelligence Agency
1735:Length of U.S. participation in major wars
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637:Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railway Company
120:Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railway Company
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945:as a temporary jail for those arrested.
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878:accused the state legislature of being "
870:thieves, robbers, ruffians, and outlaws,
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43:Key locations during the Coal Creek War
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1974:Paint Creek–Cabin Creek strike of 1912
728:
503:by the Tennessee state prison system.
2373:Riots and civil disorder in Tennessee
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1274:
1115:
1043:
992:Appalachian coal mining protest music
230:
76:End convict leasing by coal companies
1730:Timeline of U.S. military operations
1071:
639:(TCI), which owned a large coal and
611:connected Coal Creek to Briceville.
536:to end this controversial practice.
84:State ending convict leasing in 1896
1010:, was based on the Coal Creek War.
998:in 1938 and is still popular among
914:On August 13, 1892, free miners in
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556:, where the range gives way to the
13:
968:Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary
14:
2389:
1487:American–Algerian War (1785–1795)
1248:
560:. Coal Creek, a tributary of the
2363:Penal labor in the United States
1861:Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
1224:(1972). Retrieved: 10 May 2009.
1085:, 2002. Retrieved: 10 May 2009.
882:" The two Knoxville papers, the
671:
37:
1255:Coal Creek Watershed Foundation
1227:
1210:
804:in October 1891. Chief Justice
2030:Childbirth in rural Appalachia
1825:
1765:List of anti-war organizations
1235:Shut Up In the Coal Creek Mine
1130:Tennessee Historical Quarterly
918:tore down the TCI stockade in
1:
2231:John Gordon (militia captain)
1935:Battle of the Grapevine Creek
1677:War against the Islamic State
1036:
614:
256:
2310:The Hatfields and the McCoys
2284:Moonshine in popular culture
1839:in the Eastern United States
1132:Vol. 34 (1975), pp. 273-292.
1020:Cross Mountain Mine disaster
948:
766:Truce and legislative action
7:
2378:Labor disputes in Tennessee
1220:." Reproduced from Green,
1013:
943:Briceville Community Church
501:convict laborers leased out
10:
2394:
2348:Anderson County, Tennessee
2170:Cumberland Gap (folk song)
1667:War in North-West Pakistan
1517:Second Sumatran expedition
1482:American Revolutionary War
1241:. Retrieved: 10 May 2009.
1166:Shapiro, pp. 134-154, 163.
529:Tennessee General Assembly
489:Anderson County, Tennessee
2319:
2254:
2208:
2165:Cripple Creek (folk song)
2145:Blackberry Blossom (tune)
2127:
2074:
2048:
2007:
1964:Kentucky County, Virginia
1903:
1844:
1833:
1712:
1512:First Sumatran expedition
1474:
1313:
1306:
1025:Fraterville Mine disaster
977:
758:, to guard the stockade.
480:was an early 1890s armed
450:US Bituminous coal strike
444:US Bituminous coal strike
411:Indiana bituminous strike
266:
196:
191:
147:
142:
93:
88:
80:
72:
56:
48:
36:
28:
23:
1999:1920 Alabama coal strike
1911:Battle of Blair Mountain
1466:2021 U.S. Capitol attack
1426:Battle of Blair Mountain
389:Battle of Blair Mountain
216:Dozens killed or wounded
129:Tennessee National Guard
52:April 1891 – August 1892
2262:Appalachian stereotypes
1994:West Virginia coal wars
1725:Wars involving the U.S.
1562:Philippine–American War
1446:1960s ghetto rebellions
1112:Shapiro, pp. 39-49, 63.
802:Tennessee Supreme Court
462:Warrior Met Coal strike
421:Columbine Mine massacre
401:UMW General Coal Strike
381:West Virginia coal wars
368:Hartford coal mine riot
164:(KOL Labor organizers)
2209:Historical individuals
1770:Conscientious objector
1672:First Libyan Civil War
1542:Second Fiji expedition
1522:Ivory Coast expedition
1456:1992 Los Angeles riots
1416:Colorado Coalfield War
1308:Listed chronologically
985:Frozen Head State Park
958:
907:
875:Chattanooga Republican
825:
775:
742:
686:
666:Knoxville Iron Company
628:
549:
534:southern United States
395:Alabama miners' strike
354:Colorado Coalfield War
323:Anthracite coal strike
293:Bituminous coal strike
276:Mahoning Valley strike
2353:Society of Appalachia
2025:Appalachian Americans
1883:Kanawha Valley people
1867:Chestnut Ridge people
1837:Appalachian Mountains
1740:Territorial evolution
1720:Conflicts in the U.S.
1642:Intervention in Haiti
1532:First Fiji expedition
1189:Shapiro, pp. 184-205.
956:
901:
819:
773:
736:
684:
622:
547:
317:Carterville Mine Riot
192:Casualties and losses
181:Gov. John P. Buchanan
177:Gen. Samuel T. Carnes
174:Col. Granville Sevier
2321:Part of a series on
2175:East Tennessee Blues
2140:Appalachian dulcimer
2061:Appalachian folk art
1926:French–Eversole feud
1602:Bay of Pigs Invasion
1557:Spanish–American War
1527:Mexican–American War
1451:Kent State shootings
1441:Puerto Rican revolts
1371:American Indian Wars
1150:Shapiro, pp. 75-102.
721:, George Irish, and
554:Cumberland Mountains
540:Geographical setting
456:Pittston Coal strike
417:Colorado Coal Strike
348:Paint Creek mine war
329:Carbon county strike
171:Col. Keller Anderson
2358:Mining in Tennessee
2267:Appalachian studies
2236:Devil Anse Hatfield
2089:chicken fried steak
2056:Appalachian English
1979:Southwest Territory
1941:Lincoln County feud
1931:Hatfield–McCoy feud
1921:Coal strike of 1902
1617:Invasion of Grenada
1612:Dominican Civil War
1260:Coal Creek Troubles
1218:Coal Creek Troubles
1175:Shapiro, pp. 50-70.
996:Library of Congress
868:called the miners "
789:United Mine Workers
729:Governor's response
342:Westmoreland strike
2343:1890s in Tennessee
2255:In popular culture
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1657:War in Afghanistan
1627:Invasion of Panama
1622:Lebanese Civil War
1547:Formosa Expedition
1507:Second Barbary War
1461:2020 racial unrest
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1391:Lincoln County War
1366:American Civil War
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1336:Turner's Rebellion
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2185:In the Pines
2109:Shucky beans
2084:apple butter
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1877:Scotch-Irish
1592:World War II
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1386:Hamburg riot
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1222:Only a miner
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156:George Irish
143:Lead figures
29:Part of the
2323:hill people
2273:Deliverance
2246:Belle Starr
2099:country ham
2066:Affrilachia
1852:Black-Dutch
1647:Bosnian War
1607:Vietnam War
1582:World War I
1572:Banana Wars
1502:War of 1812
835:Gatling gun
820:Drawing in
756:John Sevier
748:Fraterville
737:Drawing in
717:organizers
649:Chattanooga
429:1931–1939 (
307:1898–1900 (
108:Coal miners
81:Resulted in
2337:Categories
2294:Poor White
2180:Hootenanny
2119:soup beans
2015:Appalachia
1827:Appalachia
1785:War crimes
1652:Kosovo War
1597:Korean War
1577:Border War
1436:Bonus Army
1431:Tulsa riot
1421:Red Summer
1341:Mormon War
1037:References
920:Tracy City
659:and other
631:After the
615:Background
577:Briceville
497:Coal Creek
2368:Coal Wars
2279:Hillbilly
2094:chow-chow
1950:Baltimore
1881:formerly
1872:Melungeon
1492:Quasi-War
1381:Range War
949:Aftermath
609:spur line
605:Knoxville
581:Rocky Top
570:water gap
493:coal mine
419:1927–28 (
383:1912–21 (
356:1913–14 (
313:Pana riot
259:Coal Wars
205:27 killed
62:Tennessee
31:Coal Wars
2160:Clogging
1857:Cherokee
1775:Cold War
1692:Cameroon
1662:Iraq War
1632:Gulf War
1356:Utah War
1314:Domestic
1014:See also
1006:pioneer
1000:old-time
886:and the
880:inhuman.
710:stockade
627:in 1910.
593:Kentucky
485:uprising
57:Location
2299:Redneck
2076:Cuisine
2049:Culture
2008:Society
1958:Detroit
1954:Chicago
1904:History
1891:Shawnee
1887:Koasati
1713:Related
1475:Foreign
939:Clinton
888:Tribune
884:Journal
783:editor
589:Jellico
464:2021–23
458:1989–90
452:1977–78
344:1910–11
331:1903–04
89:Parties
1893:, and
978:Legacy
935:posses
856:, and
850:, the
787:, and
403:1922 (
1895:Yuchi
1697:Libya
1687:Syria
695:scrip
482:labor
336:1910s
122:(TCI)
105:(KOL)
73:Goals
1682:Iraq
641:coke
599:and
476:The
446:1974
413:1927
397:1920
370:1914
350:1912
325:1902
301:1897
295:1894
284:1891
278:1873
49:Date
1081:.
2339::
1956:,
1952:,
1889:,
1885:,
1180:^
1155:^
1137:^
1117:^
1090:^
1045:^
987:.
387:,
360:,
315:,
311:,
64:,
1960:)
1948:(
1937:)
1933:(
1863:)
1859:(
1819:e
1812:t
1805:v
1294:e
1287:t
1280:v
1216:"
752:.
433:)
423:)
407:)
391:)
364:)
319:)
250:e
243:t
236:v
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